EDUCATION
THEORIES AND APPLICATIONS
Integrating Distributed Learning and EPSS for Greater Performance Outcomes
EPSS versus JOB
AID: SO WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE?
A Methodological
Framework for Object-Oriented Performance Support
Challenges of Migrating
to an Enterprise Content Delivery Network
SEVEN YEARS OF ONLINE
LEARNING
THE SAFE USE OF MOBILE CODE TECHNOLOGIES IN THE WEB-BASED LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
AUTHENTIC LEARNING
THROUGH SIMULATION AND INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA
Cognitive Training Challenges in Operations Other Than War
BUILDING AN ONLINE COURSE BY DEVELOPING AND SEQUENCING SHARABLE CONTENT OBJECTS (SCOs)
REUSING SHARABLE CONTENT OBJECTS: LESSONS LEARNED FROM NIGHT VISION TRAINING
LEARNING OBJECT
CREATION, MANAGEMENT AND REUSE BY NON-EXPERIENCED CONTENT DEVELOPERS
ELECTRONIC ESSAY
EVALUATION (EEE)
THE CREDIBLE GRADING MACHINE: AUTOMATED ESSAY SCORING IN THE DoD
EXPLOITING TECHNOLOGY
TO HARNESS THE POWER OF PEERS
AN INNOVATIVE APPROACH FOR ASSESSING KNOWLEDGE IN AIR-TO-AIR DISTRIBUTED MISSION TRAINING
LAND WARRIOR TRAINING THROUGH..... APPENDED INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA INSTRUCTION
WEB-BASED TRAINING: ANYTIME, ANY PLACE, AND FOR EVERYONE
“MAKING IT 508:” DEVELOPING SECTION 508 COMPLIANT WEB-BASED TRAINING
FINALLY, A REUSABLE LEARNING OBJECT STRATEGY THAT WORKS
CAN WE SIMULATE AND DIFFERENTIATE?
A DIALOG-BASED INTELLIGENT TUTORING SYSTEM FOR PRACTICING COMMAND REASONING SKILLS
DESIGNING EFFECTIVE ELECTRONIC PERFORMANCE SUPPORT SYSTEMS FORMILITARY MAINTENANCE ENVIRONMENTS
THE APPLICATION OF THINK LIKE A COMMANDER IN THE ARMOR CAPTAINS CAREER COURSE
AUTOMATED SOCRATIC
TUTORS FOR HIGH-LEVEL COMMAND SKILLS
ACQUIRING ASSEMBLY SKILLS WITH COMPUTER-BASED VIRTUAL MODELS
AN ADVANCED LEARNING
ENVIRONMENT FOR THE AEROSPACE INDUSTRY
APPLICATION OF SITUATED
COGNITION STRATEGIES IN A MAINTENANCE TRAINING CURRICULUM
APPLICATIONS OF METACOGNITIVE THEORY TO ADVANCED DISTRIBUTED LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
BLENDING TECHNOLOGIES
TO ACHIEVE HIGHER-ORDER COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE LEARNING
COLLABORATIVE DEVELOPMENT OF EXPERTISE–AN EFFECTIVE LOW-TECH APPROACH TO ON-THE-JOB TRAINING
DEVELOPING AN ADAPTIVE INTELLIGENT FLIGHT TRAINER
INTELLIGENT TUTORING FOR BRIDGE SIMULATOR TRAINING
LESSONS LEARNED DEVELOPING NON-TRADITIONAL AIR FORCE MODELING AND SIMULATION TRAINING
THE POWER OF FIVE: INTERACTION STRATEGIES THAT WORK
Integrating Distributed Learning and EPSS for Greater Performance Outcomes Danielle Burbank Sr. EPSS/Instructional Designer and Analyst SI International, Inc. Rockville, Maryland Distributed learning solutions can reduce travel time, instructor costs, lodging, and the need for training facilities. However, two significant challenges remain: 1) the need to streamline and reduce up-front training, and 2) the mitigation of knowledge decay that occurs between training and workplace application of new knowledge and skills. A training strategy that embeds electronic performance support tools directly within electronic courseware promises an efficient, effective, and convenient method to create an authentic learning experience, achieve greater learning outcomes, and realize immediate improvements in human performance. Embedded EPSS tools augment courseware activities to increase learning, but they can also be uncoupled following training and made available to workers as a just-in-time performance support toolkit. Government entities striving to become learning organizations can employ this integrated approach to extend learning and performance into the workplace, reaching far beyond an initial learning “event”. This paper presents a research-based and applied methodology those guides instructional designers through a cognitive design process for creating hybrid courseware. The cognitive design process assesses content, technologies, context, tasks, and objectives to determine an optimal strategy that supports both the student’s “need to learn” and “need to do.” The paper will also describe a case study that highlights specific techniques used to implement a hybrid courseware strategy for the Defense Acquisition University (DAU). The case study will include outcomes achieved for reducing overall course length and improving workplace productivity.
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EPSS versus JOB AID:SO WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE? Larry F. Willers Naval Education and Training Professional Development and Technology Center (NETPDTC) Pensacola, Florida The United States Navy has embraced a paradigm of Human Performance Technology (HPT). This focus on performance resulted from recommendations in the 2001 Final Report of the Executive Review of Navy Training. Implementation is based on a four-quadrant model that systematically examines the causes of performance deficiencies and determines courses of action. Possible approaches to increase Sailor performance are the use of Electronic Performance Support Systems (EPSSs) or job aids. The terms EPSS and job aid are often used synonymously to describe a system or method used to support task performance. While the function may appear to be the same, the author hypothesizes that the characteristics of EPSSs and job aids are very different. It is proposed that a review of existing literature and a search for examples (within the Navy/DoD/Industry) will demonstrate there are practical differences in their design and function. A preliminary review of the literature indicates that an EPSS is designed to allow an individual with no knowledge of a task to accomplish it. This is done by providing sufficient information at the moment of need for the performer to accomplish each step even though he or she may not know or understand how that individual action supports the overall task. It is even possible that the performer may not “learn” anything about how to perform the task in the process of accomplishing it. The depth to which the performer must be supported in an EPSS is, therefore, very high. In contrast, the job aid assumes the performer has the basic knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAs) to perform the task and the job aid merely facilitates its accomplishment in some way. A checklist, for example, would ensure the steps are performed in the correct order. A prerequisite to using the job aid would be the knowledge, skill, and ability to accomplish each step in the checklist. The paper provides the reader practical information leading to a more informed selection of an EPSS vs. job aid to facilitate a given performance requirement.
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A Methodological Framework for Object-Oriented Performance Support Ian Douglas, Ph.D. Florida State University Tallahassee, Florida Scott Schaffer, Ph.D. Purdue University West Lafayette, Indiana Developments in technology and work practices create a need for new methodological thinking for the planning, construction and delivery of human performance support systems. A framework is presented that incorporates both human performance technology and object thinking in analysis, supported by collaboration and visual modeling. It is intended to complement current initiatives towards developing technologies and standards for reusable object-based design and construction. In terms of delivery, this approach envisions an evolution of learning management systems towards performance support management systems that link to performance analysis. Newly developed learning and performance improvement solution packages are accessed, used, and evaluated in a continuous feedback process. Thus, information, knowledge, learning and performance support subsystems are interrelated and accessible based on individual performer requirements identified during analysis.
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Challenges of Migrating to an Enterprise Content Delivery Network Steven M. Jones The MITRE Corporation Woodbridge, Virginia Bruce R. Orjada Booz Allen Hamilton Lexington Park, Maryland While the benefits of e-Learning have been thoroughly documented, the method in which e-Learning is adapted to an organization is critical to achieving program goals and objectives. Until recently, the Marine Corps Distance Learning Program (MCDLP) used a decentralized architecture of remote Training and Education Points of Presence (TEPOP) servers to provide both student services and Interactive Multimedia Instruction (IMI) content to its users. Faced with increased demand for rich media, such as high bit rate video, the decision to migrate to a COTS Learning Management System (LMS), along with the desire to design and field a deployable e-Learning system, required a new architecture be developed. Designing and adapting the appropriate architecture for an organization with the unique geography, operational, and infrastructure considerations of the MCDLP imposed a significant transformation challenge. Several other challenges faced the MCDLP team and centered around the premise that a centralized COTS LMS would allow students to manage their learning progress regardless of whether they access the system from a base, deployed, or shipboard location. While a central LMS provides obvious advantages in creating a reliable and consistent student support system, the network traffic and bandwidth loads consistent with rich media IMI greatly restrict the training experience quality you can expect from courseware delivered from one central location. Since the MCDLP can expect to see large groupings of students in very specific locations, a clear goal was to be able to locate high bandwidth IMI content as close to students as possible. To this end a feasibility study was conducted and a prototype demonstrated which resulted in the decision to deploy an Enterprise Content Delivery Network (ECDN).
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SEVEN YEARS OF ONLINE LEARNINGDr. Karen Rasmussen, University of West Florida Pensacola, Florida Dr. Pam Northrup University of West Florida Pensacola, Florida Dr. Charles Lombardo University of West Florida Pensacola, Florida Successful online teaching and learning stems from an integrated, problem-solving approach to the design, development, management, and implementation of the online learning environment. Seven years of experience in using online learning environments for individual classes and complete programs in Instruction Technology has facilitated the development of a strong foundation of strategies and techniques for the online teaching and learning process. This paper explores lessons learned from seven years of online teaching and learning. Stakeholder perspectives are explored. Lessons include ideas and tips related to: design, development, maintenance, support, learning management systems, and support systems. Guidelines in the development of complex online learning systems are also suggested.
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THE SAFE USE OF MOBILE CODE TECHNOLOGIES IN THE
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Cognitive Training Challengesin Operations Other Than War Thomas E. Miller, Ph.D. Deborah A. Battaglia Jennifer K. Phillips Klein Associates, Inc. Fairborn, Ohio The U.S. military is increasingly participating in Operations Other Than War (OOTW). There is growing pressure to train for leading these operations, which include humanitarian crises, non-combat evacuations, humanitarian assistance, and peacekeeping. OOTW requires a different mindset than the military has generally trained for in the past. Understanding this mindset is a key factor to successful operations. We conceive of this mindset as a successful response to the variety of cognitive challenges in the OOTW environment. To support the development of OOTW familiarization training for the U. S. Air Force, 3rd Air Force, Mildenhall, England, we used Cognitive Task Analysis (CTA) methods to uncover the cognitive challenges operators face, specifically in humanitarian assistance missions. We conducted 42 CTA interviews with members of the Army, Air Force (including Special Forces), and representatives of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). We interviewed them regarding their experiences with humanitarian missions as well as humanitarian tasks within OOTW missions that were not purely humanitarian. We analyzed the data to uncover specific cues, factors, and strategies that experienced operators had used to maintain situation awareness, maintain mission focus, and envision exit strategies, as well as to meet the cognitive challenges that working with inter-agency and multinational forces presents. We are currently developing a low fidelity, web-based vignette training product. Given the multi-national and multi-agency nature of these missions, the training is designed for use by multiple personnel in multiple locations to encourage learning about how each organization may approach a variety of situations. Users will log on to the training site; under the tutelage of an instructor they can build an experientially-based understanding of the cognitive challenges in humanitarian operations. User testing will be conducted in August 2002, and the product will be implemented late 2002.
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BUILDING AN ONLINE COURSE BY DEVELOPING AND SEQUENCING SHARABLE CONTENT OBJECTS (SCOs) Scott A. Tanner Brian Caudill Cheryl J. Hamel University of Central
Florida Institute for Simulation and Training Orlando, Florida Elizabeth Blickensderfer Naval Air Systems Command,
Training Systems Division Orlando, Florida Instructional designers and developers summarize the process they used to build a Web-based course by creating sharable content objects that follow specifications of the Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM). Many examples of SCOs are provided, including detailed descriptions of course content, screen shots from the course, and actual metadata. The course is a sequence of SCOs containing generic content for training supervisors of civilian personnel and most of the SCOs are stand-alone and reusable. The difference between reusable SCOs and SCOs developed as transition pages are discussed. The rewards and pitfalls experienced during design and development of the course are presented, and the need for development tools is emphasized.
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REUSING SHARABLE CONTENT OBJECTS:LESSONS LEARNED FROM NIGHT VISION TRAINING John W. Ruffner, Ph.D. and Jim Fulbrook, Ph.D. DCS Corporation Alexandria, Virginia A key Advanced Distributed Learning (ADL) operational capability stated in the Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM) is to construct and reuse self-contained and reusable instruction, or shareable content objects (SCOs) suitable for student learning needs. In a recent review of lessons learned from the ADL Prototype Program, Stout, Slosser, and Hays (2001) cited this as a high priority issue. Night vision training is an application area in which the ability to develop and reuse instructional content and media for different night vision devices across diverse user groups results in significant economies of effort. This training area serves as an effective test bed for evaluating strategies and techniques for developing and defining SCOs that can be effectively reused. Since all service components and many government agencies use similar night vision devices, and most service branches have continuous operations (24/7) requirements, SCOs developed for one organization or user group are usually relevant for other branches and services for innumerable mission essential tasks. In other words, SCO applicability is nearly universal, but there are caveats. In this paper, we review our experience developing a series of computer- and web-based night vision training products and provide examples of successes and challenges in developing and reusing SCOs. Key lessons learned include: (1) a SCO is a dynamic construct; (2) a SCO product must be both content- and user-centered; (3) a SCO must include learning objectives, main and embedded topics identified, operational definitions, a glossary, and an abbreviation/acronym list; (4) an organized library of text and multimedia is essential; (5) an “all-knowing champion” to orchestrate the finding, assembling, and reworking of SCOs to meet new user’s needs and organizational requirements is essential; and (6) ADL developers must budget sufficient time and resources to tailor appropriate SCOs for users other than the original target audience. We discuss the implications of our work for the ADL initiative.
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LEARNING OBJECT CREATION, MANAGEMENT AND REUSE BY NON-EXPERIENCED CONTENT DEVELOPERS Eddy Boot & Michael Bots Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO) TNO Human Factors (TNO-HF) Soesterberg, The Netherlands According to standardization initiatives and vendors of both authoring tools and Learning Content Management Systems (LCMSs), the application of 'learning objects' promises an effective and efficient way of creating, managing and reusing learning materials. However, actual reuse is nowadays seldom applied optimally, mostly mainly at an 'instructional clipart' level, in a non-automatic way. Also, the creation of learning objects appears to be as complex, time-consuming and expensive as with traditional multimedia learning material. The pilot study described in this paper is aimed at gaining insight in the creation and management process of learning objects, to determine optimal support for content developers.
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ELECTRONIC ESSAY EVALUATION (EEE) Herman Brooks, TSgt, USAF AETC Technology Requirements Branch San Antonio, Texas Ken Levi, Ph.D. AETC Studies and Analysis Squadron San Antonio, Texas Air Education and Training Command Studies and Analysis Squadron (AETC SAS) in conjunction with the Air Command and Staff College (ACSC) at Maxwell AFB, Alabama is assessing innovative technology for computer assisted evaluation and feedback of essays. The focus of study is the first examination given to all students enrolled in the non-resident program at ACSC. The course subject matter is National and International Security Studies. Educational research has long recognized that essays are more effective for measuring depth of comprehension than multiple-choice examinations. Unfortunately, the process of evaluating, grading, and providing feedback of essay based material is resource and labor intensive. Successful results would allow the non-resident program at ACSC to use a more probing test instrument, essay evaluation, to measure student comprehension through essays vs. multiple choice questions, without an increased demand on resources or labor. Essay examinations completed by resident ACSC students were used to calibrate and validate enhanced computer assisted essay grading software, which will then be used to score essay tests obtained from a sample of the non-resident program students in the fall term 2002. Results from pre-implementation baseline and post-implementation will be analyzed to determine effectiveness.
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THE CREDIBLE GRADING MACHINE: AUTOMATED ESSAY SCORING IN THE DoD Lynn Streeter and Darrell Laham Knowledge Analysis Technologies Boulder, Colorado Joseph Psotka Army Research Institute Alexandria, Virginia Don MacCuish Air Command and Staff College Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama The Intelligent Essay Assessor is commercial software that grades essays as accurately as skilled human graders. It was used to critique senior officers’ papers in both the Army’s and Air Force’s Command and General Staff Colleges. The Army Research Institute has supported development of this software, which understands the meaning of written essays. Automatic essay scoring is well suited to distance learning environments, and for faculty training and calibration. Because the essay feedback is returned in seconds and can indicate which sections should be rewritten, students can make significant revisions before submitting their final product. This tutorial facility could be exploited in many military courses. In the Army’s Combined Arms and Services Staff School (CAS3), Military Writing assignment memos were graded by both the instructors and a subset by recently retired instructors. The results showed that human-to-human reliabilities (Leavenworth graders-to-retired instructors) were identical to the computer-to-Leavenworth graders reliabilities for the overall grade. In addition, the essay grading software was enhanced to supply written tutorial feedback similar to comments given by instructors, including (1) format checking, (2) section critiquing (e.g. Background, Purpose, etc.), returning recommendations of sections needing revision, and (3) plagiarism detection. The Air Command and Staff College project is exploring the effectiveness of automating the grading of the written examination used for the "National & International Security Studies" course for both residents and distance learners. In this trial, the Intelligent Essay Assessor was used to assess longer papers, averaging over 2000 words, and grades were compared to two faculty members’ grades. Again, the automated method was as reliable as human graders. Plans are underway to use the automated facility for formative evaluation, which means that students, not faculty, will review the assessment provided by the software, and use that feedback to formulate a better response prior to final submission in a portfolio writing exercise.
This paper is available on the 2002 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website EXPLOITING TECHNOLOGY TO HARNESS THE POWER OF PEERS Karen Lochbaum and Lynn Streeter Knowledge Analysis Technologies Boulder, Colorado Joseph Psotka Army Research Institute Alexandria, Virginia Over the past year, several hundred Army officers have discussed tactical and military management scenarios using an electronic collaborative learning environment. The scenarios were either “Think Like a Commander” scenarios developed at Ft. Leavenworth or “Tacit Knowledge of Military Leadership” scenarios developed jointly by the Army Research Institute and Yale University. A standard threaded discussion platform was modified to allow participants to automatically find semantically similar notes and relevant reference material in an online library using Latent Semantic Analysis, a machine learning algorithm for text understanding. Greater equality of participation has long been known to be an outcome of electronic discussion groups with anonymity enhancing this effect. These effects were replicated here as well in discussions involving officers of the same rank. However, we also found that electronic discussions produced higher quality initial and final solutions to complex military scenarios than comparable face-to-face discussions. The quality of the responses was graded by military experts and by an automated grading program developed by Knowledge Analysis Technologies. The automatic grading system exhibited reliability as high as the military experts. Two forces appear to drive the superior performance and greater learning evidenced in the online environment: (1) peer pressure—knowing that others will read and comment on one’s solution produces more thoughtful and complete responses even under conditions of anonymity; (2) learning from peers—reading, reacting and commenting on each other’s notes produces a superior final solution over face-to-face discussion. Lower ranking officers (i.e., Lieutenants and Captains) demonstrated greater learning from the online discussion than did Lt. Colonels, whose initial responses were nearly optimal at the outset. We discuss these results as well as planned enhancements to the online environment to create an even more effective e-learning environment.
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AN INNOVATIVE APPROACH FOR ASSESSING KNOWLEDGE IN AIR-TO-AIR DISTRIBUTED MISSION TRAINING Anna Castillo, Winston Bennett, Jr., Brenda Wenzel, Michael Park Air Force Research Laboratory Human Effectiveness Directorate Warfighter Training Research Division (AFRL/HEA) Mesa, Arizona Roger Schvaneveldt Arizona State University Robert Robbins, Jack Wooster Link Simulation and Training Division L3 Communications, Air Force Research Laboratory Mesa, Arizona Sarah Kotte United States Air Force Academy Colorado Springs, Colorado The Air Force Research Laboratory, Human Effectiveness Directorate is using its high fidelity distributed mission training (DMT) simulation testbed to explore the impact of principled training on individual and team performance. One area of interest is the development of methods for assessing the impact of distributed mission training on pilots’ knowledge and understanding. In previous studies we have used traditional knowledge assessment methods, which have included paper-based fill-in-the-blank tests and computer-based concept rating tasks, pre- and post-training. With the development and definition of Mission Essential Competencies (MECs) as a novel way to define complex air combat mission proficiency, these more traditional approaches to knowledge assessment and learning are not at a level of specificity for measurement and proficiency diagnosis. This paper highlights the development and lessons learned from a vignette-based approach to knowledge assessment. Our initial development which is based on Situational Judgment Inventory (SJI) and Job Knowledge Inventory (JKI) research, used an open-ended paper-based assessment instrument, referred to as Situation Assessment and Action Selection (SAAS), to examine pilots’ assessment of air-to-air situations as well as their opinions on appropriate courses of action. Scoring of pilot responses was challenging. One limiting factor in using open-ended responses is the time and effort required to score them. We are exploring the use of automated scoring of the responses, beginning with Latent-Semantic Analysis (LSA). Successful LSA scoring would greatly enhance the utility of the method and support the next phase of development. The next phase of development is intended to be a more automated version of the instrument, referred to as the Air Superiority Knowledge Assessment System (ASKAS).
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Pan-organizational Learning Joseph J. Kranz and Thomas Rossi Anteon Corporation Middletown, Rhode Island The literature provides much on the theory and practice of organizational learning. Typically, methods rely on culturally normative solutions for single institutions with clearly definable organizational boundaries. The organizational unit must have common goals, experiences and practices at some level. United States’ (US) external security forces, including the military arms, intelligence agencies, consolidated or collaborative operational units, such as the Special Operations Command (SOCOM), and multi-geographic forces, such as the US Coast Guard, all have a common macro-goal but operate in such differing subject domains that their similarities appear to be few. This array of operating concepts, command structures and other ‘cultural’ differences among a group that has a common goal provides an environment for highly leveraged organizational learning. Key to the organizational learning value proposition in this confluence of activities and concepts is a common locus where the lessons learned can be shared and applied in the varying contexts. The authors contend that this focus of similarity is in the training of decision-makers, particularly those chronologically early in their careers. The authors have begun applying the principles of gaming using knowledge management information technology tools across military and other learning institutions, specifically, the service academies. Training through gaming across organizations illustrates the dynamics of interactions, limitations of resources and dependencies in the processes of achieving a given goal or set of goals. The authors illustrate how junior officers and executives are positioned within their respective hierarchies to recommend alternatives to traditional ‘stove-piped’ and less than optimal application of security forces. They will have the insight and familiarity with knowledge tools and skills to request and apply resources more effectively because of their ‘inter-service’ gaming experiences. Other benefits accrue, such as security scenario application and knowledge databases.
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LAND WARRIOR TRAINING THROUGHAPPENDED INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA INSTRUCTION John P. Garzone and Robert H. Sulzen Omega Training Group, Inc. Columbus, Georgia This paper describes the development of an innovative system for new equipment training on the Land Warrior system. By incorporating appended interactive multimedia instruction (IMI) into a local area network, this training system will allow multiple Soldiers to train simultaneously on the Land Warrior system. This training system is also a blueprint for future Army training systems and a vision for training within the Future Combat System and the Objective Force. The new training system is composed of three elements–software, hardware, and functionality. The software IMI courses developed for Land Warrior are Internet-compatible, Soldier-centric and performance-oriented. The training hardware includes a networked server, monitors, and a power/Ethernet connector box. The connector box allows two-way communication between a Soldier’s Land Warrior system and the networked server and provides power to the Land Warrior system allowing the Soldier to train on the system without expending system batteries. The truly unique feature of this training system is that the Soldier views the lessons through a helmet mounted display as the are played through the Land Warrior computer worn on the body. Soldiers interact with the lessons using the Soldier Control Unit, a combination mouse function and radio communications device worn on the body. The instructors can interact with the soldier, control the IMI software, and intervene were necessary to address training problems. This training system demonstrates a vision for future training in the Army. It offers an efficient, low cost solution to new equipment training. It also provides a clear glimpse of future Army training: embedded, distributed, and interactive, with combined training and virtual enroute mission rehearsal capabilities. The path forward is to incorporate new and developing technology into Land Warrior that will move towards fulfillment of this training system. The desired end-state is twofold and includes both a comprehensive embedded training system and a complete training strategy that fully exploits the inherent benefits and capabilities provided by the technology.
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WEB-BASED TRAININGANYTIME, ANY PLACE, AND FOR EVERYONE Kirk W. McCullough, 2nd & Patrick J. Vartuli Computer Sciences Corporation Hampton, Virginia Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act was amended in 1998 to specify accessibility as a criterion within the Federal Electronic and Information Technology procurement process, beginning in June 2001. The law requires that people with disabilities have access to Web sites, and to Web-based training contracted since that time, without regard to the characteristics of the intended training audience. This presentation discusses problems discovered and solutions developed while increasing accessibility to cognitive training designed for the Web. The multimedia courses described were built using two delivery approaches: pure Macromedia Flash, and HTML with JavaScript-controlled functionality. Problems and solutions are based on salient browser characteristics, and those of some screen readers, in terms of the 16 major recommendations of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). Areas examined include elements of design, making accessible training reflect the experience of interactive multimedia, how much accessibility can be built into a Macromedia Flash product, and minimizing duplication of work. There are several validation schemes that can be applied. Finally, some problems still exist in bringing the Web experience of handicapped and non-handicapped learners into congruence.
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“MAKING IT 508:” DEVELOPING SECTION 508 COMPLIANT WEB-BASED TRAINING Dani Ambrose and Patricia Ibacache Acton Burnell, Inc. Alexandria, Virginia Section 508 of the 1998
Rehabilitation Act requires that all Federal agencies' electronic and
information technology shall be made accessible to people with disabilities,
including employees and members of the public. Although Section 508
grants exemptions to intelligence, security, military command, and weapons
training, it applies to routine
administrative and business applications. Understanding the implications of
compliance on government training projects will increase efficiency in
development, and help instructional designers and programmers accurately
balance effective, engaging instructional elements within the Section 508
standard. This paper addresses the issues involving Section 508 compliance in a web-based training course being developed for the Navy Marine Corps Internet (NMCI), including impact to layout, design, specific graphics, interactions, and JavaScript, from analysis through development and implementation. The purpose of the web-based training is to teach TRIM (Total Records Integration Management) software, a tool that manages the complete lifecycle of records and documents in a database. Using an interactive, Aviation Industry CBT Committee (AICC) compliant, web-based training developed with JavaScript and CourseBuilder, and distributed over the NMCI via the mGen learning management system, the web-based courseware integrates tags, metadata, and code necessary to meet Section 508 compliance.
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FINALLY, A REUSABLE LEARNING OBJECT STRATEGY THAT WORKS Kelsey L. Henderson and Carla Musarra-Leonard Naval Education and Training Professional Development and Technology Center (NETPDTC) Pensacola, Florida As with many large training organizations, the number of subject matter experts (SMEs) outnumbers the number of instructional designers available to meet training requirements. Our organization needed an instructional design model and technology solution that allowed us to get the information out of the heads of SMEs and into meaningful units of instruction that could be used to target training deficiencies in our forces and schoolhouse training curricula. We looked at other Navy organizations, other services, industry, and academia to find someone who had done it, was doing it, and had been successful at it. After much research we found organizations in both industry and academia. In industry, we started looking at the things that were being done at Cisco Systems and in academia, we looked at the work that was being done at the University of West Florida. Cisco Systems Reusable Learning Object (RLO) strategy provided Cisco’s workforce with an instructional design framework to be able to develop instruction to meet their organization’s needs. The University of West Florida was also using the RLO strategy model to work on a project to help Florida K-12 teachers. We had data exchanges with both organizations to formulate a strategy that would enable us to meet our training requirements. The result of the collaboration, planning, and research is a reusable learning object strategy that will enable our organization to empower more personnel with the training and tools needed to get “good” training out to our forces in a more expeditious manner. This paper is a must read for any organization grappling with developing large amounts of content with limited expertise on staff.
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CAN WE SIMULATE AND DIFFERENTIATE? Lieutenant Colonel Nigel P. Gallier MBE GH British Liaison Officer, United States Army Simulation, Training and Instrumentation Command Orlando, Florida The application of simulation technology is enabling a necessary transformation of military training. The requirement to prepare soldiers for digitization, homeland defense, and full spectrum rapid effects’ warfare calls for more effective training which is tailored, deployable and available. The modeling & simulation profession has responded to this call for transformed and effective training. We as an army can now simulate and train, and Force Readiness is the beneficiary. Military training in its broadest sense encompasses three facets, namely education, development and training. The importance of the education of the individual in the principles of future warfare is increasing because the time available for development & training in specific aspects of warfare before operational deployments is decreasing. A key aspect of education is differentiation. Differentiation is the planned process of intervention to maximize potential based on individual needs. It acknowledges that individuals have different learning needs. It is the process by which objectives, teaching strategies, assessment methods, and learning resources are planned for - so to cater for the differences of individuals, without the need to teach each soldier individually. It is a difficult aspect of education to master, but it is essential given the varied abilities, backgrounds and prior learning of our soldiers. It is possible that simulation techniques could aid differentiation. The aim of this paper is to first explain why implementing differentiation is key to effective education, and thus to military training, and second to examine how simulation can assist with implementing differentiation. The importance of military education within military training is outlined. The need for and the implementation of differentiation are then examined, and the role simulation could take in assisting is identified. The conclusion is that we can and should do simultaneous simulation and differentiation.
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A DIALOG-BASED INTELLIGENT TUTORING SYSTEM FOR PRACTICING COMMAND REASONING SKILLS Joan M. Ryder CHI Systems, Inc. Arthur C. Graesser The Army Research Institute (ARI) has developed training/instructional materials, Think Like a Commander (TLAC), for coaching command reasoning through adaptive thinking exercises using battlefield situations. Development of an accompanying intelligent tutoring system (ITS) would allow additional practice without the need for additional human mentor involvement. However, developing such a system is a challenging problem that does not fit the mold of previously successful ITSs because of the open-ended, non-procedural nature of thinking exercises and the need for language-based interactions. Our approach is to couple two technologies that have been used successfully for different aspects of the problem. The system, called Automated Tutoring Environment for Command (ATEC), is adapting the dialog management capability from AutoTutor and linking it with a cognitive model-based instructional agent that replicates the knowledge and role of the human TLAC mentor. The ATEC system presents a battlefield situation and then initiates a dialog between a virtual mentor (instructional agent) and a student as they collaboratively discuss the situation. The virtual mentor poses questions, evaluates student responses, determines the sequence of questions, and ultimately assesses performance on the basis of the specificity of questioning and the depth of probing and hinting that is needed to adequately answer the questions. The system includes natural language extraction, speech act classification, and dialog management. This paper discusses the development of the ATEC system as part of a Phase II SBIR, including the system architecture and functional components, the methods for accomplishing each function, the analyses conducted, and the issues remaining to be addressed. Ongoing complementary efforts include a related Phase II SBIR with a different ITS approach for battle command conceptual skills, and a computer-based program developed by ARI that human instructors are using in the Armor Captains Course at Fort Knox's University of Mounted Warfare.
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DESIGNING EFFECTIVE ELECTRONIC PERFORMANCE SUPPORT SYSTEMS FORMILITARY MAINTENANCE ENVIRONMENTS Anna Van Mantgem and Roger LaPlante L-3 Communications / EER Systems Chantilly, Virginia Electronic Performance Support Systems (EPSS) are point-of-work productivity tools that typically demonstrate 30% or higher reductions in labor times with concurrent increases in work accuracy and quality across a wide variety of military and commercial settings. Over the past ten years the Department of Defense (DoD) and the Department of Transportation have invested significant federal resources into research and development of EPSS for Marine Corps, Navy and Coast Guard maintenance environments. This research has generated a large body of knowledge about best practices for designing effective EPSS tools for use in military maintenance communities. Lessons learned from these initiatives as well as from other EPSS projects from the commercial sector will be presented, including usability considerations for proper user interface design. The importance of designing EPSS from the perspective of maintainers as opposed to the perspective of administrators or managers will be highlighted. Special consideration will also be given to the unique knowledge demands and information requirements of military maintenance environments at various stages of the typical maintenance process, including fault validation and replication, fault diagnosis, fault correction, and testing. Concrete return on investment (ROI) and cost saving data from past projects will be presented in conjunction with techniques for capturing fresh ROI data from new EPSS endeavors. The focus will be on designing effective EPSS tools that maintenance technicians will actually use on a daily basis to streamline their work practices, increase overall readiness, and enhance their performance.
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THE APPLICATION OF THINK LIKE A COMMANDER IN THE ARMOR CAPTAINS CAREER COURSE Scott B. Shadrick and James W. Lussier, Ph.D. U.S. Army Research Institute The need for focused, deliberate practice in the area of battlefield thinking is not new. The need for such training activity will be even greater in the future as our tactical leaders face a dynamic battlefield environment that places high demands on their mental agility. U.S. Army planning documents for the Future Combat System of Systems (FCS) specifically call out the requirement to “develop, through training and experience, the thinking, confident, versatile, adaptive, and seasoned leaders at the tactical level required for the digitized, rapidly deployable objective force.” To adequately prepare leaders, we must use every opportunity to improve the skills associated with decision-making performance.
The term “adaptive thinking” has been used to “describe the cognitive behavior of an officer who is confronted by unanticipated circumstances during the execution of a planned military operation (Lussier et al., 2000).” The Think Like A Commander (TLAC) – Adaptive Thinking Training Methodology has been used to address the need for focused deliberate practice of battlefield thinking skills. This training methodology uses cognitive battle drills to apply deliberate practice training concepts to commander’s battlefield thinking skills and allows officers to model their battlefield understandings, plans, visualizations and decisions after expert tactician’s thinking patterns. The research described in this paper expands on earlier work by providing a fully functional computer-based application for instructional delivery that provides a number of tools and features used by the students (e.g., automated self-scoring and feedback). Furthermore, this research outlines the use of TLAC with Armor Captain Career Courses (ACCC) at Fort Knox, Kentucky to develop thinking habits in United States Army Captains, and documents the initial results of an attempt to reduce the amount of time it might take to achieve a certain competency level as a commander of battlefield thinking.
Preliminary data supports the notion the ATTM and TLAC can accelerate the development of battlefield thinking habits. Furthermore, user testing and feedback from both students and instructors has been very supportive. This paper will also introduces ongoing complementary efforts including two Phase II Small usines Inovatve Research contracts that will develop prototype Intelligent Tutor Systems (ITS) to train battle command conceptual skills by September 2003.
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AUTOMATED SOCRATIC TUTORS FORHIGH-LEVEL COMMAND SKILLS Eric A. Domeshek and Elias Holman Stottler Henke Associates, Inc. Arlington, Massachusetts Karol G. Ross Klein Associates, Inc. Fairborn, Ohio Under stress, human decision-makers revert to their best-practiced habits. This includes military commanders who may fail to act effectively under pressure for lack of sufficient practice. The US Army Research Institute (ARI) developed a training methodology emphasizing repeated exposure to small challenging vignettes enabling drill on command decision-making. Rather than role-play to a simulated conclusion, mentors focus on analyses and dialogues that explore reasoning and rationale. Adoption of this methodology in courses at Forts Leavenworth and Knox is helping to validate this approach to honing command skills. However, intense practice with human mentors is problematic as there are generally too few expert mentors available. This paper describes an ongoing Small Business Innovative Research (SBIR) project to develop an automated Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS) to fill the role of expert mentors. This project is developing a novel capability to understand, critique, and discuss proposed courses of action in a Socratic mode, guiding the student as an expert would. The approach emphasizes multi-modal interaction (e.g., language and graphics), models of expert human tutors, and development of authoring tools to reduce training system costs. The paper presents data from analyses of expert mentor and student dialogues during “tactical decision games.” It then describes how this data is used to develop and assess the project’s intelligent tutor. Additional preliminary data from early informal formative evaluation of the Phase I prototype system, and initial student feedback on some Phase II refinements is also reported. Ongoing complementary efforts include a related Phase II SBIR with a different ITS approach, and a computer-based program developed by ARI that human instructors are using in the Armor Captains Course at Fort Knox's University of Mounted Warfare.
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TRANSFORMING ELECTRONIC LEARNING: THE ROLE OF THINK
LIKE A COMMANDER IN PROFESSIONAL MILITARY EDUCATION
LTC Mike Prevou US Army Command and General Staff College Fort Leavenworth, Kansas and
Michele N. Costanza University of Kansas Lawrence, Kansas With the rush to create computer based training and web based courses the Army has yet to achieve an execution-centric learning environment that develops a leader’s ability to critically think and reason through a tactical situation, until now. Think Like a Commander (TLAC) offers an improved format and methodology to achieve higher learning in an experiential, execution-centric (verses planning centric) curriculum. Originally developed by the School for Command Preparation at the Army Command & General Staff College and the FT. Leavenworth Office of the Army Research Institute, TLAC is currently used in the traditional face-to-face classroom instruction of the Tactical Commanders Development Course with dramatic results. This traditional lesson has been converted to an online delivery method using a structure provided by the e-Learning Design Lab at the University of Kansas in cooperation with the Center for Army Lessons Learned (CALL) and is modeled from the research-based KU Online Academy architecture. This paper describes how TLAC online creates an experiential learning environment that embodies the adult learning principles; is performance oriented with an execution centric curriculum; and includes embedded situational decision-making exercises. Other concepts presented in this paper include anchoring instruction, constructivist learning theory, critical thinking and reasoning development, and automaticity. This execution-centric learning environment allows self-directed learners and leader teams to focus on knowledge and experience with feedback, in order to develop tactical wisdom. Think Like a Commander Online uses a set of thinking exercises (cognitive battle drills) to reinforce effective thinking habits in tactical situations by applying deliberate practice to commander’s battlefield thinking skills. TLAC provides exemplars in expert tactical thinking patterns to allow leaders to model their battlefield understandings, visualizations, tactical concepts and decisions.
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ACQUIRING ASSEMBLY SKILLS WITH COMPUTER-BASED VIRTUAL MODELS William A. Kealy, Darshan J. Bakriwala, and Chitra Subramanium University of South Florida Tampa, Florida This study explores the use of computer-based interactive 3-D models for learning a simple assembly task. Research shows subjects complete an assembly faster and more accurately by first studying a real model compared to standard mechanical drawings. The use of a “virtual model” to train persons on assembly tasks was explored with the hope of tapping this technology’s potential for delivering online instruction of assembly skills. Besides validating the use of a virtual model as an alternative to a real model, this study examined whether a virtual model in “exploded” view either facilitates or inhibits assembly performance compared to a model that depicts a completed assembly. Twenty-eight undergraduates participated individually in the study and were assigned to one of three types of job performance aid (JPA) for learning an assembly task: a real model (RM), a virtual model in assembled view (VM-A), and a virtual model in exploded view (VM-E). In the case of the two VM treatments, subjects first familiarized themselves with the technology, and then subjects in every condition practiced using the pieces from a child’s construction toy set that served as the components for the assembly task. Subjects next studied their particular job aid for as long as they desired before beginning the assembly task. As subjects assembled the object, a digital video camera recorded the entire process. Three days later, subjects again assembled the object from memory. Data analysis showed subjects using either of the virtual models were just as accurate in their assembly performance as those aided by a real model of the completed construction. Similarly, there were no significant differences in time on task among the three groups, though the mean completion time by VM-A subjects represented about a 15 percent reduction in time on task compared to those in the RM and VM-E groups. Subjects in the VM-E group studied their display for a significantly longer time prior to the assembly task, raising the possibility that the exploded view impedes performance by imposing a greater cognitive load than models that portray fully assembled objects.
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AN ADVANCED LEARNING ENVIRONMENT FOR THE AEROSPACE INDUSTRY Thomas Cavanagh Florida Space Research Institute Kennedy Space Center, Florida David Metcalf, Ph.D Latitude 360/ RWD Technologies and Walden University Merritt Island, Florida The Aviation/Aerospace industry as a whole, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in particular, are facing a potential crisis. At the Kennedy Space Center and Cape Canaveral Air Force Station alone nearly 60% of the workforce will reach retirement age within the next few years. Capturing the knowledge of the experienced workforce, as well as preparing and supporting the next generation of aerospace workers, is critical to ensure the success of future military and commercial space operations. To address this issue, NASA and the State of Florida have funded the development of the Advanced Learning Environment (ALE), an entirely web-based virtual learning and collaboration community. Produced by the Florida Space Research Institute (FSRI), the ALE contains asynchronous web-based training, synchronous web classes, real-time collaboration tools, bulletin boards, chat functionality, and a variety of performance support resources. The ALE has been designed to incorporate the evolving SCORM standards. This paper discusses the practical application of an advanced online learning community for the aerospace industry, touching on the industry/organizational challenge, the strategy/ solution, the technical considerations of implementation, and future plans for the ALE. Included within the discussion of future plans is the concept of using the ALE as a model for other military and civilian entities facing similar challenges.
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APPLICATION OF SITUATED COGNITION STRATEGIES IN A MAINTENANCE TRAINING CURRICULUM Donna Carroll JIL Information Systems, Inc., Training Services Division Orlando, Florida The gap between learning something in the classroom and applying it in the real world may well be a byproduct of the Navy training system. Current methods of schoolhouse instruction decontextualize learning by treating it as independent from the situation in which it will be used. Instruction has become classroom tasks, not authentic activities. Proponents of situated cognition argue that knowledge remains inert and unused if taught in contexts that separate knowing from doing (Driscoll 2000; Whitehead, 1932). Investigations of traditional learning are challenging the separation of what is learned from how it is used (Brown, Collins, & Duguid 1989b) and are instead proposing that instruction situated in the context in which it will be used produces more usable and transferable knowledge. This paper presents a proposal on how to incorporate situated cognition instructional strategies into the E2C maintenance training community. It discusses incorporating authentic context that reflects the way knowledge will be used in real life; inserting authentic activities into the training environment to provide multiple opportunities for practice; providing access to expert performance and the modeling of processes; furnishing the opportunity to experience multiple roles and perspectives; facilitating collaborative construction of knowledge; inserting opportunities for reflection, enabling abstractions to be formed; articulation activities to enable tacit knowledge to be made explicit; furnishing strategies for the instructor to provide coaching, scaffolding, and fading of support at critical times; and, integrating assessment within learning tasks.
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APPLICATIONS OF METACOGNITIVE THEORY TO ADVANCED DISTRIBUTED LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS Jerry West, D.Sc. Advanced Distributed Learning Co-Laboratory Alexandria, Virginia Metacognition is viewed in the educational psychology literature as the highest form of thinking, achievable primarily in environments where knowledge awareness and control of the learner’s thought processes can be fully demonstrated. Yet, there are lingering questions regarding whether there is sufficient and convincing data to warrant formal adoption of metacognition into instruction. This paper describes a research effort designed to investigate metacognitive training and education environments in context with the Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM). The SCORM is a set of specifications for interoperability and reuse of learning content being developed under the Advanced Distributed Learning Initiative (ADLI), and is rapidly being considered by educational theorists as the strategy of choice for specifying and moving advanced instructional strategies from theory to practice. Lacking a formal adoption approach however, much speculation exists among theorists regarding exactly how and when to capitalize on the benefits of SCORM. For this reason, this research effort illustrates how a SCORM adoption process model could be implemented using metacognition theory as a case study. In so doing, the research addresses the following questions: (1) Can the principles and concepts of metacognition theory be specified in accordance with SCORM? (2) Are there sufficient examples and case studies on metacognitive instruction to warrant formal specification efforts by standards organizations? (3) How compatible is a truly metacognitive environment with the SCORM runtime environment? (4) What are the long-term issues in achieving SCORM adoption? The research showed that, notwithstanding the complexities in terminologies, metacognition theory is well documented in the literature, and that a metacognitive information model and associated vocabularies can be specified by theorists. Moreover, the research showed that there are numerous use cases for specifications organizations to identify the core functions and technologies of metacognition theory. These use cases are required for formal specification development. There are limited metacognitive authoring tools available to the learner to enable the capturing of cognitive data in a dynamic web-based runtime environment.
This paper is available on the 2002 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website BLENDING TECHNOLOGIES TO ACHIEVE HIGHER-ORDER COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE LEARNING Kenneth P. Pisel, Ph.D. National Defense University/Joint Forces Staff College Norfolk, Virginia Congress tasked the Department of Defense in 1999 to develop an alternative course to provide Joint Professional Military Education to Reserve Component officers that is comparable to that received in residence by their active-duty counterparts. This presentation will detail the instructional system design, instructional technology, and assessment processes employed in the development of a 233-hour blended-delivery course. The presentation will focus on three areas: program development, results of Beta testing data, and assessment. §
Program Development. Major components of the in-residence JPME courses
are higher-level cognitive domain learning (application level and higher) and
affective domain cross-Service acculturation. To replicate this level of learning in the Reserve Component
Joint Professional Military Education program 25-student cohorts were formed
with a 1/3 mix from each Service.
Studying and working exercises with members of other Services (a
normal daily occurrence in Joint assignments) is a major part of the
experience. To facilitate this
learning, interactive and collaborative Web-based instruction will be
supplemented by periodic face-to-face sessions. The educational theory implications of this development process
will be emphasized. §
Beta Test Data. As part of the development process, a
41-hour Beta test was conducted to validate the program concept and
process. This test assessed a
curriculum conceptually comparable in scope and delivery method to that
proposed for the full RC JPME course.
Data from pre- and posttest assessments showed significant cognitive
learning in the Beta test. A
nine-item assessment of the affective domain showed positive movement on all
items, but there was only a statistically significant change on one of the
items. Lessons learned from the Beta
test will be discussed. § Assessment. Both student and program assessment were part of a continuous process that began with the development of the curriculum and supporting technology, instructor training, and the preparation of all sites prior to Beta testing. Assessment procedures that included informal and formal methods covering various aspects of the development, design, delivery, and measurements of effectiveness of the program will be reviewed.
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COLLABORATIVE DEVELOPMENT OF EXPERTISE–AN EFFECTIVE LOW-TECH APPROACH TO ON-THE-JOB TRAINING Daniel P. McDonald, Kimberly A. Smith-Jentsch NAVAIR, Orlando, Florida Rebecca M. Pliske Dominican University,
Chicago, Illinois Terry Stanard, Beth Crandall Klein Associates,
Fairborn, Ohio Caroline Zsambok Z Consulting John L. Neumann University of Central Florida The Collaborative Development of Expertise (CDE) is an effective, low-cost training methodology for conducting one-on-one training and team training. Preliminary validation results reveal CDE’s effectiveness in promoting (1) greater trainee participation during post-exercise debriefs, (2) better match of trainee-instructor prioritizations during a training exercise, and (3) higher trainee scenario performance as compared to a control group. Furthermore, instructors using CDE (1) use a greater breadth of instructional strategies, (2) are more flexible in the strategies used, and (3) are better able to match the right instructional strategies to the type of performance issue. This paper describes the components of CDE, the steps involved, and discusses the learning theory behind these components. CDE provides the instructor and trainee with a step-by-step training methodology, as well as a toolbox of instructional approaches for “unpacking” the expertise of the instructor. The process begins with the instructor fostering a more collaborative training environment. Next, CDE uses Cognitive Task Analysis to delineate the types of challenges associated with a job. These challenges provide a framework for the instructor and trainee to diagnose training deficiencies together. Instructors further categorize observed performance obstacles as either a “knowing,” “thinking,” or “doing-related” problem. These categories help the instructor to identify whether the problem involves a lack of declarative knowledge, difficulty in decision-making, or whether the trainee is having trouble with the procedures associated with a task. Categorizing problems in this manner serves to further facilitate diagnosis, and provides a basis for choosing an appropriate instructional approach from the many provided to the instructor by CDE. Finally, CDE empowers trainees to use knowledge elicitation approaches to help “unpack” the instructor’s expertise, as ownership of the training belongs to both the instructor and trainee alike when the using the CDE process. Future work in evaluating and refining CDE is proposed.
This paper is available on the 2002 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website DEVELOPING AN ADAPTIVE INTELLIGENT FLIGHT TRAINER Jeremy Ludwig and Sowmya Ramachandran Stottler Henke Associates, San Mateo, California William Howse U.S. Army Research Institute, Ft. Rucker, Alabama Intelligent tutoring systems (ITS) seek to mimic the learning improvement provided in a one on one tutor/student relationship. In order to effectively teach to a student, the ITS must adapt to the student’s current understanding. Many ITSs judge a student’s knowledge by current and historic performance in a subject area. From this information, an ITS can determine a number of facts about the student relevant to tutoring. This current/past performance view of tutoring ignores many aspects particular to a student, which would be useful in teaching to her (e.g. personality factors; preferred learning style; confidence/anxiety). We view an adaptive instructional system (AIS) as an extension to an ITS that also takes into account these types of individual trait and state differences. The adaptations used by the AIS have been collected from both relevant literature and interviews with domain experts. Currently we are applying these techniques to extend an ITS for training new helicopter pilots in the Army, where the subject matter experts are helicopter pilots.
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Intermediate Desktop Simulations FOR Education AND training IN United States Army units and Proponent Schools Mark Alan Eastman, Ph.D. Major, U.S. Army Jim Lunsford MäK Technologies This paper describes a research initiative conducted by The United States Army Battle Command Battle Lab at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. The research studies were designed to support the development and exploration of PC-based, game-like simulations for use as education and training tools for combat leader development. This specific genre of simulations is known as intermediate desktop simulations (IDS) for education and training. The Battle Lab at Fort Leavenworth partnered with the Command and General Staff College (CGSC), the Army Research Laboratory, academia and industry to build and research innovative simulation products designed for training current and future Army brigade and battalion commanders and their staffs. This research investigated the effectiveness of using the tools first in an academic setting as a supplement to a distance education course module, secondly as an in-class supplement to training tactics at CGSC and finally as a training tool for unit training in the 1st Infantry Division. Three studies were conducted from January of 2001 to June of 2002. Written papers, open-ended interviews, and exam questions were analyzed [D1]quantitatively and qualitatively. The objective for this research and development project was to provide the warfighter [D2]with a low-cost, low-overhead PC-based opportunity to explore current and future combat operations, sharpen tactical decision making skills and broaden tactical and experiential horizons. The key components of the High Level Architecture (HLA) compliant, internet-capable architecture for the simulation are the battle command (BC-2010) [D3]game engine, a mission editor, a web-based lobby server, and a logger annotation tool. The BC-2010 prototype simulation provided a robust training environment to train commanders and staffs. The first study yielded positive feedback that supported the use of IDS in training current and future commanders, primarily recommending the simulation for use as a supplement to the distance education course module used for instruction. The follow-on experimentation further supported the use of IDS in an academic setting to supplement in-class instruction for current and future commanders and their staffs. Recent field research with the 1st Infantry Division supported the use of intermediate desktop simulations for unit training.
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INTELLIGENT TUTORING FOR BRIDGE SIMULATOR TRAINING Serge Côte Kongsberg Maritime Ship Systems Horten, Norway
This paper will discuss the circumstances that led to the implementation of intelligent tutoring in bridge simulators and its integration into the training of bridge officers in the Canadian Navy. The trends experienced in bridge officer training in the 1990s resulted in transfer of operational training to shore-based full mission bridge simulator. It has been recognised, however, that these simulators did not effectively meet the full range of training requirements. A significant part of the training program was shifted to part task simulators which allowed the student greater individual access to the simulation environment, but often in the absence of direct instructor supervision. This type of training scenario increased the risk of negative training if the student performed erroneous procedures without correction by instructors. The addition of intelligent tutoring to the Canadian Navy bridge simulators has stemmed from this evolutionary process. The paper will explain how an intelligent tutoring system was designed and implemented into an existing bridge simulator, and the use of an advanced automatic student assessment system. The relevance of the different assessment criteria will be addressed. Finally, the training benefits for the Canadian Navy’s bridge officer training system will be discussed as well as the continued implementation process.
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LESSONS LEARNED DEVELOPINGNON-TRADITIONAL TRAINING Dianne L. Parrish, Ronald W. Tarr, Patricia A. Mulligan, Ray K. Cannon, Captain Rachel C. Aguirre Air Force Agency for Modeling and Simulation Orlando, Florida The use of advanced distributed learning to support and improve job performance makes this non-traditional approach to learning very attractive to the Air Force and especially to the Air Force Agency for Modeling and Simulation (AFAMS). AFAMS, in collaboration with the University of Central Florida’s Institute for Simulation and Training (UCF-IST), has developed a Modeling and Simulation (M&S) professional development initiative to improve job performance of Air Force personnel assigned to M&S by providing immediate access to M&S education opportunities, experts, and pertinent job information. This initiative incorporates the use of Advanced Distributed Learning (ADL), cyber-mentorship, a resource repository, online-individual training plans, and centralized certification, to give new personnel the ability to gain momentum quickly in the area of M&S. The lessons learned from the ADL initiative in developing web-based instruction have provided our program managers and instructional designers with valuable experiences in the areas of: § Requirements Definition and Subject Matter Collection § Course Development and Use of Multimedia § New
Approaches to Formative Evaluation § Program and Technical Considerations (mobile code, firewalls, bandwidth, security) § Learning Content Management System (content hosting capabilities, authoring tools) Lessons learned with relation to design and implementation will be reported in detail, as will results of pilot testing of the new program at the Air War College and the Air Force Academy. The ability to reach such a diverse target audience and to tailor instruction to the individual’s M&S job assignment makes web-based distributed learning an ideal solution for training the AF M&S workforce.
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THE POWER OF FIVE:INTERACTION STRATEGIES THAT WORK Dr. Pam Northrup University of West Florida Pensacola, Florida Interaction can be defined in many ways. Most simply stated interaction is engagement in learning. It is agreed that interaction must be designed into an instructional program and that it is an important variable for online learning success. Berge (1999) suggests that interaction is important to learner satisfaction and that it assists in maintaining student persistence in courses. With retention in online learning programs being as low as 50% in some cases and course completion rates in traditional courses at 10-20 percentage points higher than in online courses (Carr, 2000), learner satisfaction is a key variable. With interaction being a component of overall student satisfaction, it should be considered when trying to increase retention in online courses. However, from the online learners point of view, too much interaction may be perceived as busywork and lead to frustration, boredom, and overload (Berge, 1999); while too little interaction may result in student isolation. Both are considered frustrating and a balance has to be found. This presentation will identify five types of student interactions perceived to be important for online learning. The Power of Five interaction strategies include: (1) content interaction, (2) social interaction, (3) collaboration and conversation, (4) self-directedness, and (5) support. Using data collected from the OnLine Learning Interaction Inventory (OLLII) (Northrup, 2001), this presentation will include guidelines that are important to building an overall community of learners in an online environment.
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