Suicide bombers have become increasingly deadly and there is an urgent need for the development of innovative methods to prevent or mitigate the casualties and aftermaths of such a catastrophic event. Performing simulations with variant crowd formations and densities is one approach to better understanding the effects of such an attack. This paper explores and estimates the effects of suicide bombers across multiple crowd formations ad their respective densities through a virtual simulation. The ultimate goal of our empirical analysis was to determine the optimal crowd formation as it related to a reduction in the deaths and/or injuries of individuals in the crowd. The modeled crowd formations were based on real-world environments and consisted of a cafeteria, concert hall, mosque, street, hotel, bus, airport, and University campus. Specific simulation inputs are the number of individuals in the vicinity, walking speed of attacker, time associated with the trigger, setting (crowd formation), and the total weight of TNT. Results indicated that the worst crowd formation is a circular one (e.g. concerts), with a 51% death rate, 42% injury rate, thus reaching a 93% effectiveness measure. Vertical rows (e.g. mosques) were found to be the best crowd formation for reducing the effectiveness of an attack, with a 20% death rate, 43% injury rate, reaching a 63% effectiveness measure. Line-of-sight with the attacker, rushing towards the exit, and stampede were found to be the most lethal choices both during the attack and post-explosion. These findings, although preliminary, may have implications for emergency response and counter terrorism. There are number of physical and social variables we plan on integrating into this simulation in the future. These include modeling physical objects (e.g., landscape, furniture, etc.) and psychological variables (e.g., crowd behaviors). There are numerous applications for this simulation, ranging from special event planning to emergency response.

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Developing Contemporary Operating Environment Opposing Force Alternative Communications Means

2007 Paper No. 7229

Joe R. Gonzalez Jr.

Texas A&M Engineering Program

College Station, TX

With the introduction of the Contemporary Operating Environment (COE) Opposing Force (OPFOR), as reflected in Iraq, Afghanistan and elsewhere, into the OneSAF system a different and lethal set of tactics, forces and equipment has been developed to represent the current ground truth faced by the Armed Forces of the United States and its allies. The COE OPFOR comprises the collective set of organizations (combatant, noncombatant, corporate, non-government, government and international) existing in and acting on the environment in the Blue Force (BLUFOR) area of operations as representative of current military operations. They can be categorized as conventional forces (Regular Armed Forces) or irregular forces (Paramilitary, Guerrilla, Terrorist, Militia, and Combatant and Non-combatant Civilians on the Battlefield). A critical component for the accurate portrayal of these organizations in the OneSAF is the representation of the command and control means by which the components of the COE OPFOR will synchronize and direct their activities. The COE OPFOR will use components of the Civilian Information Infrastructure (CII) as a principal or alternate Battle Command System and Information Operations mechanism. These CII means are collectively termed Alternative Communications Means (ACM) as they represent a departure from the use of combat net radios for battle command system use. Irregular COE OPFOR forces will use ACM as both their primary battle command system and information operations mechanism. Conventional COE OPFOR forces will use ACM; as a parallel battle command system and as the primary information operations mechanism since they anticipate their tactical communications will be disrupted or destroyed over time and know BLUFOR is reluctant to disrupt the CII. This paper describes the identification and decomposition of these ACM, the description of their performance, how they can be used by the COE OPFOR and how they can be integrated into the OneSAF, and other simulations.

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Shaping Insurgent Route Selection Using Traffic Flow Strategies

2007 Paper No. 7333

Niki C. Goerger, Ph.D. , MAJ Ed Teague, LTC Simon R. Goerger, Ph.D. , MAJ Gregory C. Griffin

Dept. of Systems Engineering United States Military Academy

West Point, NY

Paul W. Richmond, Ph.D., P.E.

U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center

Vicksburg, MS

Insurgents have effectively employed asymmetric tactics, such as suicide vehicle born improvised explosive devices (SVBIEDs), against counterinsurgent (COIN) forces conducting Stability, Security, Transition, and Reconstruction (SSTR) Operations. The political, cultural, and physical settings in which they implement these tactics are not as readily constrainable as it is in full combat operations. These factors, overlaid on an urban backdrop, add to the complexity and challenges of detecting and defeating this threat. This paper discusses our current set of experiments, results, and insights gained regarding effects of traffic control point (TCP) strategies on SVBIED mission outcome. Agent based modeling and simulation environments were used in this work for exploratory modeling across a wide range of parameters. The intent is to apply these insights in the future to develop focused experiments in more physics-based, traditional simulation environments for a tiered analysis capability. The current research extends our previous work by incorporating denser and more complex urban settings, traffic, multiple targets, and area coverage strategies that can affect SVBIED behavior based on awareness of TCPs. Our goal is ultimately to generate insights that will assist counterinsurgent forces in developing strategies that are robust against a range of SVBIED behaviors.

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Initial Real-World Testing of Dismounted Soldier Embedded Training Technologies

2007 Paper No. 7046

Henry Marshall, Pat Garrity and Tim Roberts

US Army Research Development and Engineering Command, Simulation and Training Technology Center

Orlando, FL

Embedded training is a key requirement for many future and current force systems, making it a very important capability for Army transformation. Despite its importance, few demonstrations or tests have been conducted on which to base embedded training systems implementation. For the past five years, the US Army Research Development and Engineering Command (RDECOM) Simulation and Training Technology Center (STTC) has researched embedded training solutions applicable to individual Soldiers and small teams. To assess the utility of these solutions under field operating conditions STTC sought and found a meaningful culminating event in the Army’s premier live discovery experiment, the Air Assault Expeditionary Force (AAEF) experiment. Three dismounted embedded training prototypes were selected for use in AAEF. The first was an immersive, virtual, untethered, Soldier-worn system, interoperable with other Army simulation systems. The second system was a tablet computer-based system that provided leader mission planning and walkthrough. Both these systems displayed a high fidelity virtual terrain database of the McKenna training area at Ft. Benning where most of the AAEF experiment was conducted. The third application was a first-person shooter game engine modified to operate on the Soldier-worn prototype and supporting workstations.

During the experiment the Soldiers used these systems for mission planning, mission rehearsal and after action review of the rehearsal before carrying out live AAEF missions. Generally, the Soldiers’ reactions were positive toward the systems and the systems were seen to have potential for future development. The resultant feedback from this experiment can direct Army research and implementation of embedded training This paper will discuss AAEF, the embedded training systems used there and the manner in which these systems were used. It will provide anecdotal and questionnaire-based Soldier feedback of their impressions of the training technologies…

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Computational Fluid Dynamics for Flight Simulator Ship Airwake Modeling

2007 Paper No. 7320

Jeffrey D. Keller, Glen R. Whitehouse, Alexander H. Boschitsch

Continuum Dynamics, Inc.

Ewing, NJ

Juan Nadal, Jeff Jeffords, Marty Quire

CAE USA, Inc.

Tampa, FL

Modeling and simulation developments have resulted in high fidelity pilot-in-the-loop flight simulators providing realistic training environments. Modeling challenges continue to exist, in particular for accurate simulation of the near-ship environment critical to landing a helicopter onto the flight deck of a moving ship with various wind conditions. Providing an effective simulated environment requires modeling of the highly unsteady airwake resulting from bluff-body aerodynamic interactions of the ship superstructure and hangar near the flight deck and in close proximity to the ship as it passes through the airstream. This paper describes the development of a U.S. Navy rotary wing flight simulation with turbulence effects including high-fidelity representation of the ship airwake environment. The spatially-varying and time-varying flow field around the ship is determined off-line using a hybrid, inviscid CFD methodology that is well-suited for representing the turbulent environment several ship lengths downwind from the flight deck with moderate computational requirements. Results from this off-line analysis are formulated into a ship airwake database for multiple landing platforms and wind-over-deck conditions suitable for real-time pilot-in-the-loop virtual simulation. The paper describes the development of the simulation flight dynamics model, development and validation of the CFD-based ship airwake flow fields, and integration of the ship airwake database within the aerodynamic model. Implementation issues associated with integrating the ship airwake database into the flight dynamics model associated with real-time implementation and memory management are identified, and the approach to overcome these issues are described.

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“Preventing the Tanker Two-Step” Renewed Emphasis on Geospatial Data Quality

2007 Paper No. 7352

Robert F. Richbourg, George E. Lukes

Institute for Defense Analyses

Alexandria, VA

Have you ever given a tank entity the command to follow a road and then thought you were simulating a “Dancing With The Stars” episode? Have you ever asked an Internet utility to provide a travel route and then found the result unintuitive and longer than expected? In each case, problems in the digital representation of the road networks can be to blame. The tank entity might actually be following a road that includes severe kinks and kickbacks. The route planner might be defeated by breaks in the road network. Much of the digital data used to create simulation representations of the physical environment comes from the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA). While the NGA has a large holding of internally-produced geospatial data, the agency’s current strategy includes substantial data production under contract as well as a large cooperative effort with other nations under the Multinational Geospatial Co-production Program (MGCP). The development, codification, and enforcement of detailed quality standards has emerged as key to this acquisition strategy. The MGCP countries have jointly produced de-tailed requirements for the relationships between and quality characteristics of feature data elements; however, these specifications have been produced for human consumption. In some cases, the documentation lacks the specificity necessary to support algorithm development to enforce the standards. This paper describes the type of quality standards that are to be applied in the future production of geo-spatial feature data and illustrates a process to transform semantic descriptions into specific guidance suitable for software implementation. The process includes experimentation to determine appropriate geometric reasoning strategies that will permit identification of substandard data while minimizing false positive notifications. The paper describes a typical problem, the experiment designed to address the problem, and the results of conducting the experiment. The paper concludes with observations on the potential impact of these geospatial data…

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Dead Reckoning on the GPU: A Comparative Study vs. the CPU

2007 Paper No. 7314

Glenn A. Martin, Ronald M. Jewett, Christopher Hollander, Cory Hicks

University of Central Florida

Orlando, FL

In many simulation systems, dead reckoning is used to minimize network bandwidth utilization. The Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) standard is one example protocol that uses dead reckoning. Many game engines also use the technique. Until a few years ago graphics hardware used a fixed pipeline. In recent years PC video cards have been built with a programmable architecture. Collectively, the programmable pipeline is referred to as the Graphics Processing Unit (GPU). As GPU programming has progressed, a growing research field into applying non-graphical algorithms onto the GPU has started. Image processing, numerical equations and illumination computation are some examples of what is called General Purpose GPU programming. We performed a computational study of dead reckoning comparing the GPU with the Central Processing Unit (CPU). We tested various quantities of simulated entities using a variety of CPUs and GPUs. GPUs have the possibility of dead reckoning millions of entities in a single pass, but suffer the requirement of data readback from the video card, which is often slower than “outbound” data transfer. The study is presented and then analysis of the results discussed.

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Implementing a GPU-Enhanced Cluster for Large-Scale Simulations

2007 Paper No. 7437

Robert F. Lucas, Gene Wagenbreth, Dan M. Davis

Information Sciences Institute, Univ. of So. Calif.

Marina del Rey, California

The simulation community has often been hampered by constraints in computing: not enough resolution, not enough entities, not enough behavioral variants. Higher performance computers can ameliorate those constraints. The use of Linux Clusters is one path to higher performance; the use of Graphics Processing Units (GPU) as accelerators is another. Merging the two paths holds even more promise. The authors were the principal architects of a successful proposal to the High Performance Computing Modernization Program (HPCMP) for a new 512 CPU (1024 core), GPU-enhanced Linux Cluster for the Joint Forces Command’s Joint Experimentation Directorate (J9). In this paper, the basic theories underlying the use of GPUs as accelerators for intelligent agent, entity-level simulations are laid out, the previous research is surveyed and the ongoing efforts are outlined. The simulation needs of J9, the direction from HPCMP and the careful analysis of the intersection of these are explicitly discussed. The configuration of the cluster and the assumptions that led to the conclusion that GPUs might increase performance by a factor of two are carefully documented. The processes that led to that configuration, as delivered to JFCOM, will be specified and alternatives that were considered will be analyzed. Planning and implementation strategies are reviewed and justified. The presentation will then report in detail about the execution of the actual installation and implementation of the JSAF simulation on the cluster in August 2007. Issues, problems and solutions will all be reported objectively, as guides to the simulation community and as confirmation or rejection of early assumptions. Lessons learned and recommendations will be set out. Original performance projections will be compared to actual benchmarking results using LINPACK and simulation performance. Early observed operational capabilities of interest are proffered in detail herein.

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Developments in UK Ship/Air Interface Simulation

2007 Paper No. 7267

Ian Cox

Systems Engineering & Assessment Ltd

Bristol, United Kingdom

Dr John Duncan

UK MOD DE&S-Sea Systems Directorate

Bristol, United Kingdom

The simulation of aircraft launch and recovery operations from naval vessels provides a unique set of challenges, requiring realistic modelling of the interactions between the air vehicle, the ship platform, and the environment. The aim of the UK Ship/Air Interface Framework (SAIF) programme is to use the industry standard High Level Architecture (HLA) to provide a realistic real-time simulation of the dynamic interface between the ship and the air vehicle. The initial phase of the project has developed a Ship/Helicopter Operating Limit (SHOL) prediction capability, utilising a networked version of the Merlin helicopter flight simulator at the Royal Naval Air Station (RNAS) Culdrose, UK. By developing an accurate and validated simulation capability, the results of simulation and flight test trials may be combined to maximise the aircraft’s operating envelope. The SAIF architecture is highly flexible, and can be adapted to support the modelling of both fixed and rotary wing launch and recovery operations, including Maritime Unmanned Air Vehicle (MUAV) concepts. This paper summarises the development, test and validation of the SAIF architecture, and highlights where the programme is aiming to make further fidelity improvements. Of particular importance is the highly complex real-time modelling of the airwake field around the ship, which can directly affect the level of pilot workload required to safely operate the air vehicle.

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Practical Solution of Transitioning a Large Scale Federation from HLA 1.3NG to IEEE 1516

2007 Paper No. 7378

Engin Z. Altan

Science Applications International Corporation

Heathrow, FL

Don Gordon

Blue Sky Computer Systems, Inc.

Heathrow, FL

The Battle Lab Collaborative Simulation Environment (BLCSE) federation is the Army Training and Doctrine Command’s (TRADOC) biggest federation to serve the Army’s analytical community. BLCSE has a large, complex, federation-of-federations architecture consisting of 29 different constructive and virtual simulations at 14 geographically distributed sites. The current BLCSE technology environment is comprised primarily of the Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) as the primary inter-federate communications protocol. DIS interoperability standards were developed in the late 1980s to support the linkage of simulations exchanging low entity-count data, principally entity-state messages between virtual training devices (e.g., SimNet devices). Active entity counts within BLCSE federations have been steadily increasing as federations grow to support more comprehensive analyses. BLCSE has reached a point where DIS protocol communications cannot reliably manage the federation message load without an externally managed message distribution management scheme. The effects of DIS message saturation, either on the network or at the application itself, are lost messages or incorrectly sequenced messages. Both problems lead to entity state anomalies and lowered data reliability. In view of these challenges, Army Capabilities Integration Center’s (ARCIC) Simulations Division Director approved a Simulations Division initiative, in May 2005, to transition the BLCSE federation from DIS (IEEE 1278) to Higher Level Architecture (HLA -IEEE 1516) interoperability standards. However, TRADOC plays an important role the Army’s Cross Command Collaboration Effort (3CE) organization. The 3CE organization currently adopted the Department of Defense (DoD) HLA NG 1.3 standard. In order to provide interoperability with 3CE federation, BLCSE had to implement the NG 1.3 protocol as an intermediate solution. After a year and a half of effort, 20 BLCSE federates are able to communicate in the HLA 1.3 environment. To complete the projects’ goal…

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Supporting Multiple RTIs within a Single Process

2007 Paper No. 7216

William Luebke, John Baker, Adrian Porter

Raytheon Virtual Technology Corporation

Alexandria, VA

Achieving simulation interoperability between autonomous federations is always a challenging problem. Despite the fact that different federations might accomplish seemingly similar tasks, they frequently implement solutions using drastically different approaches. A recent federation bridge development project implemented a unique approach to federation interoperability between differing Run-Time Infrastructure (RTI) solutions, Federation Object Models (FOMs), and federation level protocols. The ability to provide interoperability between two High Level Architecture (HLA) federations in a single software process using different versions of the RTI allows for an interoperability solution that requires no implementation changes to either federation while demonstrating the collective benefits combining the two federations. Providing interoperability between two HLA federations in a single software process using different versions of the RTI poses a unique challenge, as one normally cannot compile and link an application in this way. This challenge can be overcome using a specialized proxy that enables different versions of the RTI to simultaneously coexist in a single software process. This paper details the technological approach of using such a proxy for a federation bridge, including its applicability, architecture, and performance characteristics. The approach is proven via the successful implementation of a federation bridge that enables interoperability between two federations using the DMSO 1.3 NG v4 and Raytheon VTC NG Pro v2.0.4 RTIs. Examples of using the techniques presented in this paper in other situations are also given, as well as alternative approaches.

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Composing a Joint Federation Object Model

2007 Paper No. 7421

Andy Bowers

The MITRE Corporation USJFCOM J7

Suffolk, VA

Dannie Cutts

AEgis Technologies Group Inc. USJFCOM J7

Suffolk, VA

As simulation users adopted the High Level Architecture (HLA) to promote interoperability, composability, and reuseability, Federation Object Model (FOM) development and use necessarily grew apace. HLA federations have in many cases delivered on these promised “ilities” yet a simulation fortunate enough to be a member of multiple federations often does not realize these same benefits. Membership in multiple federations requires that the individual federate interoperate with multiple FOMs. This in turn usually equates to the federate developing multiple interfaces with limited opportunity for reuse. The Modeling and Simulation (M&S) Community has recognized this issue and sought its redress through composable object model approaches such as the Base Object Model (BOM) technology. This paper reports on work accomplished under the auspices of United States Joint Forces Command (USJFCOM) to decompose the FOMs used by the Joint Warfighting Center (JWFC), identify and eliminate redundant elements, and develop a composite Joint FOM. The effort is intended as a “proof-of-principle” on the basis of which USJFCOM might solicit broader community support in developing an object model library and process for composing FOMs for use by the Joint and Multinational M&S community.

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UR2015: Technical Integration Lessons Learned

2007 Paper No. 7259

Richard Williams, Shane J. Smith

Alion Science and Technology

Norfolk, VA

In 2006, the United States Joint Forces Command (US JFCOM) Joint Innovation and Experimentation J9 Directorate conducted the Urban Resolve 2015 (UR2015) Experiment. UR 2015 was designed to examine specific solutions to the challenges that will likely confront U.S. military forces in the future urban environment. This “human in the loop” experiment provided training for senior military personnel in decision-making processes by stimulating real-world Command, Control, Communication, Computer, and Intelligence (C4I) systems using an array of simulation technologies. The experiment involved more than 1,000 people at 19 different sites across the United States. It featured extensive use of modeling and simulation (approximately 30 individual simulations including Joint Semi-Automated Forces (JSAF) and OneSAF Testbed (OTBSAF)) running on over 450 computers to create a robust virtual environment that replicated what the urban environment may be like in the future after a major crisis has occurred. This paper will begin by providing background information on the numerous sites and applications that had to come together to create the UR 2015 federation. Additionally, it will examine the tasks required to integrate these sites and analyze not only the successes, but just as importantly the problem areas encountered. This paper will conclude with guidelines and recommendations for streamlining complex integration efforts when incorporating numerous, diverse simulations distributed over a large number of participating sites.

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Joint Training Data Services (JTDS) Initialization Data Pilot Project

2007 Paper No. 7266

Clark D Stevens

US JFCOM

Suffolk, VA