Digital Systems and Battle Staff Integration: Collective Training Feedback
Larry L. Meliza
U. S Army Research Institute
Orlando, FL
Karen J. Lockaby, Andrew M. Perrault & Bruce C. Leibrecht
Northrop Grumman Mission Systems
Killeen, TX and Fort Knox, KY
The U.S. Army has provided battle staffs with a mixture of digital
command, control, and communication (C3) systems as aids in mission planning,
preparation, and execution. The purpose of this project was to provide
guidance for collective trainers to use in evaluating battalion and brigade
level employment of these system s, emphasizing the integration and
synchronization of activities across battlefield operating systems (BOS) such
as maneuver, intelligence, and fire support. An important goal of this effort
was to provide guidance that is appropriate for information integrators,
rather than system operators, so that most of the guidance can remain
applicable as specific digital systems are replaced or evolve. The resulting
Digital Tactical Operations Center (TOC) Integration Guide is organized
according to the three goals of (1) establishing and managing the common
operating picture, (2) managing digital information, and (3) applying
situational awareness to avoid fratricide. Under each goal, the guide
describes what the staff sections should be doing and tells trainers how to
obtain information needed to assess staff performance. A companion product,
the Digital Proficiency Level Matrixes for Battle Staff Sections, describes
low, medium, and high levels of digital proficiency. The specific parameters
applied to each staff section in the matrix are tailored to fit the functions
of the section, but there are recurring themes. Two key indicators of
increased digital proficiency are an earlier shift from stove-piped to
collaborative activities during planning and an increased ability to update
and distribute planning products in a timely manner. The research team is
currently updating guidance to reflect recent changes in the digital systems
available to battle staffs. The update process provides an opportunity to
assess the extent to which the guidance remains viable as systems change.
2004 Paper No.1602
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Comparing Levels of Situation Awareness
and Digital Proficiency Levels
John
S. Barnett, Larry L. Meliza
U.S.
Army Research Institute
Orlando, FL
Karen
Lockaby
Northrop
Grumman Mission Systems
Killeen, TX
Evaluating
how well a unit employs digital command, control, and communication (C3)
systems to support operations adds substantially to the workload of U.S. Army
trainers. One means of aiding trainers is to provide observation requirements
tailored to fit a unit’s estimated digital proficiency level. Digital subject
matter experts (SMEs) divided one hundred digital activities into basic,
medium, and high digital proficiency groups using a training-oriented
definition of digital proficiency (i.e., activities that units are likely to
have trouble mastering are addressed at high digital proficiency levels). The
purpose of the work described by this paper was to compare the SME-defined
proficiency levels with two other definitions of digital proficiency, levels
of situational awareness (SA) and progressive skills groups (i.e., one group
lays a foundation for the next group). The SA levels, based upon Endsley
(1995) are defined as; (1) an accurate perception of the elements of the
situation, (2) a comprehension of the situation, and (3) a projection of the
current situation into the future. The skills groups were concerned with
channeling, managing, assessing, and exploiting information. Each of the one
hundred activities addressed by SMEs were rated as
to which SA level and which skill group they belonged. The SME-defined
digital proficiency levels were correlated with SA levels and with skill
groups. Advantages of digital proficiency level concepts that are only mildly
correlated with SA levels are discussed.
2004 Paper No. 1603
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Managing Multiple Uninhabited Aerial
Vehicles: Changes in Number of Vehicles and Type of Target Symbology
Jeremy
T. Nelson, Austen T. Lefebvre, and Terence S. Andre
United States Air Force Academy
Colorado Springs, Colorado
This
study attempted to more fully develop the theoretical framework for a single
operator monitoring several uninhabited aerial vehicles (UAVs). Twenty-four subjects
from the United States Air Force Academy participated in a study to determine
the performance effects of managing multiple UAVs. Subjects monitored three
and five UAVs simultaneously using the Multi-Modal Immersive Intelligent
Interface for Remote Operation (MIIIRO) synthetic task environment. In
addition to workload an d performance measures, we
examined the effectiveness of two types of target symbology (a stylized
symbol set and the MIL-STD-2525B symbols) while controlling the UAVs in a
simulated task. Results showed five UAVs created a significant de gradation
in performance as well as significant increase in workload (subjective and
objective). Also, MIL-STD-2525B symbols were shown to have significantly
better recall than stylized icons as implemented in the MIIIRO synthetic task
environment.
2004
Paper No. 1536
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A Total Ship-Crew Model to Achieve Human
Systems Integration
Dr.
Loretta DiDonato CDR Joseph B. Famme USN (ret)
Northrop
Grumman Ship SystemsITE Inc
Pascagoula, MSArlington, VA
LCDR
Alan Nordholm Ph.D. USN Senior Chief Alan Lemon
Human
Performance CenterUSS McCampbell DDG 85
Virginia Beach, VAAt Sea
Requirements
for new ships in an era of increasing threats, escalating personnel costs and
fiscal constraints have escalated the priority of Human Systems Integration
(HSI). The challenge is to create and use metrics for ship and human
engineered systems that optimize human performance within ships that are
designed with complex automated propulsion, auxiliary and weapon systems.
Total Ship Systems Engineering (TSSE) includes techniques for manning
analysis to characterize and validate the crew duty requirements in an
associated sailor profile data base that describes the composite
knowledge-task-time demand for each crew position across all mission profiles
in the context of advanced automation technologies and survivable hull forms.
A technology considered but not currently implemented in the manning analysis
process is a Total Ship-Crew Model (TS-CM) that adds the attribute of dynamic
time to the analysis of coupled ship systems-crew performance. This paper
will address the use of a TS-CM analysis tool to validate ship systems
processes and reduced crew manning while capturing the ship-crew model for
future use in support of HSI objectives over the ship lifecycle.
2004 Paper No.1564
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Applying Crew Resource Management (CRM) Principles to First
Responder Training
William J. Walsh
JXT
Applications, Inc.
Fair Oaks Ranch, TX
Roberta S.
Gearhardt, Terrell W. Fulbright
JXT
Applications, Inc.
Beavercreek, OH
Effective
team coordination and decision-making skills are essential for emergency
medical personnel. First responders are particularly vulnerable because of
the urgency of their decisions, subsequent actions and frequent unknowns.
Currently, training for medical personnel focuses on procedural knowledge and
skills. Effective training in team coordination and decision-making for EMT
personnel responding to CBR/WMD is not available.
The
aviation industry has been providing similar team coordination and
decision-making training to aircrews for well over thirty years. Our approach
includes capitalizing on that experience and applying some of the same
principles and techniques to development of a tutor that trains emergency
medical responders for CBR/WMD threats.
One
of our goals is to foster a better learning environment for CBR/WMD incidents
by enabling learners to participate actively in the team coordination and
decision making processes, to think reflectively about what they are doing and
the decisions they have made, and even to work collaboratively with other EMT
learners through the problems presented by the tutor. In addition to the
life-and-death decisions regarding their patients, EMTs may be faced with
other more far-reaching decisions that involve the contamination of
themselves and others with highly toxic substances. The design of the tutor
is based on established CRM principles. When used in an active learning
environment it should assist EMTs in learning what goes into making sound
decisions under stress and how to coordinate the activities of their team
rather than functioning independently.
2004 Paper No. 1915
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Machine and Human Analogical Reasoning for a Case-Method Intelligent Tutoring System
Susann
Luperfoy
Eric
Domeshek
Eli
Holman
David
Struck
Brian
Glidewell
Ryan
Houlette
Stottler
Henke Associates, Inc.
This paper concerns a project using the case
method of instruction to develop an Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS) for military decision-making skills. Our
technical objective is actually the authoring shell that lets domain experts
and educators enter new cases into a library and
then use stored cases in creating
lessons that foster analogical encoding in students, a
mental process shown empirically to improved acquisition, retention, and
transfer of domain knowledge. We have adopted a collaborative view of
human-machine interaction in order to construct an integrated cognitive
system in which analogical reasoning by the machine supplements and enhances
analogical reasoning by the human. In this instance the supported forms of
human reasoning are analogical encoding by
students at instruction delivery time and analogical recall by experts at
authoring time. The focus of this paper is the design and implementation of
the case-authoring component of the authoring shell that assists domain experts
in creating new cases and integrating them into the case library.
2004 Paper No. 1873
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Enhancing Virtual Environment Interaction
Using a Head Mounted Projection Display (HMPD)
Long
Nguyen, Andrew Mead
NAVAIR
ORL Training Systems Division
Orlando, FL
Cali
Fidopiastis, Jannick Rolland
Optical
Diagnosis and Analysis (ODA) Lab, UCF
Orlando, FL
Interacting
with a Virtual Environment (VE) generally requires the user to correctly
perceive the relative position and orientation of virtual objects. For some
VE applications, such as near-field mixed reality, the user may also need to
accurately judge the position of the virtual object relative to that of a
real object, for example, the user’s hand. This is difficult, since VEs
generally only provide a subset of the cues experienced in the real world.
Complicating matters further, VEs presented by currently available displays
are often inaccurate or may be distorted due to technological limitations.
One recent development is the Head Mounted Projection Display (HMPD). It has
the potential to address this interaction problem. The HMPD uses a projection
lens and retro-reflective material instead of the eyepiece found in a typical
head mounted display. This solves several problems in mixed reality
simultaneously. Specifically, it allows for proper occlusion, for correction
of optical distortion, and for images to be retro-reflected off curved
surfaces. HMPD technology has been researched for use in medical
visualization and collaborative virtual environment applications (Rolland,
Meyer, Davis, Hamza-Lup, & Norfleet, 2002; Hua,
Gao, & Rolland, 2002).
The
unique combination of visual cues provided by the HMPD technology can
potentially allow one to effectively reach, select, manipulate, and release
virtual cockpit controls, specifically, buttons, dials, and switches in a
direct and natural manner. We present a test bed design and experimental
designs to explore this feasibility. We provide basic task measures and
expected results for interaction with these virtual objects. Finally we
provide preliminary data for accuracy and precision of one key measure for
object manipulation, the user’s depth perception of virtual and real objects
in relation to each other. The technology has the potential to replace the
physical mockup of a cockpit with its virtual counterpart, making training
systems more portable, deployable, and reconfigurable.
2004 Paper No. 1891
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Enhancing Virtual Environments Using
Sensory-Multiplexing
LCDR Dylan Schmorrow
Office of Naval Research
Arlington, VA
LT Joseph Cohn
US Naval Research Lab
Washington, DC
Roy Stripling, Amy Kruse
Strategic Analysis Inc.
Arlington, VA
Virtual
Environment (VE) technologies have often been hailed as the ultimate solution
for providing comprehensive, affordable and flexible training. Yet, despite
the enormous amounts of time and money invested in the development of these
devices, the results have, by and large, failed to live up to their
expectations. This is likely due to significant mismatches between the
virtually presented environment and the anticipated real world one, resulting
in a modern day version of Osgood’s (1949) Similarity Paradox. Recent work
indicates that there are at least two factors that limit the ‘spectral-range’
of current VE training experiences. First, VE systems supply information
primarily through visual and non-spatialized audio channels, limiting the
quantity and quality of information being conveyed to the trainee. Second,
current technologies create an environment in which much of the experience is
highly scripted, failing to deliver a user-specific training experience. This
suggests that there is much to be gained by recasting Osgood’s challenge as
an Information Processing problem.
This
paper will focus on a “sensory-multiplexing” approach being developed to
create adaptive VE training systems that optimize user cognitive and
emotional engagement and that naturally direct the user towards appropriate
learning strategies. Two lines of investigation are currently being pursued.
The first focuses on developing a VE-based training system, using
human-centric design principles, to provide Marines with training in Close
Quarters Battle (CQB) at both the individual and team level. The second
focuses on demonstrating, in the laboratory as well as operationally, that
objective measures of attention, arousal, and cognitive workload can be
gleaned from the output of non-invasive physiological sensors. When the
results from the two efforts are integrated into a single system, the
resultant information could be used to adaptively titer the users level of
arousal and to direct or re-direct his/her attention as needed.
2004 Paper No. 1762
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Fleet-RIDE: Enabling Technology
for Sailor Continuous Career Counseling
Stephen
E. Watson, Ph,D. Thomas A. Blanco
Chief
of Naval Operations-N1Z1 EDS
Washington, D.C. San Diego, CA.
The
Rating Identification Engine (RIDE) initial classification process and a
prototype decision support system developed jointly by Navy Personnel
Research, Studies, and Technology and EDS, provides the best match for
recruits based on their qualifications to Navy requirements reflected in
critical lists and other available training seats. RIDE was built drawing on
techniques and theory from experimental psychology, psychometrics, business
process reengineering, and human factors. This paper describes the human
systems integration of the “Fleet” RIDE enabling technology as a multiplier
for the Sailor and his/her Career Counselor for continuous career counseling,
education and training, and career advancement onboard Navy ships. The
Director of Navy Selection and Classification sponsored Fleet- RIDE, which
transforms the proven and accepted RIDE processes and technologies for Fleet
use in support of Perform to Serve (PTS). The Navy’s new Perform-to-Serve
(PTS) program is a “force-shaping” process for balancing manning levels
across enlisted specialties (i.e., Ratings) or skill sets, and increases the
advancement and professional opportunities for Sailors. Current PTS policy
covers all first-term Sailors (<6 years). Sailors will either receive
approval to reenlist in their current rating, be offered a conversion to an
undermanned Rating, or declined reenlistment option. Fleet Career Counselors,
Enlisted Community Managers, Detailers and individual Sailors use Fleet-RIDE
for career guidance and rating conversion to provide the best match of Fleet
Sailor’s qualifications and aptitude to meet Navy requirements for rating
assignment/conversions. The paper also describes the successful spiral
implementation approach used, early pilot test results and enthusiastic user
acceptance. Finally, cost benefit analyses and return on investment from both
the Navy’s (e.g., enhanced conversion efficiency and effectiveness) and
Sailor’s (e.g., enhanced Sailor career satisfaction, better retention)
perspectives are provided.
2004 Paper No. 1872
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Adapting Current UK Military TNA Guidelines to Analyse
Collective, Command and Control Training Requirements for the Royal Artillery
Alison
Walsh,
Dr Carole Deighton
Air
Affairs (UK) Ltd
Yeovil,
Somerset, UK
The
UK MoD identified a lack of opportunity to exercise the collective, command
and control (C2) procedures for the Royal Artillery Commanding
Officer and his Indirect Fire System (IFS) formation staff at Brigade level.
A Training Needs Analysis (TNA) was conducted to identify the cognitive and
behavioural training requirements of collective, C2 procedures and
to recommend the most cost effective training option to meet the identified
training need. Current Ministry of Defence (MoD) guidelines describe TNA
methodologies which are predominantly designed to identify individual,
Human-Machine-Interface training requirements. This paper describes the
application of the TNA methodology to identify and analyse the collective,
Human-Human Interface training requirements involved in the performance of
Indirect Fire C2 procedures.
The
adopted operational task analysis methodology,
identified the cognitive and behavioural tasks performed by each individual
within the target audience to achieve each IFS collective training standard.
In addition the analysis captured the C2process as a flow of
information communicated between the target audience and the associated
senders and recipients of information. The Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes
Analysis and Fidelity Analysis methodologies were adapted to analyse the
properties of the Human-Human Interfaces, which would require replication in
the training environment. The output of the fidelity analysis informed the
analysis of the manpower requirements needed to support an IFS exercise.
2004 Paper No. 1555
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RAPID ASSESSMENT OF TASKS AND CONTEXT (RATaC) FOR TECHNOLOGY-BASED TRAINING
Robert
J. Stone
University
of Birmingham & VP Defence Ltd
Birmingham, UK
Since
1996, a number of demonstrators and operational systems have been introduced
into the UK military part-task training community, each contributing
significantly to eradicating the barriers to adoption of synthetic
environment (SE) or “virtual reality” (VR) technologies. These include VR
training systems for rear-door helicopter aircrew and naval gunners (as
described during I/ITSEC 2002 and 2003), together
with those supporting naval vessel familiarisation, submarine rescue and
fighter aircraft avionics maintenance. The success and affordability of these
systems have been attributed to the application of highly focused human fact
ors task an d context assessments, typically conducted in no more than 5-6
days following project start-up. The assessments employ a combination of structured
classroom and field observation routines, plus student and instructor
debriefs, and are based on a simple human-centric model which focuses
on the physical, sensory and cognitive “coupling” between the end user and
his/her immediate, proximal and distal spatial-temporal environments. The
outcome of the assessments are designed to provide early system requirements
guidance, such as the nature of human involvement (observe/explore/modify),
VR interaction style (exocentric, egocentric, etc.), content (2D or 3D
graphical, stereoscopic, augmented, etc.), sensory and functional fidelity,
and technology “appropriateness” and maturity (immersive wearable, simple
projection, desktop, etc.). In some cases, the methodology has delivered
technological solutions that were not considered or even rejected during much
lengthier pre-contract training needs analyses conducted by tri-service
educational personnel. Using the above applications to illustrate the key
issues, this paper describes the rationale and structure underpinning the
RATaC (Rap id Assessment of Tasks and Context) methodology, designed to
overcome some of the logistical, timing and financial restrictions faced by
human factors specialists in trying to capture – during live, in-the-field,
or operational assessment sessions with actual end users – the key components
of training scenarios for the purposes of defining the scope of
technology-based training solutions.
2004 Paper No.1580
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Enhancing Synthetic Warfighter Training:
A Conceptual Framework
Robert
Chapman, CMSP
Alion
Science and Technology, Air Combat Command
Langley
AFB, VA
The
purpose of this paper is to describe the elements that should be included in
a conceptual framework for synthetic warfighter training. The central thesis
of this paper is that an abstract conceptualization of synthetic warfighter
training should be based on cognitive theories of behavior, oriented to the
operational mission environment and extensible to several levels of training.
The proposed framework is a derivative of Boyd’s cycle of observation,
orientation, decision, and action, the “OODA loop,” and previous scientific
research in perception. The framework also draws on current training research
and the Air Force’s experience with its Distributed Mission Operations (DMO)
simulators, especially the development of Mission Essential Competencies. The
value of such an approach is twofold. First, it leads to a better theory and
application of training in synthetic federations. Second, it can help support
warfighter training research.
2004 Paper No. 1802
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Beyond Content and Design: Employment of
Computer-Based Distance Learning
Jennifer McNamara, Michael
Szczepkowski,
James Stokes, Chris
McCollum, Wayne
Zachary
CHI Systems, Inc.
Fort
Washington, PA
Organizations
are increasingly turning to computer-based distance learning (CDL) solutions
to enhance opportunities for employee training. Before embarking on
courseware development, it is important to understand that successful
integration of CDL into a training process depends on effective content and
design, as well as accompanying strategies for employing the courseware to
meet the organization’s learning and human performance goals. Studying
real-world use of CDL, we have seen promising courseware that, when employed
in actual training contexts, often proves ineffective because of problems
encountered during attempted integration into the workplace. These failures
occur when organizations focus exclusively on course content and design
decisions throughout the instructional systems design process – overlooking
human-systems integration issues that can derail even the most impressive CDL
programs. It is commonly understood that human systems integration
considerations are critical in the introduction of new engineering systems;
similarly these factors should be considered in the process of integrating
CDL into workplace-centered training. Our goal is to expand the way people
think about CDL development to ensure that CDL does not fail as a result of
overlooking human systems integration issues by: (1) introducing factors
related to CDL employment outcomes, (2) presenting the many stakeholders in
CDL success along with a description of their respective roles in the CDL
employment process, and (3) providing a process for uncovering both barriers
and facilitators to CDL employment. We conclude by presenting guidelines to
follow throughout the instructional systems design process to ensure
successful CDL employment.
2004 Paper No. 1825
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Training Game Design Characteristics that
Promote Instruction and Motivation
James Belanich
U.S. Army Research Institute
for the Behavioral and
Social Sciences
Arlington, VA
Kara L. Orvis
Consortium of Universities of the DC Metro Area
Arlington, VA
Laura N. Mullin
The Catholic University of
America
Washington, DC
PC-based
games are currently used for training purposes throughout the military.
Although increasingly popular, little research has been conducted on the
design features that make these games effective training tools. This paper
provides some research-based design principles that can be applied to the
development of training games, with a focus on factors that influence both
instructional characteristics and motivational features of PC-based games. A
within-subject research design was used to identify the design
characteristics that influenced the retention of information presented during
the game. The aspects of the game that motivated users to continue playing
were also assessed. The findings suggest that the manner in which information
was presented to the user and the relevance of that information to the user’s
progression of the game impacted how well the information was later recalled.
Graphic images and spoken text were recalled more accurately than printed
text. Participants recalled procedures better than facts. Information
relevant to the progression of the game was recalled better than information
that was tangential to the game storyline. In addition, motivation to continue
playing the game was influenced by perceived levels of challenge, realism,
control, and exploration. The findings from the current research correlated
with previous research in the fields of training methodology, multimedia
instruction, and game development. Based on the current findings and previous
research, principles for developing training games that are both
instructional and motivational are presented.
2004 Paper No. 1526
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Immersing Humans in Virtual Environments:
Where’s the Holodeck?
Peter Muller
Potomac Training Corp.
Lansdowne, VA
LT Joseph Cohn
Naval Research Laboratory
Washington, DC
Dr. Denise Nicholson
NAVAIR Orlando
Orlando, FL
The
Office of Naval Research’s Virtual Technologies and Environments (VIRTE)
program is developing leading edge technologies for immersing humans in
Virtual Environments (VE). This paper will examine some of the challenges in
using VE for training specific tasks in the military such as marksmanship and
shoot/no shoot decision- making. In particular, we will examine the Marine
Corps Indoor Simulated Marksmanship Trainer Enhanced (ISMT), and how the
Corps uses it. We will discuss both the technical and human dynamics in the
system. We will also examine the current state of VE technologies and the
challenges in using them for military training.
2004 Paper No. 1773
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Eliminating Traditional Training: The New
Era of Human Performance Technology
Thomas
B. Cavanagh
Florida
Space Research Institute
Kennedy Space Center, Florida
The
Department of Defense spends more than $17 billion annually for military
schools that offer approximately 30,000 training courses to nearly 3 million
personnel. American industry spends over $50 billion annually on training
activities. According to the American Society for Training & Development,
one of the largest content areas receiving that training is “technical
process and procedures.” As human workplace performance becomes increasingly
dependent upon technology, the cost of technical skills training will only
grow in an attempt to keep up with that rapidly changing technology.
Unfortunately,
traditional technical training is becoming an expensive, obsolete solution to
human performance goals. This paper will describe the trend away from
traditional technical training delivery and towards an integrated role for
performance support in the context of the entire “Spectrum of Support. ” The “Spectrum of Support” will be discussed in detail
in relation to our current evolution in Human Performance Technology that
will someday result in complete transparency between a task and the
technological support for that task, thus eliminating the technical training
function altogether.
2004 Paper No. 1485
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Menu Design Considerations for Rapid
Decision-Making Simulations
William Y. Pike
U.S. Army RDECOM-STTC
Orlando, FL
Jessica
Helmick-Rich, Kristy A. Bradley,
Adams
Greenwood-Ericksen,
and Kelly Burke
University of Central Florida
Orlando, FL
Since
there exists no standard interface for simulations, simulation systems must
be designed for operation by individuals with very limited experience with
the specific training system. Therefore, designers have begun to integrate
menu systems into the control schemes of simulations. While menus excel in
providing an inexperienced user with easy access to system functionality,
they must be properly designed in order to achieve maximum benefit to the
user. Many menu-driven tasks must be performed simultaneously with other
vital tasks; therefore it is important to develop a better understanding of
the effects of divided attention on performance in a menu-driven application.
Very little research has been directed toward understanding how menu design
features interact with a decrease in available attentional resources due to
division of attention across two or more simultaneous tasks. The current
study examined the effects of adding an auditory discrimination secondary
task to the primary task of interacting with a menu-driven interface.
Differences were observed in the patterns of performance and subjective
workload under task load among these interface designs. Contrary to previous
research, the color coded menu design was not found to improve robustness to
secondary task load, and yielded significantly higher subjective workload in
the higher task load condition. Performance on the low density menu design
was found to be particularly vulnerable to secondary task load, and this
finding was reflected in higher subjective ratings of workload in the high
task load condition. The grouped menu design, however, yielded no significant
degradation in performance in the high task load condition, although
significantly higher workload was observed under higher task load. These findings
will be discussed in the context of attentional resource allocation, and
design recommendations will be made with regard to menu systems intended for
use in simulations.
2004 Paper No. 1815
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Evolving Interactive Electronic Technical
Manuals (IETMs) to Electronic Performance Support Systems (EPSS): Human
Performance Considerations
Janet Cichelli
SI
International, Inc.
Rockville, Maryland
Darrell Tatro, Lloyd Kleinman
US Navy Center for Surface Combat Systems
Dahlgren, Virginia
The
Department of Defense community realizes that the availability of meaningful
and accurate technical information is necessary to support the maintenance of
defense systems. Recently, paper documentation has begun to be replaced with
Interactive Electronic Technical Manuals (IETMs). IETMs are designed to
enable a technician to walk through complex maintenance procedures in a
logical sequence and provide detailed support for fault isolation and repair.
Because
of their focus on performance aiding, IETMs are sometimes classified as an
electronic performance support system (EPSS). However, the focus, design goals,
construct, and performance outcomes differ significantly between an IETM and
an EPSS. While higher-order (i.e., level 5) IETMs provide context filtering,
where the display is driven by conditions that are controlled by variables
and expressions, it still is focused primarily on documenting an equipment
system. In contrast, an EPSS moves beyond the reference-based paradigm to
provide a comprehensive electronic support environment that provides access
to integrated performance-aiding tools, task structuring, decision aiding,
and contextual access to structured knowledge within a job task framework.
Today’s
emphasis on the development of standards to promote efficient IETM
development overlooks several critical aspects of human usability and job
task performance. Studies cite numerous insufficiencies with currently
available IETMs (level 4 and 5), which can be effectively addressed by
evolving IETM design to an EPSS paradigm.
The
International Programs Directorate within the U.S. Navy’s Center for Surface
Combat Systems, located in Dahlgren, Virginia, sponsored the development of a
next-generation EPSS for the Aegis weapons system navigation and interface
system as employed by the Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF). The
EPSS institutionalizes subject matter expert knowledge, leverages the
availability of a synthetic skills trainer through the use of
performance-augmented simulation, supports multiple contexts of use, employs
dynamic hypertext capabilities to enhance textual content, and employs
visualization techniques to support visual and spatial performance styles.
This paper will discuss this evolutionary approach and discuss the benefits
to be derived.
2004 Paper No. 1844
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Application of Human Computer Interaction
(HCI) Theory to Augmented Reality Simulation and Training
Tyler
Waite
Information
in Place, Inc.
Bloomington, IN
Augmented
reality (AR) can be employed in simulation technologies to present data in forms
that range from information on a body-worn computer or head-worn display, to
fully-immersive simulations. This flexibility offers the trainer the ability
to support a wide range of skills training, and allows the support to be
deployed in a variety of settings. However, as a relatively new form of
simulation technology, the majority of the user research has focused on
perception and performance issues, rather than on how AR could best be
employed to support skill acquisition. This paper presents an overview of
ecological interface design, distributed cognition, and activity theory, and
examines how the application of insights derived from these theories could be
applied to developing more robust and effective training applications using
AR technology.
2004 Paper No. 1493
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A Real-Time Hardware-in-the Loop Simulation Environment for Shipboard
Control and Navigation Systems
Troy Nguyen, Lamar
Davidson
Lockheed Martin, ST&S
Orlando, Florida
Rod Holland
Holland Engineering
Consultants
Fort Collins, CO
Advances
in software simulation tools have significantly affected the way in which
complex and highly dynamic systems are designed and analyzed. Software tools
that accommodate real-time and hardware-in-the-loop simulation provide the
capability for designers to examine system architecture and operational
philosophy, in addition to the ability to analyze and predict system
performance prior to actual hardware and software implementation. The discussion in this paper centers on a
simulation environment that utilizes high-fidelity mathematical models and a
human machine interface (HMI) for replicating shipboard systems with special
emphasis on operational performance, situational awareness, and dynamic
human-computer collaboration. The paper reviews the state of the practice in
real-time, hardware-in-the-loop simulation and its application to shipboard
control systems, and also addresses several technical issues including model
fidelity, system interfaces, and HMI features. For design and analysis
purposes, the level of fidelity in the system models is considered in order
to assure the simulation is reasonably useful for examining system
architecture, design features, and system operational performance. For
systems having a large number of input/output signals where it is not
practical to incorporate full hardware-in-the-loop simulation, different computer
network interfaces are considered to facilitate implementation of large-scale
dynamic simulations. The paper also discusses the importance of robust
implementation of human-computer interfaces to provide realistic scenarios in
which the system operators interact with the simulation models as though they
are controlling and monitoring the real systems. A key consideration in HMI
features is the ability to inject faults into the system models mimicking
real-life, human-in-the-loop operations that can be used for operator
training purposes. Core technologies facilitating the development of the
simulation environment include component modeling methodologies, high-speed
network communications, simulation hardware and software architecture, and
graphical user interface tools for prototype development. Finally, an example
is drawn from the area of ship propulsion and navigation systems, including
an illustration of real-time control and monitoring of the ship platform.
2004 Paper No. 1750
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Seeing the Labyrinth: Visualizing a DoD
Training Support System of Systems
Hungria
Berbesi, David A. Dryer
Virginia
Modeling, Analysis and Simulation Center (VMASC),
Old Dominion University
Norfolk VA 23529
There
is a necessity to model the Army Training Support System in order to improve
its businesses practices and the overall decision-making process.
Visualization has been chosen as a primary tool to represent the Training
Support System of systems. The reasons for this approach are based on the
complexity of the system. The TSS is so complex that it challenges the human
capability to comprehend different interrelationships, activity flows and
processes in an integrated way. New tools are needed in order to support the
comprehension of such a complex system. The central idea is that, given the
characteristics of human visual perception, human performance can be improved
by providing displays that allow better use of the efficient processes of
perception and pattern recognition. Additionally, the appropriate design of
such tools will reduce the load of cognitively intensive processes of memory,
integration and inference. Perception and cognition theories are used to
provide a solid foundation in order to develop an effective visualization
tool, which should minimize the perceptual processing load and free the mind
for cognitive processes needed of managers and decision makers. Appropriate
integration of concepts from complex systems, enterprise architecture, and
human factors theories is being done to develop a methodology for building
complex system visualization tools. This emerging methodology is based on the
development of an integrated theoretical framework and the validation of such
a framework by experimental findings.
2004 Paper No. 1749
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The Use of Interactive Map Based Displays
for Teleportation in Virtual Environments
David
L. Jones, Brian Goldiez
Institute
for Simulation and Training
Orlando, FL
As
technology advances, new ways to interact with systems become available to
system designers. One such advancement that is being used in various virtual
environments today is the technique of using “teleportation” to navigate
through environments. Teleportation is defined as the movement from one
location in an environment to a distant location instantaneously. As with
most technological advances, this technique has tremendous potential benefits
(reduced travel time, less chance for navigation error) if used correctly. On
the other hand, like many new techniques and technologies, if used
incorrectly, the drawbacks can be just as great (inaccurate mental map
development, chance of being lost increased).
The
purpose of the following paper is twofold. First, based on the current
literature and experimentation, it lays out guidelines for the design and use
of teleportation systems within virtual environments. Secondly, it introduces
a new interactive map-based teleportation technique which should be useful
when there is a need for accurate mental map development within the virtual
environment. The proposed system should allow for a totally interconnected
environment while not taking away from the spatial learning component which
is essential in most virtual environments.
2004 Paper No. 1878
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What can DARWARS learn from the Game
Industry about Communities?
Nathan Combs
BBN Technologies
Cambridge, MA
Jason Robar
Jason Robar
Consulting
Issaquah, WA
Ethan Mollick
MIT
Cambridge, MA
Social
network analysis is an exciting and promising tool used for community
management with online games. Can this
also be applied to a DARWARS (Training Superiority) online training
community? For example, will these communities be scale-free with
"hub" users who disproportionately influence the training focus?
How will these networks grow? We do not know, yet. But we do know that from
the ongoing experiment of the online game world will come
ideas and insights that will enable us to design and measure a DARWARS
community.
DARWARS
is a DARPA-funded effort to revolutionize training and increase military
readiness by providing online practice combining a robust technical
infrastructure with elements from computer-aided instruction, intelligent
tutoring systems, and multiplayer games. The vision of DARWARS is to bring
together trainees, trainers, subject matter experts across military echelons,
geographic locations, as well as use-cases (training events, single
participant after-hours, etc.) into an active community with different
reinforcing interests: pedagogy, training, entertainment, and content
creation. A challenge of DARWARS is to develop mutually supporting
communities.
To
forward our understanding of community, this paper will examine aspects of
the online game world with which we expect our DARWARS community to share
important properties. This paper will cite a number of illustrating lessons,
related to community. In particular we will examine the content-creation role
of community.
2004 Paper No. 1818
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