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The following papers were submitted for Chief of Naval Material security and Navy policy review.  They were not deemed appropriate for general public release.

Cost Analysis of ASW Tactical Training Ashore and Afloat

Ralph T. Davis, Jr.

Training Situation Analysis (TSA) and Training Program Development for Submarine Ship Control Training

Dr. J.C. Lamb and W.R. Bertsche

A Translative Technique for the Definition of Tactical Decision Training Requirements and Application of Laboratory Research

Thomas D. Mara and Thomas J. Hammell

Sonar Simulation Model for a Coordinated Tactics Trainer

C.J. Kaiser, J. Gibbon, S. Schwartz

COST EFFECTIVENESS OF TRAINING DEVICES

INTRODUCTION TO THE CONFERENCE

Dr. Hanns H. Wolff

Technical Director, Naval Training Device Center and Conference General Chairman

I want to welcome all of you to this Fourth NTDC/Industry Conference.  Our conferences have become an annual gathering point for everyone in Industry and Government who has a vital interest in anything that deals with training devices.  For the discussions we had in previous years have proven the need for a regular get-together to air our problems and to look at them from our different viewpoints.

The theme of this year’s conference is COST EFFECTIVENESS OF TRAINING DEVICES.

It has often been said that cost effectiveness has a different meaning to different people and that it would be necessary for us to precisely define the term, if we make it the main theme of our conference.

However, we felt that we should not limit our speakers to a specific and therefore narrow definition; especially since, I think, the main difference between different definitions rests only in the numerical values of the weighting factors different people assign to the many different parameters that have a controlling influence on the cost effectiveness in the broadest sense.  Moreover, I believe that these weighting factors have to be set individually for each case and cost effectiveness therefore is not a term that can be defined in generality without controversy.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TRAINING DEVICES MAKE DOLLARS AND SENSE

Colonel Robert E. Phelps, USA

Commanding Officer, U.S. Army Participation Group

Naval Training Device Center

Gentlemen, in behalf of the personnel of the U.S. Army Participation Group here at the Naval Training Device Center, I want to add a warm welcome from all of us to all of you.  Together with our Navy colleagues, we are confident that this important conference will prove beneficial to all of us from a professional viewpoint.

It is a pleasure to have the opportunity to address the conference again this year.  I have titled my presentation, “Training Devices Make Dollars and Sense.”  I selected that title for two reasons.  First, it is consistent with the conference theme, “Cost Effectiveness of Training Devices,” and second, it expresses the views of the personnel of the U.S. Army Participation Group regarding the important role of training devices in Army training and the maintenance of operational readiness.  However, the scope of my presentation will be wider than the title implies.

I will talk to you briefly about the U.S. Army Participation Group and how we interface with the Naval Training Device Center and with other Army Commands, discuss our rationale for expanding the use of training devices in the Army, and present our estimate of the Army training device development potential for the next few years.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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COST EFFECTIVENESS AND TRUE REQUIREMENTS

Lt. Col. R. R. Sheahan, USMC

Marine Corps Headquarters

"Services to Cut One Billion Dollars."  This headline was carried in well over 1,000 newspapers across the United States and reflected the cooling off of Government Expenditure within the Armed Forces community.  What it truly depicts is a change in philosophy from the dramatic build-up in Government expenditures over the past six years.  Cost effectiveness to many is a trite expression meaning that the ultimate in management is minimal expenditure per so.  Such could not be further from the truth as I'm sure you all are aware.  The term "cost effectiveness," as we believe it should be used, refers to appropriate expenditure of funds in keeping with the assignment at hand.  It does not infer "cheapness" nor does it allow for "gold plating."  It calls for stainless steel hardware and solid state electronics on one hand and paper mache and plywood on the other–dependent totally upon true requirement achievement.  It is in this area of cost as it applies to training devices and the true requirement for them that I should like to talk today.  Hopefully this approach will give insight to our industrial community and crystallize for the military, on where we are going conceptually within the training device world.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Pages 20-27 intentionally left blank

THE APPLICATION OF AUTOMATIC TEST EQUIPMENT

TO TRAINING DEVICES

W. F. Rhodes

Senior Staff Engineer, Electronics Standards Office

Naval Electronic Systems Command, Department of the Navy

There are many concepts of and definitions pertaining to Automatic Test Equipment.  In order to intelligently discuss the possible application and benefits to be derived by the inclusion of Automatic Test Equipment or Techniques in Training Devices, it is necessary to accept or establish a minimum number of pertinent terms and definitions.  MIL-STD-1309, "Definitions of Terms for Automatic Electronic Test and Checkout," unfortunately did not define the single most important term–automatic test.  Therefore, I am going to define Automatic Test Equipment as "any (automatic) testing device which requires a minimum of human participation."  Within the confines of this definition I am including Built-in-Test (BIT), Built-in-Test Equipment (BITE), Self-Test, and Self-Check.

All automatic test equipment (ATE) and automatic test techniques must perform a minimum of two functions, performance monitoring and fault isolation.  For some reason these functions are frequently misunderstood and confused.  Performance monitoring consists of scanning a selected number of test points to determine if the unit under test is operating within specified limits.  A single failure could result in a number of test points being outside the predetermined limits.  Fault isolation is the act of locating a fault to a specific replaceable unit or major component.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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INTRODUCTORY COMMENTS TO PROCUREMENT SESSION

Commander L. T. Hughes, SC, USN

Director, Procurement Services Office

Naval Training Device Center

Does Contracting influence the cost-effectiveness decision?

Since this is the procurement session of the program, the obvious answer is yes.  The cost-effectiveness analysis results in a decision; but, in and of itself, this decision does not produce cost-effective hardware.

The decision must be implemented by the "Military-Industry Complex" we read so much about.  Rather than think of this complex as a Military-Industry Giant implying something to be avoided, let's think of it as a highly desirable team effort of the Naval Training Device Center and the Training Device Industry.  This group, the NTDC-Training Device Industry Complex, not only contributes to the cost-effectiveness analysis process and participates in the cost-effectiveness decision, but also has the prime responsibility for implementing that decision.

The demonstration of the accuracy of that decision rests with the Center and the selected contractor.  If we here at the Center fail to do our job properly, a good training device decision may end up as poor training device hardware.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE GOVERNMENT/INDUSTRY ROLE IN TRAINING DEVICE DEVELOPMENT–TRANSITION FROM REQUIREMENT TO HARDWARE

R. B. Chapman III

President, AAI Corporation

There are many agencies, companies, and individuals involved in the transition of a training device from requirement to hardware.  The government organization varies widely between services and from project to project within the serves.  The acquisition process is involved and also varies from service to service and from project to project.  Free and open exchange of information between the various participants is essential if we are to achieve the theme of this 4^th NTDC/Industry conference, "Cost Effective Training Devices."  The procurement system is basically inimical to the free exchange of data.  There are many pitfalls to be avoided at every step of the way.  Integrity, trust, and responsible action are required of all of us in this day of a "buyers market" and of the shouts of improper action on the part of the Military-Industrial Complex.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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PROPOSAL REQUIREMENTS, PREPARATION AND EXPENSE–

A GOVERNMENT VIEWPOINT

W. W. Lenox

Procurement Analyst

Procurement Services Office, Naval Training Device Center

All of you, I am certain, are familiar with this highly publicized slogan used by a well-known company:

“Progress is our most important product.”

Now, that slogan may be just fine for one company, but if you are a firm doing business with the United States Government, there is another slogan that is much more appropriate.  It should go as follows:

“The Proposal is our most important product.”

The reason for this statement is the simple fact that the proposal is the actual point of sale for the majority of contractors.  It is the major tool by which the contractor secures the contracts without which he would likely go out of business.  It is the means by which the company establishes its image and reputation, good or bad, among its Government customers.  Since the Government uses the proposal as the primary source of information upon which to base its selection of a contractor, the importance of the proposal cannot be overemphasized.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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PROPOSAL REQUIREMENTS, PREPARATION AND EXPENSE–

AN INDUSTRY VIEWPOINT

Arnold P. Klimke

Operations Manager

Marine Systems Center, Honeywell, Inc.

Before we can enter into any realistic discussion of the cost of proposal preparation and the influence of customer imposed requirements on this cost, we must set the stage or describe the scenario in which the proposal process takes place.

We will hypothesize, then, a training system procurement from NTDC, which may have some relevance to this audience.  Our hypothetical trainer is Device 1Z99, and is a new system to train crews in operation of the Zebra system.  Zebra has just become an operational system, involves sensors and weapons, and the inputs of a number of operators to lead to a decision to fire a weapon.  It will receive wide deployment and thus several training facilities will ultimately receive 1Z99’s.  However, the initial procurement is for development, installation and documentation of the first system only.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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UNSOLICITED PROPOSALS

J. J. Phelan

Deputy General Counsel, Office of the General Counsel

Department of the Navy

On July 11, 1969, the Comptroller General issued ruling in two cases involving "unsolicited Proposals."

In the first case (B-165369 and B-165947), the Defense Communications Agency (DCA)–because of France’s withdrawal from NATO–was interested in relocating its communication facilities which handle messages between Britain and the Continent.  The method it originally intended to use consisted of Troposcatter equipment over the English Channel and Line-Of-Sight Microwave equipment elsewhere.  Start here ^^^^

Lenkurt Electric independently studied the problem, informally briefed the air force on its findings and, finally, submitted an unsolicited proposal based on a complete Line-Of-Sight system.  This proposal included data on the cost savings and technical feasibility of the Cross-Channel Line-Of-Sight link as well as appropriate language restraining its use in developing a work statement for competitive procurement.  Air Force headquarters rejected making a sole source procurement of this total Line-Of-Sight System from Lenkurt and directed that it be procured competitively.  Lenkurt protested.

General Accounting Office’s decision pointed out that Lenkurt’s efforts had been limited to demonstrating the technical and economic feasibility of employing existing techniques for the Cross-Channel link.  The Air force conceded that Lenkurt’s effort had in fact influenced its decision to drop the idea of using the Troposcatter Cross-Channel link, but argued that there was nothing new or novel in the technological aspects of using Line-Of-Sight across the English channel.  They pointed out that before making their decision to go 100% Line-Of-Sight in this System, both Collins Radio and Philco had also submitted Unsolicited Proposals, which included Line-Of-Sight Systems.  Therefore, the air Force concluded, these companies should also be allowed to compete for the procurement.  The Comptroller General concurred in this view, and in denying Lenkurt’s protest concluded that:

“…The consequences which flow from the improper use of data relate back to technical information which constituted the very essence of the procurement . . .(Data relevant to the cost and technical reliability of the LOS approach) cannot be regarded as in the same category as manufacturing or design data.”

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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FIRM FIXED PRICE CONTRACTING FOR DEVELOPMENT-A GOVERNMENT VIEWPOINT

LeRoy J. Haugh

Deputy Director, Procurement OASN (I & L), Department of the Navy

Twenty years ago the accepted method of acquiring a weapon system was to let a cost type contract for Research and Development, then a cost type contract for pilot production and a fixed price type contract for production.  Costs often greatly exceeded the original estimates then as now.  So about ten years ago, Defense attempted to control cost overruns by imposing ceilings on cost contracts and emphasis was place on using fixed price type contracts for the lesser risk programs.  One result was a dramatic reduction in the use of CPFF contract, and an expanded use of FFP contracts for development.  Perhaps the pendulum swung too far.  It does appear now to be swinging back again and more emphasis is being placed on use of cost type contracts.

It was not the intent of DOD in the ASPR rewrite of types of contracts to preclude the use of cost type contracts, or to require fixed price types for R&D.  The change in emphasis was designed to ensure that we don’t automatically equate R&D with cost type contracts.  Its purpose was to make people think.  There may be situations in which R&D work can very well be accomplished under a fixed price type.  The problem has been that too often the statistics took precedence over the facts of a particular procurement.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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FIRM FIXED PRICE CONTRACTING FOR DEVELOPMENT -- AN INDUSTRY VIEWPOINT

Arthur Ahlin

Director of Contracts, Orlando Division

Martin Marietta Corporation

You can all help me illustrate a point by participating in a Gallup-type poll.  Will you please raise your hand if you’ve stopped beating your wife?  There must be lots of sore wives at home!  A simple answer is not always the correct answer and this topic of fixed price contracting for development does not readily lend itself to a simple answer.  That appears to be my task, however, so I will try to resolve this topic into basic and simple issues, which even I can understand.  I’m reminded of President Calvin Coolidge who was noted for his brief and simple observations.  He had just come home from church one Sunday morning and was resting on the porch in his rocking chair.  He wife joined him and asked, “Did you enjoy the sermon, Cal?”

“Yep,” said Cal.

“What was it about, Cal?”

“Sin.”

“What did the preacher say about it, Cal?”

“He’s agin it.”

And that’s really what I’m going to tell you today about fixed price contracting for development.  I’m ‘agin’ it.  The theme of this conference is a most appropriate backdrop–cost effective training devices–and, in my view, should shed considerable light on the problems and limitations of fixed price development contracts.  These limitations can hurt you in your mission.

The key issue, of course, is the term "Development."  What does it mean?  In the context of this conference I think it means this -- "to bring out the possibilities and capabilities, to advance and promote growth."  In our business, development is usually characterized by an objective or specification.  Typically, the project or goal has not been successfully performed before.  This is the key point - the element of uncertainty.  The very nature of development must permit the possibility of failure.  It is just as important to find out what is not, as it is to find out what is.  All this requires risk - high risks for big payoffs or low risks for big payoffs or low risks for no payoffs.  In a word, then, my "Calvin Coolidge," or brief, definition of development is "to remove uncertainty through a risk venture."

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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LETTER CONTRACTS AND CHANGE ORDERS, USE AND ABUSE

Captain D. G. Aitken, Supply Corps, United States Navy

Deputy Commander, Purchasing, Naval Supply Systems Command

The Armed Services Procurement Regulation (ASPR) defines a Letter Contract as a "preliminary contractual instrument which authorizes immediate commencement of manufacture."  Although it is "preliminary," it is a binding contractual document, but lacks some of the essential elements of substance, all of which would be necessary for a fully definitive contract.  These lacking elements are either not available or there has been insufficient time to conclude negotiations and obtain agreement between contractor and Government.  Usually a letter contract defines what we want and contains many of the terms and conditions but generally lacks agreement as to price.  Letter contracts which are expected to be definitized to a fixed price type frequently contain an absolute ceiling price; that is, an agreed price that temporary limits (called a limit of authorization) beyond which the Government is not obligated, pending final price agreement.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A LOOK AT SYSTEMS EFFECTIVENESS MODELING IN TRAINING DEVICES

Paul R. Little

Head, Advanced Systems Engineering Department

Naval Training Device Center

In this article I will be talking of the application of Systems Engineering to development and, in particular, to training systems development.  However, in reading in various technical journals, I suspect my remarks may be more generally applied.  My friends have heard these things before and to some, I hope to spark new ideas.  I equate systems engineering, systems analysis, and management together because in practice they seem so closely related and utilize the same sphere of practices which, when rendered in mathematical form, is called System Modeling.

What I want to do is to discuss briefly a series of situations, which places the systems world against what I believe are some aspects of the real world.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SEMICONDUCTOR LASERS

Albert H. Marshall

Physical Sciences Laboratory, Naval Training Device Center

The Naval Training Device Center is currently conducting in-house research into the applicability of Semiconductor Lasers to training devices.  This paper presents the gallium-arsenide injection laser, methods of pulsing this diode laser, and the collimation of its beam.  Eye safety and methods of receiving or detecting the output will also be covered.

Semiconductor lasers, unlike other lasers, convert electrical energy directly into optical energy.  They are small in physical size, low in cost, simple in construction, and the laser diode output can be easily modulated, by modulating the input current to the diode. (Figure 1.)

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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COMPUTER STORAGE OF TERRAIN BOARD DATA

Dr. Robert C. Sugarman

Research Psychologist, Avionics Department

George E. Richmond

Principal Engineer, Computer Research Department

Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Inc.

An objective of the CAL Off-Road Mobility Research program was to develop analytical and experimental tools for the prediction of the mobility performance of an off-road vehicle system.  This system encompasses the vehicle, driver, and environment.  Specifically, the objective of the Human Factors Task of the program was to develop techniques to analyze driver-vehicle problems related to off-road mobility.  One of the tools under development within the program was a man-in-the-loop-driving simulator with which the driver performance in an existing or postulated vehicle could be examined in the laboratory without resorting to extensive field-testing.

The simulator configuration is shown in figure 1.  It consists of a three-degree-of-freedom motion platform on which the “driver” sits, a television virtual image display system, and a scale model terrain board, and a servo-driven television camera, which generates the television display.  The motion of the platform is determined by the responses of the driver, the vehicle characteristics, and the terrain.  These three components are inputs to the vehicle characteristics, and the terrain.  These three components are inputs to the vehicle dynamics model (developed in another phase of the program) which computes the correct motion input signals for the motion platform and television camera servo-drives.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SOLID-STATE LASER USED AS DIRECT FIRE SIMULATOR

Gabor Schlisser

Holobeam, Inc.

Holobeam, Inc. of Paramus, New Jersey has developed a new generation of Direct Fire Simulators (DFS) for the U.S. Army's Combat Development Command Instrument Support Group of Ft. Ord, California.

The laser based system gives realistic fire simulation for training men in mock battles and for evaluating novel strategy and maneuvers.  The basic idea involves simulating direct weapon fire with a narrow beam of infrared light from a GaAs laser diode.  Troops and vehicles carry detector arrays to receive laser transmitter pulses.  Blank ammunition is used and smoke is generated to signify disabled vehicles.

The key advantage of these simulators is realism combines with safety.  Umpires used by old systems to score simulated battles are not required since the DFS itself scores and signals hits.  The laser beams are low in level and are completely safe to the eye.  Some of the other advantages are listed in Table 1.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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HYBRID SIMULATION OF A SUBMARINE FEATURING A MANEUVERING PHYSICAL MODEL DYNAMIC DISPLAY

G. Rawling and A. J. D'Arcy

Re-entry and Environmental Systems Division

The General Electric Company

The operation of a small submersible constitutes a large-scale system in action.  The number and variety of subsystems and components are many and diverse in nature and in function, with numerous inputs and excitation functions present, some deterministic, others stochastic.  Both man and machine must operate together in various degrees of semi-automaticity, controlling with intermittent and continuous signals traversing interconnected multiple feedback loops containing non-linear elements.

The environment itself is adverse, consisting of pressure, corrosion, and poor visibility and requiring life support.  Undersea currents, with turbulence and time varying flow, together with cross-coupling effects on the vehicle render the motion and attitude of the craft highly non-linear.  Yet it is paramount that all parts of this sophisticated system (including man) contribute to the common goal of a successful underwater mission, be it search, exploration, recovery or oceanographic research.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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INTERFACE DESIGN FOR DIGITALLY CONTROLLED TRAINERS

Wynn Gaylor

Chief of Simulation, Hydrosystems, Inc.

Design of interfaces for Digitally Controlled Trainers will be discussed in the light of experience gained during design and manufacture of several Submarine Control Trainers.  The Interface is defined as that equipment which translates the real world (analog and discrete data at the training station) into digital formats acceptable by a general-purpose computer and vice versa.

The alternatives of synchronous versus asynchronous operation of the interface will be explored and related to appropriate determining criteria.  System input/output requirements such as number of inputs and outputs, updating rates and solution rates are tabulated for determination of a timing comparison between synchronous and asynchronous interfaces.  Programming implications of synchronous versus asynchronous interfaces will be examined, and this will be followed by a description of the hardware and computer requirements for each type of interface.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DIGITAL RADAR LANDMASS SIMULATION

R. B. Greenly, Manager and D. J. Marchegiani, Senior Engineer

Singer-Link Division, Advanced Products Operations

This paper describes a newly developed digital approach to radar simulation.  To be presented are the importance of radar simulation, the advantages to be gained using digital techniques, and the technological accomplishments which have removed the barriers preventing digital radar landmass simulation in the past.  A functional description of the digital technique is presented, along with a description of a typical digital radar simulator configuration.  This functional description emphasizes the effect which real time simulation requirements have on system memory and processing configuration.  Photographs of digitally created radar imagery along with the projected scope of digital radar simulation applications conclude the paper.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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EVALUATING TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS

Dr. Gene S. Micheli

Training Technology Department

Naval Training Device Center

How do we know when a training device is doing the job it was designed to do?  It is only recently that we have begun to evaluate the effectiveness of training devices from the standpoint of transfer of training.

Many people are surprised to learn that while the Navel Training Device Center expends considerable time, money and effort on the analysis of training situations, development of training devices, utilization man7uals, and research on training methods very little systematic effort has taken place on evaluating the effectiveness (or validity) of training systems from the viewpoint of its effect on on-the-job performance in an operational situation.

This state of affairs has been rectified by the Naval Training Device Center with the addition of a new division to the Human Factors laboratory called the Training Effectiveness division.  Its mission consists of the following activities:

1)       Measuring the effectiveness of training systems and recommending improvements.

2)       Conducting field studies to measure the learning that takes place in teams and individuals undergoing training in NAVTRADEVCEN devices.  (Measurements include degree and rate of learning, retention of learning, and the transfer of training (or carry-over) to operational situations.)

3)       Recommending changes in training systems of both design and patterns of use to improve training effectiveness.

4)       Analyzing cost benefits and measuring operational effectiveness as they affect training device design and use.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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PROBLEMS IN SOFTWARE MANAGEMENT

George Kirby

Field Services Division Support Division

Naval Training Device Center

A.      Digital Activated Training Devices.

The general-purpose digital computer is probably the most versatile tool ever devised.  Modern digital computer development started approximately 25 years ago.  Today's computer is a relatively small package of integrated circuit elements with excellent operational reliability.

Until recently, only analog computers could provide the speed necessary for real-time simulations.  The analog computer activated training devices were very effective.  The increase in operation speed and reliability coupled with the reduction in cost have made the general purpose digital computer desirable for use in the present day simulators.  Some of the favorable characteristics of the digital computers include programming and model solution flexibility.  The use of the digital computer in testing the entire training device also offers definite maintenance advantages.

The Naval Training Device Center pioneered digital simulation with the UDOFT (Universal Digital Operational flight Trainer).  The UDOFT was a research digital simulator system developed by Sylvania under contract to the Naval Training Device Center.

Soon after the UDOFT program, commercial digital computers capable of handling real-time simulation became available.  Today, the majority of larger vehicle simulators are activated by commercial digital computers.  Digital computers have enabled more sophisticated training simulators to be developed.  The result has been better-trained personnel for our modern weapon systems.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE IMPACT OF UTILIZATION PATTERNS ON THE

COST EFFECTIVENESS OF TRAINING DEVICES

Dr. Richard Braby

Land/Sea Trainers, Applications Division

Naval Training Device Center

The cost effectiveness of various Navy training device utilization programs appears to be much lower than it could be.  This is the result, in part, of an uneven distribution of design effort between hardware design and application design.  Almost the entire design effort is now being focused on the development and the support of hardware.  Only a very limited amount of effort is being applied to the application problem, that of planning how to use the training device to achieve instructional objectives.

The active inventory of Naval Training Device Center produced devices is approaching a total acquisition cost of 1/2 billion dollars.  However, the real value of this investment to the Navy is a function of how much and how well these devices are being used.  At this point in time, it appears that by increasing the sophistication of application planning, and subsequently the patterns of use, dramatic increases in cost effectiveness can be achieved in many of the Navy’s training device programs.

The purpose of this paper is to describe certain “measures” of trainer utilization styles and “measures” of the cost effectiveness of these various styles or patterns of use.  Also, certain materials and services will be identified that can be provided by Naval Training Device Center and its contractors, to aid the fleet in increasing its sophistication in the use of major training devices.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DESIGNING TRAINING DEVICES FOR THE INSTRUCTOR/OPERATOR

S. Plass and A. J. Whitehurst

Training Simulator Engineering

Hughes Aircraft Company

We selected this topic for discussion because we have seen technological advances creating a forgotten man–the Instructor/Operator.  The prime systems are getting more complex and demanding and the training device designers are meeting the challenge with even more extensive simulation.  We first met this situation during early analysis on the Device 15C8–the PHOENIX Missile Control Officer Trainer.  It soon became apparent that (unless we took drastic steps) after a training session, the trainee would be calm and relaxed and it would be the instructor who would be collapsed in a quivering heap!

In this paper, we intend to discuss this problem briefly, covering those factors that create the situation–the generalized instructor/operator tasks and the complexity of the weapon–using as an example a state-of-the-art weapon system.  We will then describe the specific aids, which were provided in this trainer, concluding with some additional steps that could be taken.  We hope to focus attention on typical computer hardware and software implementations, display techniques, and human engineering principles that can be used to unburden, and make more effective, all instructor/operators.  In this paper, we have taken some account of the fact that there are “part tasks”, for the “instructor/operator” is sometimes instructor, sometimes training device operator.  Indeed, in complex situations, two or more men may cover these tasks, while at other times one man both instructs and operates.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTIVE TIME CONSTANT WITH OTHER METHODS OF VARYING TASK DIFFICULTY IN ADAPTIVE TRAINING

Dr. W. G. Matheny and D. A. Norman

Life Sciences, Inc.

In general, adaptive training can be thought of as the adjustment of training task difficulty in accordance with the measured level of trainee skill with the goal of bringing his skill to some specified level.  The individual trainee progresses efficiently at his own rate to the criterion level of performance.  Conceptually, and from the results of empirical investigations to date, the adaptive training technique holds promise of being a significant advance in training technology.  This report summarizes the progress to date of an experiment designed to compare the training and transfer of training effects of different adaptive variables in the adaptive training context.  It also compares the adaptive technique to a more conventional training method.

In the practical application of the adaptive training techniques a number of decisions must be made.  One of these decisions is that of the choice of the parameter in the training system to be adjusted in order to increase or decrease task difficulty.  This parameter has been termed the adaptive variable.

In the very real sense almost any learning situation is adaptive.  Usually, the learner or his instructor has some goal in mind, which is more or less well defined.  The learner moves through the learning process toward the goal in steps graded as to difficulty either by the instructor or set by the curriculum.  His advancement from one step to another is predicated, however grossly, on his accomplishment during the preceding step.

Normally, in those adaptive situations in which the levels of difficulty are set in steps and determined by the curriculum, there is resistance to relaxing the task and making it easier or doubling back so to speak.  Rather the learner may simple stay with the given level of difficulty, spending time upon it until he has mastered it, before moving on to the next step.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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AUTOMATED WEAPON SYSTEM TRAINER STUDY

Dr. J. N. Leonard

LOGICON, Inc.

For the past eight months LOGICON, Inc., has been studying Automated Weapon System Trainer (AWST) concepts for NTDC to determine the extent instructor functions can be automated, and to define regimes in which automatic adaptive training can be utilized.  The WSTs selected for study were those WSTs used to train crewmembers in the F4 supersonic fighter.  In the course of the study the AWT team members visited several military installations, reviewed numerous documents on training techniques, and studied the F4 Weapons System Training Program with particular emphasis on the F4 WSTs' utilization in crew training and their operational problems.

Three military installations were visited: NAS, Miramar; MCAS, El Toro; and George Air force Base.  At all three of these installations a high fidelity F4 simulator is used as part of the F4 crew training program.  The simulators at Miramar and El Toro are analogue simulators; those at George are all-digital LINK simulators.  Most of the users of the analogue simulators complained of poor reliability and lack of maintainability.  There were many complaints of lack of realism.  For these reasons, these simulators were primarily being used as procedures and cockpit orientation trainers rather than for flight characteristics or instrument training.  On the other hand, at George Air Force Base the instructor’s all-digital system was considered to be reliable and accurate in its simulation of F4 flight and instrument behavior.  In spite of its high reliability and high fidelity of simulation this simulator also was used primarily as a procedures trainer.  As a consequence of this limited role in training, cockpit motion at all three facilities were viewed as a non-essential part of the simulation.  In fact, at El Toro the motion platform was permanently disconnected.  At each facility, the trainees commonly believed that the simulator part of their training was somewhat of an imposition, which made their already demanding training program more difficult.  They believed that it did not contribute a great deal of training benefit to the program.

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INSTINCTIVE FIRING­–AN INTERIM REPORT

Harold A. Voss

Human Factors Laboratory, Naval Training Device Center

At the Infantry School, St. Maixent, Thomson and Houff were impressed with the "instinctive" firing instruction which they describe as follows: "in training for firing both pistol and submachine gun, the French place considerable emphasis on firing without the use of the sights of the weapon.  Concerned about firing quickly, particularly at night, considerable instruction is given on snap shooting 'from the hip.'  To aid in this training the school has equipped pistols, rifles, and submachine guns with a miniature spotlight clamped to the muzzle.  The light beam switched by a trigger attachment indicates to both student and instructor where the shot or burst impacts.  These are, of course, useful for short ranges only."(1)

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VISUAL MEASUREMENTS AND OPTICAL PERFORMANCE CRITERIA

Dr. G. R. Rosendahl

Physical Sciences Laboratory

Naval Training Device Center

This topic calls for a discussion of the correlation between matters of physics, as they have to be used for technical hardware and the functioning of the difficult-to-define subject, or object, the human being.  We are with this problem at the heart of the task of engineering.  Because, whatever we do, even if it is nothing more but sending a fully automated surveyor to Mars, it will finally have to serve human needs.  The results will, therefore, have to be in such a form that they can be noticed by human senses, interpreted by the human mind and integrated into his scheme of thinking.  Careful considerations of the physiology and psychology of a human being are even more important, if Homo Sapiens are an integral part of a complex technical system such as a training device with an optical display for simulating the visual environment of the trainee.

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PERFORMANCE CRITERIA FOR TELEVISION GENERATED VISUAL DISPLAYS

J. C. McKechnie

Visual Simulation Laboratory, Naval Training Device Center

INTRODUCTION

This report describes a method to measure and compare throughout a television media, the characteristics of spatial scenes.  The characteristics are quantified when these methods are used and the measurements are objective.

PAST EVALUATION TECHNIQUES

Assessment of scenes is a prerogative reserved in its final analysis by the observer.  As TV transmitted scenes became practical, the measurement of display effectiveness of TV transmitted scenes, began with visual observation.  As display dynamic ranges increased in resolution, gray scale, and color, both test patterns and electronic signal generators were used.  These display measurements were still related to the human observer, and with different observers, different levels of acceptance are obtained.  EIA (Electronic Industries Association) provides charts that can somewhat objectively measure television display characteristics for the average viewer.  The SMPTE (society for Motion Pictures and Television Engineers) through their standards committee have established industrially accepted TV display standards for commercial applications.  Visual simulation requirements for training devices, however, can be more stringent.  Therefore, other techniques are being developed to objectively measure TV display characteristics (Ref. 1).

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ANNULAR PANORAMIC PROJECTION

W. Dykes

Physical Sciences Laboratory, Naval Training Device Center

A simple and unique optical technique that yields a projected 360-degree perspective is under development in the Naval Training Device Center's Physical Sciences Laboratory.  This "Annual Panoramic Projection Technique" permits the presentation of panoramic scenes as either stills, movies or possibly as a TV projected picture.

The system utilizes a basic optical idea known as “the reversing principle of light” which I will describe in the following figures.  The 360-degree horizontal field, from all around the horizon, is reflected from the bottom of a hemispherical mirror, down through the camera lens and only a film transparency.  The resulting picture, which appears similar to figure 2, always has the camera lens at the center of the photograph, and a distorted horizon in a doughnut shape around it.

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IMPACT SCORING RADAR

H. A. Corriher, Jr. and Dr. R. C. Johnson

Electronics Division, Georgia Institute of Technology

Training operations that involve live firing of guns or rockets, dropping of bombs or mines, etc., are costly.  The trainee will obtain maximum benefit from the exercise if results are available immediately so that he can correct his mistakes while they are fresh in his mind.  Special-purpose radar offer the possibility of instrumenting gunnery and bombing ranges so that impact positions are located quickly with reasonable accuracy; the accuracy can be improved later, if desired, by additional data processing.  The radar and associated instrumentation could have a large data-handling capability so that range utilization would be high.  Another important use of such radar could be in development and testing of ordnance.

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FLUIDIC TECHNOLOGY

AND SOME APPLICATIONS TO THE TRAINING SITUATION

Dr. W. J. Westerman, Senior Group Engineer

Control Mechanisms Laboratory

M. Rountree and G. I. Kellman

McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Company, Ti-Co Plant

This paper presents a comprehensive introduction to fluidic technology state-of-the-art including some advanced concepts being investigated for future applications.  The technology is then related to training devices and industrial applications.

A cataloging and discussion of each basic type of flueric device, such as the digital and analog beam deflection element, vortex amplifier, turbulence switch, impact modulator, etc., is furnished for a thorough understanding of the available building blocks and the relative merits of each type.  In several cases, the electronic analog is drawn for comparison.  Considerable engineering information is given on each type of device for the purpose of providing potential users with a realistic idea of the design considerations.  Characteristics of the various devices are given with a discussion of the methods used for constructing more complex systems.  The objective is to present those component data, which are required for system design and to create a familiarity with the manipulation of that information.  A critique of present vendor practice in this area is given since necessary and sufficient design data are never furnished and quite often are not even available.

One section of the paper is devoted to the discussion of using fluidics for storing and/or displaying information, both in the active and passive mode.  Examples are used to show how this technique in conjunction with supporting fluidic logic can be used to monitor or position simulator servo components, plus doing vision measurement and simulation.  Some computation techniques using fluidics are presented to illustrate the degree of sophistication, which is being achieved.  Examples presented include integrators and the method of adjusting reset rates, differentiators, square root extractors, summing, subtraction, multiplication by constants, etc.  After establishing the above capabilities of fluidic components and systems, additional discussion is offered pertaining to mechanization of systems for testing human performances both with and without feedback.  Examples using visual and audio stimulates are used to represent what can be achieved.  Automatic checkout of performances and conditions mechanized with fluidic circuits including sequencing is furnished to show feasibility in this area.

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THE NECESSITY OF PERFORMING PROPER TRAINING SITUATION ANALYSIS BY ENGINEERING PERSONNEL

Morris G. Middleton

Head, ASW Tactics Trainers Division

Naval Training Device Center

Weapon systems today are more costly and complex than any weapon system developed throughout history.  The simulation of these weapon systems involves the expenditure of millions of dollars because of the complexity of design and development.  A new training device cannot be created in a vacuum if it is to be cost effective and still meet the needs of the customer.  It is imperative that, prior to the contracting cycle the NAVTRADEVCEN (Naval Training Device Center) perform a TSA (Training Situation Analysis).

The TSA represents a procedure for determining the need for training equipment in some identified training situation and, if such equipment is indicated for developing the training equipment requirements, and the translation of those requirements into functional characteristics of training hardware.

The history of the TSA at NAVTRADEVCEN goes back into the late 1950’s when the process was established for a logical sequence of events that should be accomplished prior to the procurement of a training device.  During the first five years, the TSA was never firmly defined or implemented.  However, in 1963 a contract was awarded to Dunlap and Associates Inc. to develop a technique known as TAP (Training analysis Procedure).  The TAP evolved from the TSA and included the TSA as a part of the final report.  After the Dunlap study was completed a NAVTRADEVCEN Instruction was issued which established the members and procedures of the TSA.  The TSA team is composed of personnel from the Requirements Department, Human Factors Laboratory, Training Application Division, and the engineering Department.  Each member of this team plays a vital role in the success, or failure of a project, and is responsible for executing the analysis and preparing the TSA report.  The contracts that have been awarded to date, by NAVTRADEVCEN, concerning the approaches that should be taken when performing a TSA, have been almost entirely directed toward the Human engineering aspect.

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APPLICATION OF HOLOGRAPHY IN TRAINING DEVICES

Windell N. Mohon

Physical Sciences Laboratory, Naval Training Device Center

Since its renaissance period of 1962-1964, holography has expanded quite rapidly and revealed many of its potentialities.  Hundreds of papers have been written which describe its applications and theory of operation.  However, one of our specific interests is in applying holograms to training devices that require visual simulation.

A hologram is a photographic recording of a wavefront of radiation from an object.  One forms a hologram by recording on a photographic plate the interference pattern produced by coherent beams of light–one a reflected object beam, and the other a reference beam (figure 1).

The photographic plate is then developed in a standard fashion.  To view the hologram, the photographic plate is illuminated with a monochromatic source of light, which has the same angle of incidence that the original reference beam had (figure 2).

An observer, when viewing through the hologram as if it were a window, sees a three-dimensional image with all the same visual features as the original object.  The image which, is viewed can be either real or virtual.  The virtual image appears behind the hologram and the real image appears in front of the hologram.

At the present time, it is foreseen that holograms may be employed as visual aids in the areas of simulators and classroom instruction.  Their usefulness in both these areas is made possible by their unique properties.  The following discussion will include some of these properties and a few applications.

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ARTICULATED WIDE-ANGLE OPTICAL PROBE FOR USE IN CONJUNCTION WITH VISUAL SYSTEMS FOR SIMULATION

Roland P. Heinrichs

Director of Engineering, Dalto Electronics Corporation

Many papers have already been written which recognize or emphasize the important of simulation.  Papers have been written dealing with the value of simulation systems in evaluating engineering concepts; even more articles present the increasing utilization of simulation equipment for training purposes in lieu of using the actual, and in many cases revenue-producing, equipment.

The trend in simulation of providing the observer of trainee with realistic visual cues, which he can evaluate, judge, and initiate action upon, has led to the presentation of many a discourse describing optical systems and their fundamental limitations especially when the view is generated from a model whose scale is significantly reduced as compared to the real-life object.

This paper, therefore, will not devote itself to a reiteration of these known, significant, basic optical parameters which prevent us from achieving with any visual system a performance level compatible with that of the human eye and brain.

Nevertheless, by recognizing the understanding these basic limitations, compromises can be made which make it possible to produce a useful visual system for simulation.

DALTO is one of the companies engaged in developing and producing useful visual systems.

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A GENERAL PURPOSE UNDERWATER NAVIGATION

AND RECONNAISSANCE TRAINER

H. Berke

Physical Sciences Laboratory, Naval Training Device Center

The legendary descent of Alexander the Great in a "glass barrel" in 323 BC to "see what there was and to defy the whale", establishes him as a contender for the earliest use of a submersible for scientific purposes.  His report; which stated that he saw a fish so large that it took three days to swim past, gives more justification for classifying him as a forerunner of today's fisherman.  Since the time of Alexander, submerged vehicles and divers have been used occasionally for commercial purposes, but principally they are used for military and scientific purposes.

In the past few years the scientific community has come to realize that the primary means of studying the oceans in detail is by entering the ocean depths.  With few exceptions, deep exploration for serious scientific purposes awaited the development of the bathyscaph and the dives of men such as the Cousteaus and the Piccards.  The United States Navy entered this new field in 1957 by chartering Piccard’s TRIESTE I, and purchasing it in 1958.  It was then assigned to the Navy Electronic Laboratory in San Diego, and became the first submersible owned by the United States for deep research.  The first systematic design of a United States research submersible was developed in 1958.  The concept and analysis of a deep-diving oceanographic research submersible for research was constructed.  Much of the recent technical progress can be attributed to the Navy’s Deep submergence system Review report which was an outgrowth of the difficulty of finding and examining the sunken submarine THRESHER, first located by the USNA MIZAR (T-AGOR-11 in June, 1963).

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