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INTRODUCTION TO THE CONFERENCE

Dr. Hanns H. Wolff

Technical Director, Naval Training Device Center and Conference General Chairman

As we open our Seventh NAVTRAEQUIPCEN/Industry Conference with the slogan “Training Economy Through Simulation,” don’t let us forget the trueness of last year’s slogan, “Man–The Focus of the Training System;” for a training system or program can only be economical if it focuses on the man, if it provides the required transfer of training.

The acceptance of training in a simulated operational environment in lieu of training with operational equipment in the operational environment has made considerable progress during the last year.  Though the continually rising cost of operating weapons systems and platforms and the energy shortage contributed heavily to this change in attitude, the effort of many of those who for a long time were already convinced of the effectiveness and the economy of training in simulators and in a simulated operational environment led to a large extent to last year’s progress.

The high cost of training with operational equipment is, as many of you know, not only due to the high acquisition cost of the operational equipment and its attendant operating costs, but, in general, even more due to the very high maintenance costs, especially those for major military combat and surveillance platforms such as aircraft, ships, and tanks.

INCREMENTAL TRANSFER AND COST EFFECTIVENESS OF FLIGHT TRAINING SIMULATORS

Stanley N. Roscoe

It’s only a paper moon

Hanging over a cardboard sea,

But it wouldn’t be make believe

If you’d believe in me.

Flight simulation is, by design, just as phony as it can be.  The art of psychological deception is dedicated to the proposition that all simulated effects can be made to appear equal to their real-world counterparts; even a paper moon can become a believable background for a simulated lunar landing.  Nevertheless, despite the evident safety and economy of simulation and its flexibility and repeatability of experimental control, the physical representation of complex perceptual cues is based upon a foundation of psychophysical quicksand.  In practice, the widespread use of simulation, both in pilot training and testing and in equipment design research, depends more upon the apparent realism of the illusions created than upon any experimental demonstration of the equivalence of training or the order of merit of the equipment items being compared.

Nevertheless, three converging factors place a high premium on full exploitation of synthetic flight training: the energy crisis, which discourages the unnecessary use of aircraft; the commitment of the Defense Department to channel all possible aircraft procurement funds into operational equipment; and the world peace crisis, which requires the standby ability to train many new aviators quickly.  Anyone of these factors would be sufficient to justify acceleration of the application of TRAINING ECONOMY THROUGH SIMULATION, the subject of this conference.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 

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THE USE OF SIMULATION IN THE TRAINING

OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT OPERATORS

T. E. C. Hughes and J. T. O’Halloran

The Singer Company

Simulation Products Division

Training nuclear power plant operators has always been a problem—it absorbs the time of skilled men, requires operational equipment, and is often difficult and potentially dangerous.  Because of the major expansion of nuclear generating capacity anticipated during the next ten years, there will be increased requirements for competent staff.  Approximately 15,500 additional nuclear oriented plant and headquarters staff personnel will be required by utilities in the U.S. by 1982.  Of the utilities expected to have nuclear power plants in operation by 1982, two-thirds of these will have had no actual operating experience with nuclear power plants (WASH-1130).  Utility managers must make certain that they receive full value for every dollar expended in training.  They have the responsibility for the safe and efficient operation of the plant, for gaining and maintaining public trust and confidence, and for the avoidance of costly power interruptions.  A cost effective training system for plant personnel will ensure efficient operation and increase return on investment.

The use of simulators for training power plant operators is becoming more widespread.  Operational simulators have been used in various industries and throughout the military for a number of years in the training of operators of complex equipment, including both normal and emergency operating procedures and skills.  The most widely known application of simulators has been in the training and examination of aircraft pilots.  Simulators have also been used for training astronauts and for training control room operators for large power plants.  These cases require trained personnel prior to the operation of actual equipment.  Once a nuclear power plant is operational there is little opportunity for using it for training.  Since practice of all but routine procedures will adversely affect plant reliability, plant economy, and public and personnel safety, use of the plant for training purposes is not a cost effective or safe means of solving the training problem.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

SYMBOLIC SIMULATORS

REALISM AND ECONOMY IN SKILL TRAINING

A. Lee Sterzer

Data-Design Laboratories

For optimum training effectiveness and economy, symbolic simulators should be considered as an important element in any skill-training program.  Symbolic simulators are paper materials or multi-media programs that symbolically represent operational hardware and its functions.  The purpose of this device is to simulate the data environment of the operational hardware so the trainee can practice the mental aspects of operational and maintenance tasks.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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COMPUTER SIMULATION FOR A COMMAND AND CONTROL TRAINING SYSTEM

Alan J. Pesch

President, Eclectech Associates, Inc.

Dr. Thomas J. Hammell

Associate, Eclectech Associates, Inc.

William P. Lane

Acquisition Director, Naval Training Equipment Center

The Navy is currently utilizing a greater number of tactical command and control systems comprised largely of digital computers and digitally driven CRT displays.  Examples in the area of Submarine Fire Control Systems include MK 113 Mods 9, 10, the MK 117, and the Commanding Officer’s Tactical Display (COTD), and the Standard Information Display (SID).  The training on these and other similar command and control systems has developed along the somewhat limited lines of each hardware system.  Thus, a need for optimizing the employment of these systems exists.

The most frequent assumption with regard to training equipment has been to suggest duplicating the original MIL Spec hardware.  A number of reasons offered in support of this approach are included below.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A GUIDE FOR THE APPLICATION OF PERFORMANCE STRUCTURE-ORIENTED CAI IN MILITARY JOBS

Dr. Joseph W. Rigney

Behavioral Technology Laboratories

University of Southern California at Los Angeles

and

Dr. Arthur S. Blaiwes

Research Psychologist, Human Factors Laboratory, Naval Training Equipment Center

The University of Southern California and the Naval Training Equipment Center, under ARPA funding, are cooperating in an effort to develop a system which will serve to facilitate the production of appropriate Computer-Aided Instruction (CAI) for the Navy.  This system, basically taking the form of a model or theory of CAI, is in part derived from and evaluated by empirical studies as described in other Naval Training Equipment Center technical reports by the present authors (Rigney, et al., 1973; Rigney, et. al., in preparation).  Because this empirical aspect of the research exhausts major portions of the resources available for the project, explication of the system contained herein is in its earliest stages.  It is published here mainly for heuristic reasons and is not intended to be used as a refined set of guidelines for developing CAI materials.

Even in this initial form, however, the system can suggest to course authors various components of CAI and gross steps associated with the development of these components that need to be considered in the process of course construction.  Further development of the system will consist of endeavors to expand upon current capabilities by offering:  (a) specific instructional approaches for the components forming the structure of CAI; (b) computer programs, capable of implementing the suggested instructional approaches, which are general enough to apply in a range of subject matter areas, and (c) computer capabilities for generating some portions of the CAI specifications for a given application.  Thus, CAI program developers will be able to use the system as an aid to deciding upon instructional approaches appropriate for their particular teaching objectives.  Further, they even will be able to obtain computer programs, which essentially are ready for application I their training program.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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CORRELATED DISPLAYS FOR TRAINING–ONE STEP CLOSER TO THE REAL WORLD

Dr. W. Marvin Bunker

Consulting Engineer, Advanced Technologies Engineering

General Electric Company

Techniques for generation of images and displays by digital computation have advanced at a rapid pace over the past several years.  Systems are currently in use in which visual scene simulation with computer generated images (CGI) is applied to pilot training and in which digital radar landmass simulation (DRLMS) is applied to navigator training.  Developments in both these areas have been reported in previous years at the NTEC and INDUSTRY Conference.

Effort is currently under way to apply similar technology to the simulation of displays from forward-looking infrared (FLIR) sensor systems and from low light level television (LLLTV) systems.

The human information processing in operational situations may be described as follows.  The observer obtains information from available displays, viewing of the scene, and any applicable instruments.  By a mental correlation process using these inputs and a priori knowledge of his location and the world, he forms an image of the actual environment represented by these inputs.  He then takes action based on this image.

Existing systems provide to the trainee only a portion of the inputs available to him on an actual mission and, to this extent, fail to provide a realistic training situation.  Requirements for correlated simulation of displays from various sources must be determined and met.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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PROJECT 1183–

AN EVALUATION OF DIGITAL RADAR LANDMASS SIMULATION

Part I–THE REQUIREMENT

Thomas W. Hoog, Program Engineer

USAF Aeronautical Systems Division (AFSC)

Part II–THE DRLMS

Roger C. Dahlberg, Systems Engineer

Singer Simulation Products Division

Part III–THE DATA BASE

Rogers R. Robinson, Physical Scientist

Defense Mapping Agency Aerospace Center (DMAAC)

Part I–The Requirement: In order to provide a capability to satisfy the problems of existing light optical and new Digital Radar Landmass Simulator Systems, USAF Project 1183 was initiated.  The purpose of Project 1183 is to evaluate the improved training effectiveness which is possible using a truly high-resolution digital radar landmass simulation system.  Concurrently, the Defense Mapping Agency (DMA) is developing a new digital database to be used by the simulator.  The Project 1183 data base will cover a limited area, 57,000 square nautical miles, with features encoded at various levels of resolution depending on their relative importance.  The data base is structured so that it is capable of supporting all future radar landmass simulations.  Features (individual buildings, groups of buildings, etc. in place of general city outlines) included in the DMA database are described by their materials type, percent roof cover, percent foliage, height, location, orientation, size, etc.  At the conclusion of Project 1183 the fidelity of simulation required to train radar operators will be known as well as the cost to produce the simulation.   Similarly, the cost and resources required to produce a database at specified resolutions will be known.  This data will be used in responding to future needs of Using Commands.

Part II–The DRLMS: With the evaluation phase being a central focus of Project 1183, the hardware/software system must fulfill project goals by providing a flexible means of synthesizing very high-resolution real-time radar imagery.  To achieve this, the DRLMS system is designed around characteristics of the AN/APQ-113 and AN/APQ-110 radar sets, in addition to requirements which extend the capability to experimental purposes. 

Part III–The Data Base: As a result of the specific USAF requirement statement and the availability of resources, one of two procedures can be followed to produce a DDB (see Figure 6).  If photographic imagery is used as the basic source material, terrain (elevation) information is collected by an analytical stereoplotter, i.e., the AS-11 (see lower insert of Figure 6).

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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LASER HELICOPTER DOOR GUNNER TRAINER

Denis R. Breglia, Research Physicist

and

Alfred H. Rodemann, Research Physicist

Physical Sciences Laboratory, Naval Training Equipment Center

A Marine Corps Helicopter is on a medical evacuation mission in hostile territory.  The door gunner continually scans the passing terrain.  He watches roads, buildings, tree lines, streambeds and ridges.  His job is purely defensive.  He is watching for enemy fire and alert to take action.

Suddenly, he sees muzzle flashes from a riverbank.  He immediately tells the pilot and starts to fire.  He drops a red smoke grenade to indicate he is being fired upon.  He watches his tracers and ground effect and steers his fire into the target.  He must continually correct his fire as the pilot takes evasive action.

These are the duties of the door gunner.   He must observe, acquire targets, lay down suppressive fire and correct his fire.

These are the skills that must be taught to the door gunner.  These are the objectives of the Laser Helicopter Door Gunner Trainer.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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AUTOMATED PERFORMANCE MEASURING

Joseph L. Dickman

Manager, Training and Support

Simulation Engineering Corporation

A number of years ago the concept of multiple cockpits serviced by a single computer, now a common practice in simulator installations, was a radical innovation; a similarly radical idea–multiple cockpits monitored by a single instructor, or no instructor at all–may be equally commonplace in the future.  What will make this possible is Automated Performance Measuring–the use of the computer to evaluate a student’s performance and provide a printout to report on his proficiency, or lack of it.

In flight training, students are motivated to solo as soon as possible so they can fly without their instructor, who can then devote his time to other students.  In the simulator, however, there is no such objective.  Solo training in simulators is rare, and the reason undoubtedly lies in the lack of automated monitoring and evaluation of what the student is doing.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DIGITAL AUDIO SIMULATION DEVELOPMENT FOR SONAR TRAINERS

G. A. Mann

Principal Development Engineer

Marine Systems Division California Center of Honeywell, Inc.

The application of digital simulation techniques for audio simulation in sonar training devices has overcome many limitations of analog simulation.  It has succeeded in providing higher fidelity, better recognition of sounds, greater reliability, and smaller size and, in many cases, lower costs.

The use of a general-purpose digital computer with a digital audio simulator in training systems is an example of the application of advancing technology producing superior performance with a reduction in complexity and cost.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SYSTEM MODEL FOR LIFE CYCLE COSTING

G. Vincent Amico and James Isham

Naval Training Equipment Center

The policy on Life Cycle Costing within the Navy is set forth in SECNAVINST 4000.31 of 7 December 1970 (1).  This policy requires that the techniques discussed in DOD Guide on Life Cycle Costing Procurements (2) be applied to as much procurement as feasible.  This policy is further implemented by NAVMAT Note 4000 of 10 March 1971 (3), which applies the technique to less than complete weapon system acquisition.  In paragraph 2 of this Note it is stated, “Life Cycle Costing is a technique of minimizing life cycle costs by considering the cost of as many logistics elements as possible during the acquisition process.”  The policy addressed by these instructions primarily deals with the trade-off that can be made to minimize the cost of a system to the Navy during the acquisition process.  The policy, because of the recognized difficulty in its implementation, is limited to less than complete systems.

The acquisition process for weapon systems and related or supporting systems is complex and lengthy.  It would be desirable to include consideration for the total cost of ownership as a decision factor in the concept formulation phase of system development.  In order to do this it is essential that the effect of various decisions be understood when Life Cycle Costing influencing factors, such as reliability, maintainability, parts support, test equipment, documentation, and other related factors, are being established.  This paper sets forth a systems approach to the development of a Cost of Ownership Model (COM) that would provide the quantitative basis for the trade-off decisions that must be made early in the development process.

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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VISUAL SIMULATION AND LIFE CYCLE COSTING

David A. Shumway

Simulators and Human Factors Division

Aeronautical Systems Division, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

We are all by now familiar with the background of the recent emphasis in flight simulation.  A combination of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) imposed flying hour reduction goals of July 1973.  General Accounting Office conclusions of August 1973, various ad hoc panels, and (in the case of the Air Force) the genesis of a Master Plan for simulation, all contain elements of the rationale.  Superimposed on this major emphasis is the largely unrelated evolution of the very technology, which has the potential of making the flight hours substitution possible: the development of visual simulation.  Indeed, primarily as a response to high level emphasis the Air Force Operational Commands have submitted 15 required operational capabilities (ROCs) in the simulator area since the issuance of the OMB cost reduction goals.  Through most of these ROCs, it is obvious that  (a) the using commands are willing to accept these goals only with the availability of greater capability in simulation; and (b) that visual simulation is the key to extend the use of simulators in mission segments previously reserved for the aircraft in training.

Now we have two things happening at this point.  Increased emphasis on simulation in all sectors: planning, manpower, organization; the industry is keyed up; people at high levels have of necessity become knowledgeable in simulation who perhaps had little idea of its potential up until this time.  We also have the simultaneous expansion of the technology, which is a paper in itself.

The purpose of this paper is not to give a history, but to point out considerations which should be made in the application of visual systems and to suggest a few things which might be done to assure that the potential training economy through visual simulation is best achieved.

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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RATIONALE FOR THE AVIATION WIDE-ANGLE VISUAL SYSTEM

Moses Aronson

Head, Electronics and Acoustics Laboratory

Naval Training Equipment Center

Non-programmed wide-angle visual simulation has been a requirement for the training of pilots since about 1943.  So started out a review of visual simulation by the author in 1963.  This is not an updated survey of visual simulation but a description of a different approach to the research in wide-angle visual simulation.  As pointed out previously, developing various techniques for visual simulation just for the purpose of innovation does not answer the begging question, is the new technique giving better pilot training?  The various visual simulation techniques should be evaluated in a breadboard training system to obtain a measure of training effectiveness before the technique is declared obsolete or is incorporated untested into a training device and sent into the fleet.  A few examples of past attempts to evaluate complete experimental wide-angle visual systems at a training site show the fallacy of this approach.  In 1954, a wide-angle television system for carrier landing practice being built as a research tool was designated a training device and was subjectively evaluated at the contractor’s plant prior to a planned training site installation by a few project officers.  It was determined to be unsatisfactory as a result of one demonstration.  A few years later, a point light source visual display system called the Helicopter flight Trainer, Device 2-FH-2, built as a research tool, was installed as NAS Ellyson Field as a remedial trainer.  After some time of operation, completely unpredicted results were obtained and use was discontinued.  Device 2H87, Aircraft Carrier Landing Trainer, was another example of an untried wide-angle visual simulation approach which was installed in the field with the intent of obtaining an evaluation prior to its incorporation into the training program.  This device was installed at NAS Pensacola.  After one year of trying to correct various deficiencies in flying characteristics, visual resolution, and field of view, the device was disassembled before any training evaluation could be carried out.  A very recent example of the Computer Generated Image TV Visual System attached to the Device 2F90, TA-4J OFT, at Kingsville, Texas.  This visual system has been in the field about two years with “teething problems”.  During this time, some engineering measurements of the visual system dynamics were performed.  The training effectiveness evaluation is scheduled to be completed in April 1975.  These examples tell of the difficulties in introducing a wide-angle visual simulation system installed in the field, far from the engineers, research personnel and psychologists who guided its development.

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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HELICOPTER ROTOR SIMULATION USING THE DIRECTED VECTOR APPROACH (DVA) MATH MODEL

Wilbur H. Day

Senior Staff Engineer

Simulation Products Division, The Singer Company

This paper describes the development of the Directed Vector Approach (DVA), a unique method of simulating rotor aerodynamic forces and moments, which has been successfully implemented on the U.S. Army Device 2B24 and is being applied to the current Device 2B31, Device 2B33 and other Commercial Helicopter Training School programs.

Using a minimum of mathematics, this paper explains what the DVA is, how it is implemented, and why it is advantageous for real-time simulation.  Diagrams are used to illustrate the essential features of the techniques.

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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AIR-TO-AIR WEAPON FIRE SIMULATION USING LASERS

Albert H. Marshall

Research Physicist, Physical Sciences Laboratory

Naval Training Equipment Center

This report describes a semiconductor laser system, as part of a cooperative scoring system, which can be easily installed on a trainer aircraft.  When used with towed retroreflective targets or optical corner reflectors mounted on a target aircraft, it will provide gunnery training without the need for an operational weapon and ammunition.

In this approach, gunnery can be accomplished over inhabited land areas.  Elimination of the gun pods on trainer aircraft will increase the fuel economy and will result in savings of aircraft fuel.  Less ordnance personnel will be required because the system uses no ammunition or guns.  It is expected that training without live rounds will greatly save in the cost of ammunition.  In this system, an endless amount of laser rounds or pulses are available.  Due to the simplicity of the laser air-to-air gunnery trainer design and the use of reliable solid state components, the cost of maintaining the trainer is expected to be considerable less than the cost of maintaining the operational weapon for training.

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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OPTIMIZATION OF TRAINING FOR MARGINAL PERSONNEL

Dorothy V. Mew

Psychologist

Training Analysis and Evaluation Group

The Training Analysis and Evaluation Group was tasked by the Chief of Naval Education and Training to study the implications for the Navy training system and its management resulting from an All-Volunteer Force.  To get at this pervasive problem of the 70’s is a difficult undertaking.  There are many opinions, but few facts.  No clear-cut data exist on the effects of zero draft on the manpower resource.  Thus, we puzzled about how to approach the issue.  We finally decided on a broad-brush view and examined a number of variables that would (in our judgment) presumably influence Navy training.  Our attempt was to bring together the latest statements regarding an All-Volunteer Force and to analyze and put into perspective those characteristics that would influence the Navy training system.  The following classes of variables were examined:

1)       Personnel

2)       Factors Affecting Enlistment and Retention

3)       Incentives for Enlistment and Retention

4)       Manpower Utilization

5)       Job Design

6)       Training

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ADAPTIVE TRAINING–NEW DIRECTIONS

Ernest J. Conway, Senior Scientist

Canyon Research Group, Inc.

and

Don A. Norman, Research Psychologist

Human Factors Laboratory, Naval Training Equipment Center

A central principle in most theories of learning and teaching is based on the following assumption.  The acquisition of cognitive and psychomotor skills (“learning”) is best achieved if relevant subject matter of tasks is simplified.  Simplification is defined as the breaking of subject materials into component parts and presenting these components in some systematic manner.  Since this principle is more amenable to cognitive tasks than to psychomotor (physical or “work”) tasks, it has become deeply engrained in our educational process.  Education is locked into the assumption that simplification expedites learning.

With the introduction of the machine as a tool for education, this principle was dusted off and imposed as a requirement for the use of these mechanical devices.  As a result, educational technologists have adapted the computer and related technology to the application of cognitive chunks in an even more systematic manner.  The influence of this technology has resulted in the rewriting of textbooks in a “programmed” manner and the development of computer-aided courses of instruction.

The next impact of machines on education, however, has been the development of pre-packaged feed forward control processes developed on limited predictive models of the trainee’s characteristics as a receiver.  These products are fixed prior to the initiation of instruction.  They are set up for the most part as an authority-oriented process designed to convey information in a single direction with the objective of modifying trainee behavior or thought in specific directions.

As a consequence, much of the early expectations for the utilization of computers in education have given way under the weight of the constraints imposed on this technology by the inability of education to deviate from the principle of simplification.  The result has been the stalemating of progress and innovation with regards to cognitive learning.

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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HUMAN ENGINEERING OF INTERACTIVE CRT SYSTEMS FOR TRAINING DEVICE INSTRUCTORS

Edwin Cohen

The Singer Company

Simulation Products Division

Interactive CRT systems, a fairly new and rapidly changing technology, have been adopted as the means of providing simulator instructors and operators with the wide variety of information they need and, when used with computer input devices such as keyboards and light pens, as the means for making inputs to the simulator.  Because of the newness of this technology, and its rapid rate of change, there is a paucity of human engineering data and guidelines extant on CRT use.  Much of the available information is not directly applicable to training device instructor stations in which the variety and amount of information in the database and the variety and pace of actions that the instructor must execute differ markedly from those in other CRT systems.  This paper accepts the definition of CRT-related instructor tasks discussed in the paper by Stark and Puig, and discusses the human engineering considerations in implementing these tasks.  Interalia, multi-user and multi-CRT configurations, display content and formatting, display quality, and interaction considerations are treated

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE POTENTIAL USE OF ENGINEERING SIMULATORS TO PROMOTE TRAINING ECONOMY

John C. Dusterberry

Assistant Chief of Simulation Sciences Division

Ames Research Center, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

Training simulators are used as part of a total training course.  This training course includes conventional classroom work, programmed instruction, part task trainers, and training in the production aircraft or other vehicle.  The total training course must be cost effective, and, in addition to the direct cost of the training, there must be included a consideration of other factors more difficult to quantify safety, fuel availability, noise, atmospheric pollution, etc.  The total training program must be effective and economical, and a choice must be made among the various training devices to achieve overall effectiveness and economy.  On the other hand, engineering simulators are used differently, so a different set of criteria applies to their requirements, specifications and design.  Analysis and wind tunnel testing precede engineering simulations.  Since extension of the analysis to the man-machine interface has proved to be largely unsatisfactory, experiments on the manned flight simulator follow.  The alternative to simulator experiments is flight time in an experimental aircraft or proof-of-concept vehicle–a very expensive vehicle to build and operate.  Indeed, even if a proof-of-concept aircraft is to be built, engineering simulator tests will be required to make it safe and economical.  To insure that engineering simulators will have a reasonable useful lifetime, they must be designed to allow simulation of aircraft with systems and controls not yet built or even contemplated, and indeed, to simulate hardware that may never be built.  Thus, training and engineering simulators are built to satisfy different requirements.  They cannot be compared to each other, but each must be judged on its economy and effectiveness in meeting the requirements it was designed to meet.

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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COMMUNICATION AND NAVIGATION TRAINER–DEVICE 1D23

CDR John A. Gash

Flight Training and Operations

Chief of Naval Education and Training (CNET) Staff

and

Donald R. Hayworth, Lead Systems Engineer

Simulation Systems Engineering

General Electric Company

Communication and Navigation Trainer Device 1D23 was introduced into the Naval Flight Officer (NFO) training syllabus in November 1972.  A second phase in this acquisition was completed in August 1974 with the incorporation of the digital Electronic Radar Navigation subsystem.  Through the joint efforts of the Naval Training Equipment Center, NAS Pensacola training cadre, and General Electric’s Ground Systems Department, installation and operation for each phase was achieved on schedule.  A new medium has been implemented to provide naval Flight Officer trainee and instructor personnel with a real-time dynamic training environment through the employment of digitally controlled simulation.

The trainer is being used to develop NFO skills and techniques in the accurate use of airborne communications and navigational aids.  Individual training and evaluation is conducted for up to 40 students simultaneously.  Each Trainee Station represents a separate aircraft, capable of independent maneuvering within a given training area.  Two unique preprogrammed missions can be employed simultaneously, one mission for each group of 20 students.  Generally, one instructor and two Training Device Operators (TDOs) are utilized to direct/monitor each group of 20 students during a training session. NAS Pensacola training cadre employ all available trainer functions to fully exercise NFO students in the Comm/Nav tasks encountered in operational aircraft.  This trainer is the first of its kind to be fully operational and offers a new dimension in real-time digital radar display simulation.  The innovative techniques employed in Device 1D23 provide start-of-the-art simulation now, while accommodating future technology and requirements growth.

A portion of the Device 1D23 trainer is depicted in Figure 1.

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A FEASIBILITY MODEL OF AN UNDERWAY REPLENISHMENT TRAINER

FOR OFFICERS OF THE DECK (OOD’s)

E. F. Kashork

Electronics and Acoustics Laboratory

Naval Training Equipment Center

This paper details the development of an Underway Replenishment Trainer using a novel 70-degree by 180-degree FOV anamorphic lens pair in the visual display.  Requirements for such a proposed trainer are described, together with the concept modeling, component selection, results and areas for improvement.

Currently, there are trainers for maneuvering tactics, emergency shiphandling and ship characteristic demonstration.  These trainers concentrate on maneuvering rules, communications procedures, organization of Bridge and CIC (Combat Information Center), and Bridge to CIC coordination procedures, with no visual references.  The ship characteristic demonstrator is used to acquaint the trainee with the various forces that affect the handling of a ship.  None of the trainers, however, provide the visual cues as seen by the conning officer from the ship’s bridge and which require the trainee to interact with speed, heading and relative position while conning a ship relative to another or to a mooring site.

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ADVANCES IN EQUIPMENT SIMULATION FOR MAINTENANCE TRAINING

Richard W. Daniels

Principal Research Scientist

Systems and Research Center of Honeywell, Inc.

I’m sure it’s no news to you that the name of the game in training is to maximize cost-effectiveness.  I’m also sure it’s no surprise to you that those of us working in the training R&D community have a way to go in attaining that goal.  Lest you believe we are “military-industrial Don Quixote’s” pursuing an unattainable goal, I would like to describe a joint Navy-Honeywell developmental program, which has the potential for making a sizeable step forward.

In facing the paradox of more complex equipment to be maintained, the realities of an all-volunteer force, and fewer military personnel, the Navy has indicated that simulation presents an attractive alternative to using operational equipment in the training environment.  In support of that position, the Navy’s training community has sought techniques, both in-house and contractually, to find unique and effective simulation.

After about three years of extensive in-house developmental activity, Honeywell demonstrated to the Navy a promising new computer-controlled simulation technique for training maintenance skills.  That demonstration has led to Research and Technology and the Logistic Support divisions of Naval Air Systems Command together with Naval Air Development Center and Naval Training Equipment Center to take the initiative in exploring that new concept as the potential solution for many Navy training problems.

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ADVANCES IN OPTICAL MEMORIES FOR SENSOR SIMULATION

Robert J. Entwistle, Photographic Technologist

 and

John H. Dillard, Physical Science Technician

Physical Sciences Laboratory, Naval Training Equipment Center

The experimental use of optical memories began twenty years ago and the first optical memory simulator was delivered to the fleet in 1960.  By 1964, we had achieved read-only optical memories containing the equivalent of 10⁹ bits, which could be accessed at 10⁷ equivalent bits per second, and which did some optical computation in the process.  For those of you who recall, this was called the factored transparency system.

These optical memories permitted us to simulate highly realistic radar in an unprogrammed manner over a 1.5 million square mile area.  This was a major break through in sensor simulation and stands today as the standard for sensor simulators.

But these optical memories had several disadvantages.  Their key disadvantage was that they were very costly and time-consuming to update.  In addition their initial cost was very high and their density/elevation code was uncomfortably limited.  This paper will describe our progress toward solving these problems.

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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HOLOGRAPHIC CARRIER LANDING SIMULATOR

Alfred H. Rodemann, Research Physicist

and

Denis R. Breglia, Research Physicist

Physical Sciences Laboratory at the Naval Training Equipment Center

The problem of providing a realistic and effective visual display for carrier landing simulation has been approached before by using an actual aircraft carrier model for computer-generated imagery.  In this paper we are reporting on the design, development and fabrication of a feasibility model of a carrier-landing simulator employing a hologram to create the required visual display.

The basic property of the hologram that we are using in this application is that the hologram has the ability to produce a three-dimensional real image in space.  This property is illustrated in figure 1.  The hologram is recorded by exposing a high-resolution photographic plate to the coherent light from two wavefronts:  (a) the scattered wavefront from the object, and (b) a smooth converging wavefront called the reference beam.  The two coherent wavefronts interact with each other and produce an intensity distribution or interference pattern, which is recorded by the photographic plate.  The plate is then developed and fixed in a standard photographic fashion.  The resultant pattern is called a hologram and is capable of producing a three-dimensional real image of the object when illuminated by an appropriate wavefront, which is designed to be the conjugate of the reference beam.  That is, if the reference wavefront is incident from the left and converging, the reconstruction-illuminating beam must be incident from the right and diverging.  Illumination of the entire hologram simultaneously reconstructs all of the aspect angles, which were originally recorded, or in other words, all of the views of the object that could be seen through the aperture defined by the hologram plate when it was exposed.  In reality, this describes the three-dimensionality of the holographic recording.  By restricting the reconstruction illumination to a single small area of the hologram as in figure 2, two effects occur.  Firstly, the aspect angle or view available in the real image is a single point in space.  Secondly, the depth of field of the reconstructed three-dimensional image is greatly increased.

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ON IMPROVING THE FLIGHT FIDELITY OF OPERATIONAL FLIGHT/WEAPONS SYSTEM TRAINERS

CDR Marle D. Hewett, Head

Flying Qualities and Performance Branch of the Flight Test Division

Naval Air Test Center

and

R. Thomas Galloway, Aerospace Engineer

Flying Qualities and Performance Branch of the Flight Test Division

Naval Air Test Center

and

CDR James C. Murray, Chief of Naval Air Training

Advanced Systems Development Officer in the Plans and Programs Division

Naval Air Training Command

The Navy uses simulators known as Operational Flight Trainers (OFT) and Weapons System Trainers (WST) to train new pilots, retrain pilots, and maintain pilot proficiency in today’s complicated and expensive aircraft weapons systems.  Over the years these devices have acquired a dismal reputation in the fleet for faithful simulation of the subject airplane’s flying qualities.  As a result, the training value of these simulators has been less than optimal.  In many cases this lack of faithful flying qualities simulation has reduced the role of these devices to that of expensive procedures trainers for instrument flight and emergency conditions vice that for which they were designed: i.e. operational flight and weapons system training.

The degraded training value of these simulators could be tolerated by the Navy as long as enough airplanes, fuel, and money were available to train and maintain proficiency with actual flight time.  However, the energy crisis, increased aircraft operating costs, and austere budgeting have made actual flight time a scarce commodity.  Because of these factors, increased emphasis has been placed on the use of simulators for training and proficiency.  In fact, OPNAV Instruction 3710.7G states that Naval Aviators participating in the Proficiency flying Program may substitute 10% (10 hours) of the total annual minimum flight time requirements with 12 hours or more of simulator time logged.  The Instruction further states that “as additional simulators become available and more is learned on the “transfer of learning” gained through the use of simulators, the program will be expanded.”  It is absolutely necessary, therefore, that the full technical resources of the Navy be brought to bear on the problem of providing the best possible flight simulation at a given cost.  We feel that major progress has been demonstrated and that additional flight time substitution can now be made.

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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AN EFFECTIVE LOW-COST VISUAL: NIGHT SCENE CGI

John Mackey

Senior Group Engineer–Electronics

McDonnell Douglas Electronics Company

and

Thomas M. Nelson

Group Engineer–Electronics

McDonnell Douglas Electronics Company

The CGI Night Visual System belongs to the general technology of computed image graphics, which has been in existence for more than a decade.  Computed image graphics had been applied in many fields.  A few examples are architecture, mechanical and electrical engineering design and drafting, civil engineering, and the study of multidimensional mathematical functions.  The zenith of the state of the art is unquestionably found in the application to the large-scale real-time simulation of visual environments for aircraft and spacecraft engineering studies and training.  In recent years the trend has been toward expanding the size and complexity of visual environments and the creation of faster and more efficient hardware and image processing algorithms.

If one divides the CGI field into two equipment categories, namely, calligraphic (random stroke), and raster edge generation, the night visual falls into the former equipment class.  The CGI night visual system simulates the essential visual environment encountered in nighttime flying conditions by arranging light-point patterns into appropriate scenes, with prime attention being paid to a very precise representation of runway and approach lighting patterns.  Figure 1 shows an example of a full ICAO runway lighting pattern at a touchdown distance of approximately one-half mile.  A random scan graphics unit is usually employed, and this unit differs from conventional computer graphics equipment in that it is designed to permit a much higher degree of beam positioning precision.

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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NUCLEAR MERCHANT SHIP OFFICER TRAINING PROGRAMS

Captain Maurice J. Gross, USMS

Professor of Nuclear Engineering

United States Merchant Marine Academy

One of the valuable legacies from the NS SAVANNAH experience is certainly in support of the theme of this year’s Naval Training Equipment Center/Industry Conference. “Training Economy Through Simulation” was amply demonstrated throughout all phases of the NS SAVANNAH’s 10-year operating history.  No multimillion-dollar prototype was ever built for the SAVANNAH’s plant for either engineering developmental purposes or for the equally important training function.

To fill the latter function, a pioneering nuclear reactor (and propulsion plant) simulator was built at a cost of six hundred fifty thousand 1960 dollars.  The simulator, located for most of its useful life at the United States Merchant Marine Academy at Kings Point, New York, served as the introduction of Marine Engineers to the operation and control of the SAVANNAH’s reactor power plant.  Our simulator program was part of a 20-week academic course for the routine replacement of ships engineer/reactor operators (RO’s) and senior reactor operators (SRO’s) which amply prepared our candidates to pass the AEC’s licensing examination for RO’s and SRO’s in about three months after reporting to the ship.

The SAVANNAH engineers proved themselves more that equal to their tasks when assigned as supervisory engineers and technicians, making up the bulk of the crew who achieved the refueling shuffle of the reactor core and other servicing of the reactor plant in 1968.  In addition, graduates of the SAVANNAH training programs provided invaluable leadership in all phases of the ship and shore-side management for the commercial operators of the nuclear ship program.

In summary, operating engineers and others, such as Coast guard officers, steamship company officials, etc., of varying education’s and background experiences were given a relatively short but reasonably intense training program.  They became entirely reliable and efficient licensed shipboard nuclear power plant operating engineers.  The use of the simulator materially decreased the training time necessary for this program.

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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COMPUTER-SUPPORTED OPERATOR TRAINING FOR SHIPS INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

John M. Townsend

Department Manager, Instructional Systems Engineering

Sperry Gyroscope Division

Sperry Rand Corporation

The U. S. Navy’s new Computer Supported Operator Training System simulates in a series of instructional games the operational environment of the Ships Inertial Navigation System, used as a precision sources of navigation data aboard aircraft carriers and submarines.  Designed for use at ashore schools for initial operator training and aboard ship for refresher training, the training system’s digital computer simulates dynamic, realistic at-sea conditions.  A unique Self-Instruction computer program module provides for automatic loading, sequencing, monitoring, and evaluating of games; computer control of time-compression permits twelve hours of ship patrol to be presented in one hour of instructional time.  Thus the Computer Supported Training System effectively multiplies the availability of equipment for operational training while reducing operating hours of costly simulated equipment.  No new hardware is required; the training system is made up of the inertial navigator’s own dedicated digital computer and input-output devices along with special training computer tapes and instructional game workbooks.

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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IN PURSUIT OF THE FATEFUL FEW–

A METHOD FOR DEVELOPING HUMAN PERFORMANCE MEASURES

FOR TRAINING CONTROL

Donald Vreuls, Senior Staff Scientist

Canyon Research Group, Inc.

and

Ira Goldstein, Research Psychologist

Human Factors Laboratory

Naval Training Equipment Center

Measurement produces information needed for assessment of trainee performance and subsequent control of the training process.  Any device or system, which is to control or evaluate the training process, will be only as effective as its information source–measurement.  Improvements in training efficiency and evaluation of training devices and methods are absolutely dependent on improved measurement.

The purpose of our work to date has been to develop a method for producing and selecting proper human training performance measures.  Specific measures, which resulted, were of secondary importance.  Therefore, this paper emphasizes those techniques, which have resulted from method development studies sponsored by NAVTRAEQUIPCEN with partial support from the Naval Air Systems Command and the Advanced Research Projects Agency.

In order to measure many of the complex dimensions of man-machine system training performance, processing of large amounts of continuously varying information is required.  Such measurement is beyond the capability of manual or simple measurement devices; it must be automated in order to produce information in time for efficient control of training.

Automated measurement places severe demands on the definition of (1) fool-proof algorithms for determining the conditions during which measurement is to occur, and (2) measure sets which produce only information necessary for effective use by the information receiving system.  Too much information can overload the user system; not enough may reduce user effectiveness.

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Papers published, but not presented:

THE ECONOMICS OF PORTABLE TRAINING SIMULATION SYSTEMS

Terry E. Bibbens, President

Antekna, Inc.

The involvement of the United States Navy with complex multiple emitter EW training systems has been both extensive and long term.  We know this at Antekna, because during our six-year corporate history the Navy has provided millions of dollars to support the development and deployment of three large-scale electronic warfare training simulation systems, the 7B1/1 and the 10A3/1 and 10A3/2, using our modular standard product concept.  As our largest customer, the Navy’s commitment to excellence in training achievement through the use of sophisticated RF and video simulators is exemplified by the high level of interest in our concepts and technology.  Our commitment to meet the Navy’s training needs is illustrated not only by Antekna’s performance in the past.  It is our dedication to the future by expenditure of time, personnel, and Antekna funds to develop new technologies and products specifically designed to help solve new Naval training requirements that best illustrates our corporate commitment.  One such newly developed capability is a single man transportable “suitcase” simulation device which economically provides multiple radar and communications emitters with complete dynamics of motion and fully automatic control.  While laboratory and classroom trainers are highly useful, this new portable dynamic simulator, developed from our standard product technology, will provide a multitude of inexpensive new opportunities for training experience formerly precluded by the size and bulk of conventional simulation systems.  When students or career personnel cannot be present in a classroom, this new system will carry the classroom to them.  When a large multiple signal van or trailer cannot be cabled to a ship at dockside, this system will carry the training aboard.  When a surface ship, submarine, or aircraft crew is on deployment, this system can be right there beside them to provide a realistic training scenario, anytime it is needed.  For the first time, a really small, truly portable and completely self-contained stimulator is available to inject realistic high density training scenarios into operational equipment no matter where it is located.  Now let’s look at the portable dynamic simulation trainer.

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ENGINEERING OF INSTRUCTION DELIVERY IN PERFORMANCE ARCHITECTURE

Raymond G. Fox

Educational Systems Development Manager

IBM Federal Systems Division–IBM Corporation

Performance Architecture is the engineering discipline devoted to organization and specification of the manpower components of a man-machine system over the life cycle of the system.  Design of instruction delivery is identified as a key component of this discipline.  Instruction delivery is defined as the communication of those elements of information required by the individual/group to successfully operate and maintain the systems.  Criteria for engineering instruction delivery in this frame of reference are suggested, and potentials for applying this technology are described.  A notation system for instructional units is proposed.

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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EARS FOR AUTOMATED INSTRUCTION SYSTEMS–WHY TRY?

Ira Goldstein and Don A. Norman, Research Psychologists

Human Factors Laboratory

Naval Training Equipment Center

and

Dr. John P. Charles, Vice President and Senior Human Factors Psychologist

Appli-Mation, Inc.

and

Dr. Robert L. Feuge, Psychologist, Michael W. Grady, Programmer Analyst

Mary H. Barkovic, Programmer Analyst

Logicon, Inc.

A principal concern of the Naval Training Equipment Center’s Human Factors Laboratory is the identification and capture of those quantifiable aspects of human behavior that relate to the improvement of performance through training.  This viewpoint requires, on the one hand, a constant search for new ways of looking at what people do and, on the other, a continual scan of modern technologies to spot developments that can bring abstract concepts or classifications to tangible reality.

As a result of one of these abstracting exercises, it was noted that there exists a class of job situations, which have in common the use of restricted, stylized speech, by people carrying out a control and/or advisory function.  In the United States Navy, these circumstances prevail for Ground Controlled Approach (GCA) and Ground Controlled Intercept (GCI) Controllers, for several Naval Flight Officer positions such as the Radar Intercept Officer, for Landing signal Officers and others.

Figure 1 shows an existing system used for training student controllers in the Precision Approach radar (PAR) phase of a Ground Controlled Approach (GCA).  The display of the simulated GCA control console presents to the student an azimuth, elevation and range picture of the aircraft under guidance.  Through communication equipment, he transmits advisories to a “pseudo-pilot” who “flies” the simulated aircraft.  Aircraft position changes, which occur as a result of the pseudo-pilot’s flight response are shown on the student’s radar display through a video simulator.  The instructor supervises training sessions, subjectively evaluates student performance and implements the overall training plan by manually selecting conditions so as to present a variety of PAR problems to the student.

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ADAPTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL MODELS FOR NAVY TRAINING

Dr. Duncan N. Hansen

Professor of Educational Research

Memphis State University

Naval technical training is continuously committed to providing cost-effective training that maximizes individual student attainment of training objectives while simultaneously minimizing the completion time.  Further, the full utilization of all instructors, training aids, simulators, and real life resources becomes an important cost consideration.  To achieve these goals, instructional training models have been designed and implemented.  These training models represent both the process of training and the decision rules that guide students.

The purpose of this paper is to review one class of these models, adaptive instructional models (AIM).  In order to fully appreciate AIMs, the full range of training models shall be described.  In turn, a detailed description of an adaptive instructional model appropriate for technical training shall be delineated.  For comparative purposes, this shall be contrasted with the existing Naval CMI Model.  Finally, future research and development requirements for AIMs shall be reviewed.

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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EVALUATION OF AN AUTOMATED GCA FLIGHT TRAINING SYSTEM

Joseph A. Puig, Research Psychologist

 Naval Training Equipment Center

Robert M. Johnson, President and Senior Systems Analyst

Appli-Mation, Inc.

Dr. John P. Charles, Vice President and Senior Human Factors Psychologist

Appli-Mation, Inc.

The principal objective of this evaluation is to measure the training effectiveness of an advanced training concept using an Automated Flight Training System (AFTS) GCA module.  This module, developed by Logicon, Inc., was installed at NAS Chase Field, Beeville, Texas for use with a TA-4J Operational Flight Trainer (Device 2F90).

In addition to training effectiveness, per se, curriculum design and its effect on cost-effectiveness of student training will be examined.  As a result of the reset capability of the GCA module, it is possible to run a greater number of students and cover more material in a shorter period of time than with conventional methods.  Substitution of trainer time for ground control approach flight training will also be investigated.

Comparisons of training with the GCA module and with conventional techniques will be made.  In addition, a transfer of training evaluation will be made to determine how learning by the different techniques is carried over to the operational situation.

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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E-2C AEW CREW TRAINING USING AN OPERATIONAL TACTICS TRAINER

Edward. Shea and Alfred Choy

Grumman Aerospace Corporation

Previous experience with military training devices has shown a clear and direct relationship between the realism attainable in the trainer and the time span before a newly graduated trainee becomes a truly functional member of the flight team.  In the E-2A/B, many of the basic operations of the system, such as the ability to distinguish targets in the radar clutter environment, had to be learned while actually flying in the training squadron or after fleet deployment.  This is an expensive, inefficient process, which, in addition, is totally unproductive in terms of the new operator’s ability to participate in the CIC crew in a meaningful manner.

The approach used to develop a suitable design for the Tactics Trainer began with an examination of the methods utilized by the United States Navy for training operations on the E-2C predecessor aircraft, namely the E-2A/E-2B.  The effectiveness of this training was traced from the various existing trainers through the training squadron to the fleet.  It was recognized early from these studies that the most glaring deficiency was in the simulation of realistic presentations, thus requiring inordinate amounts of aircraft time to fully train the students.  Thus an important goal was set up in providing a sophisticated video simulation that depicts to the operator a realistic E-2C display, as well as providing to the student E-2C operator’s training, which closely approximates system operation in degraded modes caused by partial failure(s) of the avionics complement.  To meet these overall aims, Grumman Aerospace Corporation has designed, integrated and delivered Device 15F8 to the Naval Air Station at Norfolk, Virginia.

Because the E-2C avionics subsystems have an order of magnitude more complex than the E-2A/E-2B, the training requirements increased in proportion to the aircraft subsystems, with the additional feature of simulation of emitters for passive detection and overland detection.

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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USE OF CATHODE-RAY TUBES AT INSTRUCTOR STATIONS

Dr. Edward A. Stark and Joseph A. Puig

The Singer Company, Simulation Products Division

and Naval Training Equipment Center, Respectively

The incorporation of cathode-ray tube displays in flight simulator instructor stations will permit the masses of data available in the simulator to be organized for more rapid, meaningful interpretation.  The CRT can display relevant data, when needed, in any format appropriate to each instructional task.  Experience with current CRT instructor stations is reviewed, together with the instructional tasks accomplished in flight simulators.  Recommendations are made for the further definition of the simulator instructor’s tasks, and for the extended application of CRT’S.  Emphasis is placed on the analysis of requirements for the display and formatting of instructional information.

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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INTERACTIVE GRAPHIC DISPLAYS—FLEXIBLE DEVICES FOR TRAINER APPLICATION

John E. Yule and Erwin H. Schauwecker

Honeywell Marine Systems Division

The advent of computer-based training systems has resulted in expanded potential for efficient and effective training.  Application of the Interactive Graphic Display can enhance this potential.  Its flexibility enables a wide range of display modes resulting in more effective instruction, realistic simulation and ease of maintenance.  Additionally, system design can be optimized, changes to operational hardware can readily be accommodated, and support logistics simplified.

Graphic displays have been utilized during the past ten years in diverse applications ranging from air traffic control to support of research and development activity.  An example of the former is the NAS Stage A Enroute Traffic Control system currently operating at several locations, while the Advanced Sonar Laboratory Display System (ASLADS), installed at NUSC/New London, is a typical example of the latter.

Operational hardware and special purpose CRT displays are currently used for a variety of trainer needs.  However, relatively few applications of graphic displays have been implemented.  Its utility for the Instructor/Operator position and simulation of operational hardware for the student position has been demonstrated by several contemporary-training systems.

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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