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INTRODUCTION TO THE CONFERENCE

Dr. Hanns H. Wolff

Technical Director, Naval Training Device Center and Conference General Chairman

As we open our Seventh NAVTRAEQUIPCEN/Industry Conference with the slogan “Training Economy Through Simulation,” don’t let us forget the trueness of last year’s slogan, “Man–The Focus of the Training System;” for a training system or program can only be economical if it focuses on the man, if it provides the required transfer of training.

The acceptance of training in a simulated operational environment in lieu of training with operational equipment in the operational environment has made considerable progress during the last year.  Though the continually rising cost of operating weapons systems and platforms and the energy shortage contributed heavily to this change in attitude, the effort of many of those who for a long time were already convinced of the effectiveness and the economy of training in simulators and in a simulated operational environment led to a large extent to last year’s progress.

The high cost of training with operational equipment is, as many of you know, not only due to the high acquisition cost of the operational equipment and its attendant operating costs, but, in general, even more due to the very high maintenance costs, especially those for major military combat and surveillance platforms such as aircraft, ships, and tanks.

INCREMENTAL TRANSFER AND COST EFFECTIVENESS OF FLIGHT TRAINING SIMULATORS

Stanley N. Roscoe

It’s only a paper moon

Hanging over a cardboard sea,

But it wouldn’t be make believe

If you’d believe in me.

Flight simulation is, by design, just as phony as it can be.  The art of psychological deception is dedicated to the proposition that all simulated effects can be made to appear equal to their real-world counterparts; even a paper moon can become a believable background for a simulated lunar landing.  Nevertheless, despite the evident safety and economy of simulation and its flexibility and repeatability of experimental control, the physical representation of complex perceptual cues is based upon a foundation of psychophysical quicksand.  In practice, the widespread use of simulation, both in pilot training and testing and in equipment design research, depends more upon the apparent realism of the illusions created than upon any experimental demonstration of the equivalence of training or the order of merit of the equipment items being compared.

Nevertheless, three converging factors place a high premium on full exploitation of synthetic flight training: the energy crisis, which discourages the unnecessary use of aircraft; the commitment of the Defense Department to channel all possible aircraft procurement funds into operational equipment; and the world peace crisis, which requires the standby ability to train many new aviators quickly.  Anyone of these factors would be sufficient to justify acceleration of the application of TRAINING ECONOMY THROUGH SIMULATION, the subject of this conference.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 

Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website.

THE USE OF SIMULATION IN THE TRAINING

OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT OPERATORS

T. E. C. Hughes and J. T. O’Halloran

The Singer Company

Simulation Products Division

Training nuclear power plant operators has always been a problem—it absorbs the time of skilled men, requires operational equipment, and is often difficult and potentially dangerous.  Because of the major expansion of nuclear generating capacity anticipated during the next ten years, there will be increased requirements for competent staff.  Approximately 15,500 additional nuclear oriented plant and headquarters staff personnel will be required by utilities in the U.S. by 1982.  Of the utilities expected to have nuclear power plants in operation by 1982, two-thirds of these will have had no actual operating experience with nuclear power plants (WASH-1130).  Utility managers must make certain that they receive full value for every dollar expended in training.  They have the responsibility for the safe and efficient operation of the plant, for gaining and maintaining public trust and confidence, and for the avoidance of costly power interruptions.  A cost effective training system for plant personnel will ensure efficient operation and increase return on investment.

The use of simulators for training power plant operators is becoming more widespread.  Operational simulators have been used in various industries and throughout the military for a number of years in the training of operators of complex equipment, including both normal and emergency operating procedures and skills.  The most widely known application of simulators has been in the training and examination of aircraft pilots.  Simulators have also been used for training astronauts and for training control room operators for large power plants.  These cases require trained personnel prior to the operation of actual equipment.  Once a nuclear power plant is operational there is little opportunity for using it for training.  Since practice of all but routine procedures will adversely affect plant reliability, plant economy, and public and personnel safety, use of the plant for training purposes is not a cost effective or safe means of solving the training problem.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

SYMBOLIC SIMULATORS

REALISM AND ECONOMY IN SKILL TRAINING

A. Lee Sterzer

Data-Design Laboratories

For optimum training effectiveness and economy, symbolic simulators should be considered as an important element in any skill-training program.  Symbolic simulators are paper materials or multi-media programs that symbolically represent operational hardware and its functions.  The purpose of this device is to simulate the data environment of the operational hardware so the trainee can practice the mental aspects of operational and maintenance tasks.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website.

COMPUTER SIMULATION FOR A COMMAND AND CONTROL TRAINING SYSTEM

Alan J. Pesch

President, Eclectech Associates, Inc.

Dr. Thomas J. Hammell

Associate, Eclectech Associates, Inc.

William P. Lane

Acquisition Director, Naval Training Equipment Center

The Navy is currently utilizing a greater number of tactical command and control systems comprised largely of digital computers and digitally driven CRT displays.  Examples in the area of Submarine Fire Control Systems include MK 113 Mods 9, 10, the MK 117, and the Commanding Officer’s Tactical Display (COTD), and the Standard Information Display (SID).  The training on these and other similar command and control systems has developed along the somewhat limited lines of each hardware system.  Thus, a need for optimizing the employment of these systems exists.

The most frequent assumption with regard to training equipment has been to suggest duplicating the original MIL Spec hardware.  A number of reasons offered in support of this approach are included below.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A GUIDE FOR THE APPLICATION OF PERFORMANCE STRUCTURE-ORIENTED CAI IN MILITARY JOBS

Dr. Joseph W. Rigney

Behavioral Technology Laboratories

University of Southern California at Los Angeles

and

Dr. Arthur S. Blaiwes

Research Psychologist, Human Factors Laboratory, Naval Training Equipment Center

The University of Southern California and the Naval Training Equipment Center, under ARPA funding, are cooperating in an effort to develop a system which will serve to facilitate the production of appropriate Computer-Aided Instruction (CAI) for the Navy.  This system, basically taking the form of a model or theory of CAI, is in part derived from and evaluated by empirical studies as described in other Naval Training Equipment Center technical reports by the present authors (Rigney, et al., 1973; Rigney, et. al., in preparation).  Because this empirical aspect of the research exhausts major portions of the resources available for the project, explication of the system contained herein is in its earliest stages.  It is published here mainly for heuristic reasons and is not intended to be used as a refined set of guidelines for developing CAI materials.

Even in this initial form, however, the system can suggest to course authors various components of CAI and gross steps associated with the development of these components that need to be considered in the process of course construction.  Further development of the system will consist of endeavors to expand upon current capabilities by offering:  (a) specific instructional approaches for the components forming the structure of CAI; (b) computer programs, capable of implementing the suggested instructional approaches, which are general enough to apply in a range of subject matter areas, and (c) computer capabilities for generating some portions of the CAI specifications for a given application.  Thus, CAI program developers will be able to use the system as an aid to deciding upon instructional approaches appropriate for their particular teaching objectives.  Further, they even will be able to obtain computer programs, which essentially are ready for application I their training program.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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CORRELATED DISPLAYS FOR TRAINING–ONE STEP CLOSER TO THE REAL WORLD

Dr. W. Marvin Bunker

Consulting Engineer, Advanced Technologies Engineering

General Electric Company

Techniques for generation of images and displays by digital computation have advanced at a rapid pace over the past several years.  Systems are currently in use in which visual scene simulation with computer generated images (CGI) is applied to pilot training and in which digital radar landmass simulation (DRLMS) is applied to navigator training.  Developments in both these areas have been reported in previous years at the NTEC and INDUSTRY Conference.

Effort is currently under way to apply similar technology to the simulation of displays from forward-looking infrared (FLIR) sensor systems and from low light level television (LLLTV) systems.

The human information processing in operational situations may be described as follows.  The observer obtains information from available displays, viewing of the scene, and any applicable instruments.  By a mental correlation process using these inputs and a priori knowledge of his location and the world, he forms an image of the actual environment represented by these inputs.  He then takes action based on this image.

Existing systems provide to the trainee only a portion of the inputs available to him on an actual mission and, to this extent, fail to provide a realistic training situation.  Requirements for correlated simulation of displays from various sources must be determined and met.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website.

PROJECT 1183–

AN EVALUATION OF DIGITAL RADAR LANDMASS SIMULATION

Part I–THE REQUIREMENT

Thomas W. Hoog, Program Engineer

USAF Aeronautical Systems Division (AFSC)

Part II–THE DRLMS

Roger C. Dahlberg, Systems Engineer

Singer Simulation Products Division

Part III–THE DATA BASE

Rogers R. Robinson, Physical Scientist

Defense Mapping Agency Aerospace Center (DMAAC)

Part I–The Requirement: In order to provide a capability to satisfy the problems of existing light optical and new Digital Radar Landmass Simulator Systems, USAF Project 1183 was initiated.  The purpose of Project 1183 is to evaluate the improved training effectiveness which is possible using a truly high-resolution digital radar landmass simulation system.  Concurrently, the Defense Mapping Agency (DMA) is developing a new digital database to be used by the simulator.  The Project 1183 data base will cover a limited area, 57,000 square nautical miles, with features encoded at various levels of resolution depending on their relative importance.  The data base is structured so that it is capable of supporting all future radar landmass simulations.  Features (individual buildings, groups of buildings, etc. in place of general city outlines) included in the DMA database are described by their materials type, percent roof cover, percent foliage, height, location, orientation, size, etc.  At the conclusion of Project 1183 the fidelity of simulation required to train radar operators will be known as well as the cost to produce the simulation.   Similarly, the cost and resources required to produce a database at specified resolutions will be known.  This data will be used in responding to future needs of Using Commands.

Part II–The DRLMS: With the evaluation phase being a central focus of Project 1183, the hardware/software system must fulfill project goals by providing a flexible means of synthesizing very high-resolution real-time radar imagery.  To achieve this, the DRLMS system is designed around characteristics of the AN/APQ-113 and AN/APQ-110 radar sets, in addition to requirements which extend the capability to experimental purposes. 

Part III–The Data Base: As a result of the specific USAF requirement statement and the availability of resources, one of two procedures can be followed to produce a DDB (see Figure 6).  If photographic imagery is used as the basic source material, terrain (elevation) information is collected by an analytical stereoplotter, i.e., the AS-11 (see lower insert of Figure 6).

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website.

LASER HELICOPTER DOOR GUNNER TRAINER

Denis R. Breglia, Research Physicist

and

Alfred H. Rodemann, Research Physicist

Physical Sciences Laboratory, Naval Training Equipment Center

A Marine Corps Helicopter is on a medical evacuation mission in hostile territory.  The door gunner continually scans the passing terrain.  He watches roads, buildings, tree lines, streambeds and ridges.  His job is purely defensive.  He is watching for enemy fire and alert to take action.

Suddenly, he sees muzzle flashes from a riverbank.  He immediately tells the pilot and starts to fire.  He drops a red smoke grenade to indicate he is being fired upon.  He watches his tracers and ground effect and steers his fire into the target.  He must continually correct his fire as the pilot takes evasive action.

These are the duties of the door gunner.   He must observe, acquire targets, lay down suppressive fire and correct his fire.

These are the skills that must be taught to the door gunner.  These are the objectives of the Laser Helicopter Door Gunner Trainer.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website.

AUTOMATED PERFORMANCE MEASURING

Joseph L. Dickman

Manager, Training and Support

Simulation Engineering Corporation

A number of years ago the concept of multiple cockpits serviced by a single computer, now a common practice in simulator installations, was a radical innovation; a similarly radical idea–multiple cockpits monitored by a single instructor, or no instructor at all–may be equally commonplace in the future.  What will make this possible is Automated Performance Measuring–the use of the computer to evaluate a student’s performance and provide a printout to report on his proficiency, or lack of it.

In flight training, students are motivated to solo as soon as possible so they can fly without their instructor, who can then devote his time to other students.  In the simulator, however, there is no such objective.  Solo training in simulators is rare, and the reason undoubtedly lies in the lack of automated monitoring and evaluation of what the student is doing.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website.

DIGITAL AUDIO SIMULATION DEVELOPMENT FOR SONAR TRAINERS

G. A. Mann

Principal Development Engineer

Marine Systems Division California Center of Honeywell, Inc.

The application of digital simulation techniques for audio simulation in sonar training devices has overcome many limitations of analog simulation.  It has succeeded in providing higher fidelity, better recognition of sounds, greater reliability, and smaller size and, in many cases, lower costs.

The use of a general-purpose digital computer with a digital audio simulator in training systems is an example of the application of advancing technology producing superior performance with a reduction in complexity and cost.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website.

SYSTEM MODEL FOR LIFE CYCLE COSTING

G. Vincent Amico and James Isham

Naval Training Equipment Center

The policy on Life Cycle Costing within the Navy is set forth in SECNAVINST 4000.31 of 7 December 1970 (1).  This policy requires that the techniques discussed in DOD Guide on Life Cycle Costing Procurements (2) be applied to as much procurement as feasible.  This policy is further implemented by NAVMAT Note 4000 of 10 March 1971 (3), which applies the technique to less than complete weapon system acquisition.  In paragraph 2 of this Note it is stated, “Life Cycle Costing is a technique of minimizing life cycle costs by considering the cost of as many logistics elements as possible during the acquisition process.”  The policy addressed by these instructions primarily deals with the trade-off that can be made to minimize the cost of a system to the Navy during the acquisition process.  The policy, because of the recognized difficulty in its implementation, is limited to less than complete systems.

The acquisition process for weapon systems and related or supporting systems is complex and lengthy.  It would be desirable to include consideration for the total cost of ownership as a decision factor in the concept formulation phase of system development.  In order to do this it is essential that the effect of various decisions be understood when Life Cycle Costing influencing factors, such as reliability, maintainability, parts support, test equipment, documentation, and other related factors, are being established.  This paper sets forth a systems approach to the development of a Cost of Ownership Model (COM) that would provide the quantitative basis for the trade-off decisions that must be made early in the development process.

    This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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VISUAL SIMULATION AND LIFE CYCLE COSTING

David A. Shumway

Simulators and Human Factors Division

Aeronautical Systems Division, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base