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INTRODUCTION TO THE CONFERENCE

G. Vincent Amico

Director of Engineering

Naval Training Equipment Center

I would like to welcome you to this Eighth NAVTRAEQUIPCEN/Industry Conference.  These conferences were initiated in 1966 concurrent with the relocation of the Center from Port Washington to Orlando.  The motivation, which led to the establishment of the first conference, namely improved communication between government and Industry, is as valid today as it was then.  In fact, with the increased emphasis being placed on synthetic training by the congress and Department of Defense, the need for effective communication to identify and resolve problem areas in simulation technology and training methods is essential to insure the optimum effectiveness of training systems which are being developed.

In setting the theme for this year’s conference, I will briefly summarize the progress which has been made in the past quarter of a century, enumerate the design concept currently being specified for new acquisitions, and make a projection about what we might expect in future training systems.

To review the progress in the past quarter of a century, I have selected to trace the development of operational flight trainers for fighter aircraft.  Devices in other warfare areas such as the surface and submarine programs have experienced similar trends.

The advances in training concepts for the operational flight trainer are related to operational flight trainer cost, operational aircraft cost and quantities.  The operational flight trainer has progressed from a fixed-base system (no motion), with an analog computer solving a rather limited set of flight equations, to today’s trainers, with 6-degree-of-freedom motion systems driven by general-purpose digital computers solving twelve first-order difference equations of motion.  These latest systems also have a narrow-angle visual attachment with either a model board or a computer generated image system, which is used to provide training in the takeoff and landing phase of flight.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

Order from I/ITSEC’s Website.

THE SYSTEMS APPROACH TO SYNTHETIC TRAINING

Dr. Jay R. Swink

Logicon, Inc.

In recent years, the systems approach to training (SAT) or instructional systems development (ISD) has received considerable attention as an effective and efficient means of improving the quality of training and reducing costs.  To date, the vast majority of this attention has been directed to academic training due primarily to developments in individualized, multimedia hardware and software.  In the area of aircrew flying training programs, however, a significant portion of the curriculum involves ground-based skills training devices.  Unfortunately, synthetic training has not received extensive application of the systems approach.  Yet, it is this phase of training, more than any other, in which improvements in training effectiveness can most directly effect operational proficiency with the potential for trading off flight hours for more effective ground-based training at significant cost savings.

It has long been recognized that the total training capabilities of synthetic training devices are seldom, if ever, fully realized in the field.  This is due to several factors including 1) unspecified or ill-defined training objectives, 2) inappropriate utilization of the synthetic devices, and 3) inadequate training of the instructors in the operation of the trainers.  The deliberate and orderly application of the systems approach to the synthetic training regime can correct many of these deficiencies.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

improvements in visual flight simulation

Dr. Archer Michael Spooner

Chief Scientist

Redifon Flight Simulation Limited

Before describing improved forms of closed circuit television visual simulation, it will be as well to refer briefly to the type which has become almost a standard for CCTV landing and takeoff simulation.

This uses a terrain model about 40 ft long by 15 ft high, and at a scale of 2000:1 covers an area of terrain 14x5 nautical miles, allowing circling approaches to a runway 1 1/2 nm long.  A 625-line broadcast type color television camera generates a picture for display to the pilot using Duoview or Monoview displays over a field of view of approximately 50 wide by 38 high.  The view of the runway with the simulated aircraft on the ground gives good training value, but is not sharply focussed in the foreground due to the limited depth of field of the optical probe.

The minimum pilot’s eye height above the runway is determined by how closely the center of the entrance pupil of the optical prove connected to the camera can approach to the model runway surface without a danger of making contact and so causing damage; a figure of 12 1/2 ft at the 2000:1 scale has been specified as giving an adequate factor of safety.

The minimum eye height is the key factor, which determines the minimum model scale that can be used if a view from the correct height is to be achieved on the ground.  If the minimum eye height could be halved, the model scale could be doubled, allowing either a) four times the area of terrain to be modeled for the same size model, or b) the same area of terrain to be modeled on a model of one quarter the size.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

Order from I/ITSEC’s Website.

a grid-based variable resolution data base

for real-time visual training systems

Dr. Robert T. P. Wang

Senior Principal Development Engineer

Honeywell, Marine Systems Division California Center

As the cost of operating tactical equipment rises, the use of ground-based simulation trainers becomes increasingly attractive as a basic training tool.  The use of simulators has become even more attractive as new breakthroughs in hardware technology permit more computation at higher speeds, for less cost.  The increased computational and data handling speed of new electronic hardware has opened the door to higher data resolutions and greater complexity in simulation models to improve the realism of the synthesized displays.

All airborne navigation related simulation trainers require the vehicle simulated to cover vast expanses of terrain during each training session, while the student correlates the simulated displays to support material such as charts and photographs.  This means that simulators designed to train navigators and pilots must not only be capable of simulating displays that cover a wide range of terrain, but must also provide sufficient fidelity to pass as the actual operational equipment.  Furthermore, the simulated images should be geographically and geometrically correct to even permit the student to use permission-briefing material normally supplied for operational missions.  One example of a state-of-the-art navigation radar simulator that satisfies all these criteria is the recently delivered Honeywell-designed and –built Undergraduate Navigator Training System (UNTS).  Some technical features of the UNTS radar system will be discussed here to serve as a springboard to newer techniques that permit mixed resolution data nesting without sacrificing geographic integrity.

cig visual system for the t-37b jet trainer (asupt)

Harry W. Beardsley, Jr.

Manager of ASUPT Site Operations

General Electric Company, Space Division, Ground Systems Department

The Computer Image Generation (CIG) System was developed for the Air Force Advanced Simulation in Undergraduate Pilot Training (ASUPT) Program by General Electric Company.  The technology represented by the ASUPT system was developed partly by General Electric Independent Research and Development and partly on the Air Force Human Resources Laboratory, Air Force Systems Command Contract.

The ASUPT System is a simulator for the T-37B aircraft.  The T-37B aircraft is a jet aircraft used by the Air Force for training of undergraduate pilots.  The T-37B is a two-place side by side twin-engine jet aircraft with the student occupying the left-hand seat and the instructor pilot occupying the right-hand seat.

The ASUPT simulator system consists of two complete motion base mounted cockpits with visual displays driven by common general purpose and special purpose computer hardware.  Figure 1 represents a top-level hardware block diagram of the ASUPT Simulator System.  The solid line blocks of the diagram represent the parts of the ASUPT Simulator system that were developed as a part of the ASUPT CIG Development contract.  The ASUPT Simulator includes a six-degree-of-freedom motion base upon which a T-37B cockpit is mounted.  Also mounted on the motion base and completely surrounding the cockpit is a full field of view visual display.  The motion base, cockpit controls and indicators, and flight dynamics are determined and controlled by a General Purpose digital computer and special interface hardware.  The visual display scene is generated by a mosaic of seven large cathode ray tubes and infinity optics, associated drive electronics, a special purpose computer and a dual CPU General Purpose computer.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.
 Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website.

effects of visual system time delay on pilot performance

Fred R. Cooper, Electronics Engineer

Analysis and Design Branch of the Systems Engineering Division

Naval Training Equipment Center

and

William T. Harris, Research Engineer

Computer Laboratory of the Research and Technology Department

Naval Training Equipment Center

and

Vincent J. Sharkey, Deputy Director

Human Factors Laboratory

Naval Training Equipment Center

Because of the current national economy, the fuel shortage, concern for ecology, and the ever increasing complexity and cost of modern weapon systems, there is, and will likely continue to be, emphasis on the development and utilization of sophisticated flight simulators.  Military and commercial aircraft users are investing heavily in flight simulators equipped with visual systems and in visual systems to be attached to existing flight simulators.

In general, visual simulators are conceived as add-on systems to flight trainers.  Investigation of interfacing such systems has been, historically and typically, less than rigorous.  Addition of one system to another seems inevitably to affect the operation of the combination.  Such is the case with visual systems when attached to flight simulators.

A delay exists between the time a visual system receives its inputs and the time a visual presentation is displayed.  For example, the computer Generated Image Advanced Development Model visual system attached to Device 2F90, a TA-4J OFT, at Kingsville Naval Air Station (NAS), Texas, in late 1973, required a little in excess of 100 ms to generate a visual scene.  This time delay added to the 50 ms update cycle time of the 2F90, represented a 200 percent change in time related effects on the pilot’s control responses.  The question thus naturally arose as to what effect this additional delay is likely to have on the training effectiveness of a flight simulator system.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 
Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website.

critical visual requirements

for nap-of-the-earth (noe) flight research

Halim Ozkaptan  *

Principal Scientist and Work Unit Area Leader

United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

The helicopter pilot is more directly dependent upon his visual cues than the pilot of a fixed wing aircraft, and in some respects the operator of a land-based vehicle.  Helicopter flight has the following basic peculiarities:

1)          flight often in the low altitude realm;

2)          rapid excursions within three-dimensional space;

3)          relatively higher angular velocities of the viewed scene;

4)          reduced frames of reference under low light levels;

5)          frequent non-correspondence between the visual line of sight and “seat of the pants” due to crabbed flighted conditions;

6)          Surveillance of large rather than narrow fields of view.

The above, plus other considerations lead to pilot problems of visual perception, geographical orientation, and the avoidance of obstacles.  The helicopter pilot for these reasons can be considered as the busiest man in the air.  The effectiveness and safety of helicopter flight, as a result, directly depend upon the adequacy with which the pilot perceives and responds to his visual cues, both in the natural world and on his displays.

A visual flight research laboratory is needed where the visual capabilities and requirements of the helicopter pilot in this unique visual environment can be determined, and where visual aids and display concepts can be tested.  An increase in the mission capability and effectiveness of helicopter operations will be closely dependent upon the degree to which the pilot’s visual capabilities are aided or augmented in the operating environment.  Visual aids (including fire control) may become the primary focal points about which cockpits will be developed.  Nap-of-the-Earth (NOE) flight under low illumination levels represents the primary research problem for such a facility.

*Special acknowledgment is made for the review and suggestions of Mr. J. Ohmart of the Martin Marietta Corporation.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 
Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website.

a high resolution color tv system for

visual simulation

Alfonso Cosentino

Senior Staff Engineer

Grumman Aerospace Corporation

In recent years the requirements for visual simulation systems have shifted from black and white TV to color.  Standard 525-line broadcast color cameras have been used in most systems.  Unfortunately due to registration, convergence and other problems peculiar to simultaneous color systems, the maximum attainable resolution at the display is in the order of 250-300 TV lines.  The scene lighting requirements are very high since these cameras do not use low-light level tubes.  This is so because of the small aperture that is used in the optical probe.  A high-resolution color camera has been developed that eliminates most of the shortcomings of the simultaneous color camera systems.  This color system employs field sequential techniques.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.
 Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website.

evaluation of an automated flight training system

Joseph A. Puig

Research Psychologist, Human Factors Laboratory

Naval Training Equipment Center

and

Susan Gill

Education Specialist for the Chief of Naval Air Training

Naval Air Training Command

To determine the effectiveness of an automated, adaptive GCA module, an experimental comparison of training with this system and conventional training was performed in the Advanced Jet Phase at NAS, Chase Field, Beeville, Texas.

The Naval Training Equipment Center has been involved in a continuing project of programmed and adaptive training.  Digital computer technology and advances in performance measurement techniques have provided a means for implementing these training concepts.

The advantages of automated adaptive training include standardization of instruction, progress tailored to match the individuals abilities, and objective performance measurement.  Additionally, reducing the number and required experience level of the instructors could decrease costs.

An exploratory study was conducted in 1971 to demonstrate the feasibility of implementing an automated adaptive training program (Charles and Johnson, 1972).  Automated ground controlled approach and emergency procedures tasks were implemented on the NAVTRAEQUIPCEN Training Device Computer (TRADEC) and tested with operational pilots.

The results demonstrated the feasibility of automated training and its acceptance by operational personnel.  What remained to be done was an evaluation of the GCA module in an operational flight trainer.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 
Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website.

usaf evaluation of an automated adaptive flight training system

James E. Brown, Edward E. Eddowes, and Dr. Wayne L. Waag

Research Psychologists, Flying Training Division

Air Force Human Resources Laboratory

In August 1973, the Tactical Air Command (TAC) began acceptance of an Automated Flight Training System (AFTS) built by Logicon, Inc.  The device, installed as a parasitic system on one of the existing F-4E simulators at Luke AFB, AZ was designed to provide automated adaptive training for ground-controlled approaches.  In December 1973, TAC requested that AFHRL conduct an operational evaluation of the AFTS in the F-4 combat crew training program.  Through mutual agreement of both TAC and AFHRL, the evaluation was initiated in May 1974 and concluded in November 1974.  The major objectives of the evaluation were:

1) evaluate the training effectiveness of the Automated Flight Training System (AFGTS) in the F-4 Training Program;

2) identify desired hardware and software modifications for operational devices; and

3) Identify effectiveness methods of operational training use.

Since one of the major characteristics of the AFTS was its use of adaptive training, a brief description of the concept and related research literature will be presented.

The term “Adaptive Training” typically is used to represent a training situation “in which the problem, the stimulus, or the task is automatically varied as a function of how well the trainee performs,”  (Kelley 1971).  It can be seen from this definition that adaptive training requires:

1)       a continuous or repetitive measurement of trainee performance

2)       one of more task variables that can be adjusted to change task difficulty

3)       A means for automatically adapting task difficulty as a function of the performance measurement such that the task becomes more difficult as the trainee becomes more skilled (Kelley and Wargo, 1968).

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 
Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website.

a new approach for establishing aerodynamic performance of flight trainers

Major Robert L. Catron

Project Director, Synthetic Flight Training System (SFTS)

United States Army Training Device Agency

The purpose of this paper is to describe the approach taken by the Army on Device 2B31, the CH-47 Helicopter Trainer, to ensure that the aerodynamic performance of the training device satisfactorily duplicates that of the helicopter.  To the best of our knowledge, this approach has never been taken before.  It is a new concept, which acknowledges and addresses an old problem: the lack of documented information defining aerodynamic performance in an accurate, comprehensive fashion.

It has long been recognized in the two areas of performance and flying qualities, in particular, that high fidelity of simulation is critical.  Fidelity in these two areas helps assure acceptance of the simulator by the trainee, enables learning of the requisite psychomotor skills, and maximizes the transfer of training.

Despite this recognition by training specialists and despite the attempts of trainer procurement agencies and users to achieve this fidelity, it has not always happened.  There are undoubtedly many different reasons why this is so.  But there is also one common problem shared by virtually all simulator development programs: definitive data which completely describes the aircraft’s handling characteristics under all flying conditions, throughout all flight regimes, is often simply not available.  Without this data, the simulator manufacturer cannot properly perform his design function; with it, current technology makes it fully possible to realize the aforementioned fidelity.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 
Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website.

flight simulator Fidelity assurance

Captain Steven K. Rust

United States Air Force Tactical Air Warfare Center

Full Mission Simulator Directorate

Eglin Air Force Base

John Gillespie Magee, Jr., in his famous poem, High Flight, said, “Oh, I have slipped the surley bonds of earth and danced the skies on laughter silvered wings.  Sunward I’ve climbed and joined the tumbled mirth of sunsplit clouds and done a hundred things you have not dreamed of.”

Well, I have done all those things and more in a flight simulator with its hydraulic legs firmly bolted to a 250,000-pound slab of concrete.  You might also say I have slipped the surly bonds of FAA and AFR 60-16 and flown through the open doors of a maintenance hangar, spun my craft to within a few feet of the ground, flown formation, landed in zero-zero weather, and buzzed Williams Air Force Base in a manner that even the Thunderbirds have not been cleared to do.

The flight simulator I’ve done all these things in is the Advanced Simulator for Undergraduate Pilot Training (ASUPT).   It is one of the simulators used for training research by the Air Force Human Resources Laboratory, Flying Training division, located at Williams Air Force Base, Arizona.

Before explaining exactly what my role was in insuring simulator fidelity for this system, which simulates the T-37 aircraft, I will first describe some of the unique features of this full mission simulator, and second, explain the philosophy behind ASUPT because it impacts my role in assuring simulator fidelity.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 
Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website.

simulator cockpit motion

and the transfer of initial flight training

Robert S. Jacobs

Hughes Aircraft Company

and

Dr. Stanley N. Roscoe, Professor of Aviation, Psychology and Aeronautical and Astronautical Engineering at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Transfer of flight training from a Singer-Link GAT-2 training simulator, modified to approximate a counterpart Piper Cherokee Arrow airplane, was measured for independent groups of nine flight-naïve subjects, each trained in one of three simulator cockpit motion conditions: normal washout motion in bank with sustained pitch angles, washout banking motion in which the direction of motion relative to that of the simulated airplane was randomly reversed 50% of the time as the cab passed through a wings-level attitude, and a fixed-based condition.  Subjects received predetermined fixed amounts of practice in the simulator on each of 11 flight maneuvers drawn from the Private Pilot flight curriculum.  Transfer performance measures, including flight time and trials to FAA performance criteria and total errors made in the process, showed reliable transfer for all groups with differential transfer effects and cost-effectiveness implications depending upon the type of simulator motion.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 
Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website.

nested syllabi in flight training

Dr. John P. Charles

Vice President

Appli-Mation, Inc.

“Tailoring” or “individualizing” the training session to meet the unique needs of each student has long been recognized as an objective of a training program.  Perhaps most importantly, the technique of individualized training can increase training efficiency by concentrating the training time available on the tasks or behaviors at which the student has not yet developed the required proficiency.  Thus, training resources are not needlessly expended on training at tasks in which the student is already proficient.  Other benefits are also attributed to the technique.  Some of the most interesting are increased motivation and improved quality control.  The former is considered to stem primarily from the fact that the student is presented with the fact that the student is presented with a challenging task, neve