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INTRODUCTION TO THE CONFERENCE

G. Vincent Amico

Director of Engineering

Naval Training Equipment Center

I would like to welcome you to this Eighth NAVTRAEQUIPCEN/Industry Conference.  These conferences were initiated in 1966 concurrent with the relocation of the Center from Port Washington to Orlando.  The motivation, which led to the establishment of the first conference, namely improved communication between government and Industry, is as valid today as it was then.  In fact, with the increased emphasis being placed on synthetic training by the congress and Department of Defense, the need for effective communication to identify and resolve problem areas in simulation technology and training methods is essential to insure the optimum effectiveness of training systems which are being developed.

In setting the theme for this year’s conference, I will briefly summarize the progress which has been made in the past quarter of a century, enumerate the design concept currently being specified for new acquisitions, and make a projection about what we might expect in future training systems.

To review the progress in the past quarter of a century, I have selected to trace the development of operational flight trainers for fighter aircraft.  Devices in other warfare areas such as the surface and submarine programs have experienced similar trends.

The advances in training concepts for the operational flight trainer are related to operational flight trainer cost, operational aircraft cost and quantities.  The operational flight trainer has progressed from a fixed-base system (no motion), with an analog computer solving a rather limited set of flight equations, to today’s trainers, with 6-degree-of-freedom motion systems driven by general-purpose digital computers solving twelve first-order difference equations of motion.  These latest systems also have a narrow-angle visual attachment with either a model board or a computer generated image system, which is used to provide training in the takeoff and landing phase of flight.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE SYSTEMS APPROACH TO SYNTHETIC TRAINING

Dr. Jay R. Swink

Logicon, Inc.

In recent years, the systems approach to training (SAT) or instructional systems development (ISD) has received considerable attention as an effective and efficient means of improving the quality of training and reducing costs.  To date, the vast majority of this attention has been directed to academic training due primarily to developments in individualized, multimedia hardware and software.  In the area of aircrew flying training programs, however, a significant portion of the curriculum involves ground-based skills training devices.  Unfortunately, synthetic training has not received extensive application of the systems approach.  Yet, it is this phase of training, more than any other, in which improvements in training effectiveness can most directly effect operational proficiency with the potential for trading off flight hours for more effective ground-based training at significant cost savings.

It has long been recognized that the total training capabilities of synthetic training devices are seldom, if ever, fully realized in the field.  This is due to several factors including 1) unspecified or ill-defined training objectives, 2) inappropriate utilization of the synthetic devices, and 3) inadequate training of the instructors in the operation of the trainers.  The deliberate and orderly application of the systems approach to the synthetic training regime can correct many of these deficiencies.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

improvements in visual flight simulation

Dr. Archer Michael Spooner

Chief Scientist

Redifon Flight Simulation Limited

Before describing improved forms of closed circuit television visual simulation, it will be as well to refer briefly to the type which has become almost a standard for CCTV landing and takeoff simulation.

This uses a terrain model about 40 ft long by 15 ft high, and at a scale of 2000:1 covers an area of terrain 14x5 nautical miles, allowing circling approaches to a runway 1 1/2 nm long.  A 625-line broadcast type color television camera generates a picture for display to the pilot using Duoview or Monoview displays over a field of view of approximately 50 wide by 38 high.  The view of the runway with the simulated aircraft on the ground gives good training value, but is not sharply focussed in the foreground due to the limited depth of field of the optical probe.

The minimum pilot’s eye height above the runway is determined by how closely the center of the entrance pupil of the optical prove connected to the camera can approach to the model runway surface without a danger of making contact and so causing damage; a figure of 12 1/2 ft at the 2000:1 scale has been specified as giving an adequate factor of safety.

The minimum eye height is the key factor, which determines the minimum model scale that can be used if a view from the correct height is to be achieved on the ground.  If the minimum eye height could be halved, the model scale could be doubled, allowing either a) four times the area of terrain to be modeled for the same size model, or b) the same area of terrain to be modeled on a model of one quarter the size.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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a grid-based variable resolution data base

for real-time visual training systems

Dr. Robert T. P. Wang

Senior Principal Development Engineer

Honeywell, Marine Systems Division California Center

As the cost of operating tactical equipment rises, the use of ground-based simulation trainers becomes increasingly attractive as a basic training tool.  The use of simulators has become even more attractive as new breakthroughs in hardware technology permit more computation at higher speeds, for less cost.  The increased computational and data handling speed of new electronic hardware has opened the door to higher data resolutions and greater complexity in simulation models to improve the realism of the synthesized displays.

All airborne navigation related simulation trainers require the vehicle simulated to cover vast expanses of terrain during each training session, while the student correlates the simulated displays to support material such as charts and photographs.  This means that simulators designed to train navigators and pilots must not only be capable of simulating displays that cover a wide range of terrain, but must also provide sufficient fidelity to pass as the actual operational equipment.  Furthermore, the simulated images should be geographically and geometrically correct to even permit the student to use permission-briefing material normally supplied for operational missions.  One example of a state-of-the-art navigation radar simulator that satisfies all these criteria is the recently delivered Honeywell-designed and –built Undergraduate Navigator Training System (UNTS).  Some technical features of the UNTS radar system will be discussed here to serve as a springboard to newer techniques that permit mixed resolution data nesting without sacrificing geographic integrity.

cig visual system for the t-37b jet trainer (asupt)

Harry W. Beardsley, Jr.

Manager of ASUPT Site Operations

General Electric Company, Space Division, Ground Systems Department

The Computer Image Generation (CIG) System was developed for the Air Force Advanced Simulation in Undergraduate Pilot Training (ASUPT) Program by General Electric Company.  The technology represented by the ASUPT system was developed partly by General Electric Independent Research and Development and partly on the Air Force Human Resources Laboratory, Air Force Systems Command Contract.

The ASUPT System is a simulator for the T-37B aircraft.  The T-37B aircraft is a jet aircraft used by the Air Force for training of undergraduate pilots.  The T-37B is a two-place side by side twin-engine jet aircraft with the student occupying the left-hand seat and the instructor pilot occupying the right-hand seat.

The ASUPT simulator system consists of two complete motion base mounted cockpits with visual displays driven by common general purpose and special purpose computer hardware.  Figure 1 represents a top-level hardware block diagram of the ASUPT Simulator System.  The solid line blocks of the diagram represent the parts of the ASUPT Simulator system that were developed as a part of the ASUPT CIG Development contract.  The ASUPT Simulator includes a six-degree-of-freedom motion base upon which a T-37B cockpit is mounted.  Also mounted on the motion base and completely surrounding the cockpit is a full field of view visual display.  The motion base, cockpit controls and indicators, and flight dynamics are determined and controlled by a General Purpose digital computer and special interface hardware.  The visual display scene is generated by a mosaic of seven large cathode ray tubes and infinity optics, associated drive electronics, a special purpose computer and a dual CPU General Purpose computer.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.
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effects of visual system time delay on pilot performance

Fred R. Cooper, Electronics Engineer

Analysis and Design Branch of the Systems Engineering Division

Naval Training Equipment Center

and

William T. Harris, Research Engineer

Computer Laboratory of the Research and Technology Department

Naval Training Equipment Center

and

Vincent J. Sharkey, Deputy Director

Human Factors Laboratory

Naval Training Equipment Center

Because of the current national economy, the fuel shortage, concern for ecology, and the ever increasing complexity and cost of modern weapon systems, there is, and will likely continue to be, emphasis on the development and utilization of sophisticated flight simulators.  Military and commercial aircraft users are investing heavily in flight simulators equipped with visual systems and in visual systems to be attached to existing flight simulators.

In general, visual simulators are conceived as add-on systems to flight trainers.  Investigation of interfacing such systems has been, historically and typically, less than rigorous.  Addition of one system to another seems inevitably to affect the operation of the combination.  Such is the case with visual systems when attached to flight simulators.

A delay exists between the time a visual system receives its inputs and the time a visual presentation is displayed.  For example, the computer Generated Image Advanced Development Model visual system attached to Device 2F90, a TA-4J OFT, at Kingsville Naval Air Station (NAS), Texas, in late 1973, required a little in excess of 100 ms to generate a visual scene.  This time delay added to the 50 ms update cycle time of the 2F90, represented a 200 percent change in time related effects on the pilot’s control responses.  The question thus naturally arose as to what effect this additional delay is likely to have on the training effectiveness of a flight simulator system.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 
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critical visual requirements

for nap-of-the-earth (noe) flight research

Halim Ozkaptan  *

Principal Scientist and Work Unit Area Leader

United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

The helicopter pilot is more directly dependent upon his visual cues than the pilot of a fixed wing aircraft, and in some respects the operator of a land-based vehicle.  Helicopter flight has the following basic peculiarities:

1)          flight often in the low altitude realm;

2)          rapid excursions within three-dimensional space;

3)          relatively higher angular velocities of the viewed scene;

4)          reduced frames of reference under low light levels;

5)          frequent non-correspondence between the visual line of sight and “seat of the pants” due to crabbed flighted conditions;

6)          Surveillance of large rather than narrow fields of view.

The above, plus other considerations lead to pilot problems of visual perception, geographical orientation, and the avoidance of obstacles.  The helicopter pilot for these reasons can be considered as the busiest man in the air.  The effectiveness and safety of helicopter flight, as a result, directly depend upon the adequacy with which the pilot perceives and responds to his visual cues, both in the natural world and on his displays.

A visual flight research laboratory is needed where the visual capabilities and requirements of the helicopter pilot in this unique visual environment can be determined, and where visual aids and display concepts can be tested.  An increase in the mission capability and effectiveness of helicopter operations will be closely dependent upon the degree to which the pilot’s visual capabilities are aided or augmented in the operating environment.  Visual aids (including fire control) may become the primary focal points about which cockpits will be developed.  Nap-of-the-Earth (NOE) flight under low illumination levels represents the primary research problem for such a facility.

*Special acknowledgment is made for the review and suggestions of Mr. J. Ohmart of the Martin Marietta Corporation.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 
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a high resolution color tv system for

visual simulation

Alfonso Cosentino

Senior Staff Engineer

Grumman Aerospace Corporation

In recent years the requirements for visual simulation systems have shifted from black and white TV to color.  Standard 525-line broadcast color cameras have been used in most systems.  Unfortunately due to registration, convergence and other problems peculiar to simultaneous color systems, the maximum attainable resolution at the display is in the order of 250-300 TV lines.  The scene lighting requirements are very high since these cameras do not use low-light level tubes.  This is so because of the small aperture that is used in the optical probe.  A high-resolution color camera has been developed that eliminates most of the shortcomings of the simultaneous color camera systems.  This color system employs field sequential techniques.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.
 Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website.

evaluation of an automated flight training system

Joseph A. Puig

Research Psychologist, Human Factors Laboratory

Naval Training Equipment Center

and

Susan Gill

Education Specialist for the Chief of Naval Air Training

Naval Air Training Command

To determine the effectiveness of an automated, adaptive GCA module, an experimental comparison of training with this system and conventional training was performed in the Advanced Jet Phase at NAS, Chase Field, Beeville, Texas.

The Naval Training Equipment Center has been involved in a continuing project of programmed and adaptive training.  Digital computer technology and advances in performance measurement techniques have provided a means for implementing these training concepts.

The advantages of automated adaptive training include standardization of instruction, progress tailored to match the individuals abilities, and objective performance measurement.  Additionally, reducing the number and required experience level of the instructors could decrease costs.

An exploratory study was conducted in 1971 to demonstrate the feasibility of implementing an automated adaptive training program (Charles and Johnson, 1972).  Automated ground controlled approach and emergency procedures tasks were implemented on the NAVTRAEQUIPCEN Training Device Computer (TRADEC) and tested with operational pilots.

The results demonstrated the feasibility of automated training and its acceptance by operational personnel.  What remained to be done was an evaluation of the GCA module in an operational flight trainer.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 
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usaf evaluation of an automated adaptive flight training system

James E. Brown, Edward E. Eddowes, and Dr. Wayne L. Waag

Research Psychologists, Flying Training Division

Air Force Human Resources Laboratory

In August 1973, the Tactical Air Command (TAC) began acceptance of an Automated Flight Training System (AFTS) built by Logicon, Inc.  The device, installed as a parasitic system on one of the existing F-4E simulators at Luke AFB, AZ was designed to provide automated adaptive training for ground-controlled approaches.  In December 1973, TAC requested that AFHRL conduct an operational evaluation of the AFTS in the F-4 combat crew training program.  Through mutual agreement of both TAC and AFHRL, the evaluation was initiated in May 1974 and concluded in November 1974.  The major objectives of the evaluation were:

1) evaluate the training effectiveness of the Automated Flight Training System (AFGTS) in the F-4 Training Program;

2) identify desired hardware and software modifications for operational devices; and

3) Identify effectiveness methods of operational training use.

Since one of the major characteristics of the AFTS was its use of adaptive training, a brief description of the concept and related research literature will be presented.

The term “Adaptive Training” typically is used to represent a training situation “in which the problem, the stimulus, or the task is automatically varied as a function of how well the trainee performs,”  (Kelley 1971).  It can be seen from this definition that adaptive training requires:

1)       a continuous or repetitive measurement of trainee performance

2)       one of more task variables that can be adjusted to change task difficulty

3)       A means for automatically adapting task difficulty as a function of the performance measurement such that the task becomes more difficult as the trainee becomes more skilled (Kelley and Wargo, 1968).

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 
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a new approach for establishing aerodynamic performance of flight trainers

Major Robert L. Catron

Project Director, Synthetic Flight Training System (SFTS)

United States Army Training Device Agency

The purpose of this paper is to describe the approach taken by the Army on Device 2B31, the CH-47 Helicopter Trainer, to ensure that the aerodynamic performance of the training device satisfactorily duplicates that of the helicopter.  To the best of our knowledge, this approach has never been taken before.  It is a new concept, which acknowledges and addresses an old problem: the lack of documented information defining aerodynamic performance in an accurate, comprehensive fashion.

It has long been recognized in the two areas of performance and flying qualities, in particular, that high fidelity of simulation is critical.  Fidelity in these two areas helps assure acceptance of the simulator by the trainee, enables learning of the requisite psychomotor skills, and maximizes the transfer of training.

Despite this recognition by training specialists and despite the attempts of trainer procurement agencies and users to achieve this fidelity, it has not always happened.  There are undoubtedly many different reasons why this is so.  But there is also one common problem shared by virtually all simulator development programs: definitive data which completely describes the aircraft’s handling characteristics under all flying conditions, throughout all flight regimes, is often simply not available.  Without this data, the simulator manufacturer cannot properly perform his design function; with it, current technology makes it fully possible to realize the aforementioned fidelity.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 
Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website.

flight simulator Fidelity assurance

Captain Steven K. Rust

United States Air Force Tactical Air Warfare Center

Full Mission Simulator Directorate

Eglin Air Force Base

John Gillespie Magee, Jr., in his famous poem, High Flight, said, “Oh, I have slipped the surley bonds of earth and danced the skies on laughter silvered wings.  Sunward I’ve climbed and joined the tumbled mirth of sunsplit clouds and done a hundred things you have not dreamed of.”

Well, I have done all those things and more in a flight simulator with its hydraulic legs firmly bolted to a 250,000-pound slab of concrete.  You might also say I have slipped the surly bonds of FAA and AFR 60-16 and flown through the open doors of a maintenance hangar, spun my craft to within a few feet of the ground, flown formation, landed in zero-zero weather, and buzzed Williams Air Force Base in a manner that even the Thunderbirds have not been cleared to do.

The flight simulator I’ve done all these things in is the Advanced Simulator for Undergraduate Pilot Training (ASUPT).   It is one of the simulators used for training research by the Air Force Human Resources Laboratory, Flying Training division, located at Williams Air Force Base, Arizona.

Before explaining exactly what my role was in insuring simulator fidelity for this system, which simulates the T-37 aircraft, I will first describe some of the unique features of this full mission simulator, and second, explain the philosophy behind ASUPT because it impacts my role in assuring simulator fidelity.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 
Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website.

simulator cockpit motion

and the transfer of initial flight training

Robert S. Jacobs

Hughes Aircraft Company

and

Dr. Stanley N. Roscoe, Professor of Aviation, Psychology and Aeronautical and Astronautical Engineering at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Transfer of flight training from a Singer-Link GAT-2 training simulator, modified to approximate a counterpart Piper Cherokee Arrow airplane, was measured for independent groups of nine flight-naïve subjects, each trained in one of three simulator cockpit motion conditions: normal washout motion in bank with sustained pitch angles, washout banking motion in which the direction of motion relative to that of the simulated airplane was randomly reversed 50% of the time as the cab passed through a wings-level attitude, and a fixed-based condition.  Subjects received predetermined fixed amounts of practice in the simulator on each of 11 flight maneuvers drawn from the Private Pilot flight curriculum.  Transfer performance measures, including flight time and trials to FAA performance criteria and total errors made in the process, showed reliable transfer for all groups with differential transfer effects and cost-effectiveness implications depending upon the type of simulator motion.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 
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nested syllabi in flight training

Dr. John P. Charles

Vice President

Appli-Mation, Inc.

“Tailoring” or “individualizing” the training session to meet the unique needs of each student has long been recognized as an objective of a training program.  Perhaps most importantly, the technique of individualized training can increase training efficiency by concentrating the training time available on the tasks or behaviors at which the student has not yet developed the required proficiency.  Thus, training resources are not needlessly expended on training at tasks in which the student is already proficient.  Other benefits are also attributed to the technique.  Some of the most interesting are increased motivation and improved quality control.  The former is considered to stem primarily from the fact that the student is presented with the fact that the student is presented with a challenging task, never a boring one.  The latter is really a result of the necessity for objective performance measurement to employ the technique.  Thus, considerable benefit has been attributed to the individualized training technique.  While better data is needed to verify some of the effects, there can be little doubt that it is in fact a productive training method.

The implementation of the approach is, unfortunately, not always simple and straightforward.  Some limited mechanization of it has been attempted.  Of course, any good instructor manually accomplishes at least some of the tailoring goals on a case basis.  However, overall, only a very limited exploitation of the approach has been achieved, especially in aviation training.  A brief look at the four major tasks involved will help explain the lack of implementation of the technique.  The tasks involve the development of::

1)       Task or training objectives

2)       Objective performance criteria

3)       Performance measurement

4)       Detailed training course

The achievement of these four requirements is a sizeable job.  Yet considerable progress has been made, especially in the techniques for developing the first three.  The Exploratory and Advanced Development projects conducted by the Human factors group at the Naval Training Equipment Center over the recent years have been instrumental in developing and evaluating the tools required.  The studies have shown that performance criteria can be isolated.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.
 Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website.

CRT SYSTEM SPECIFICATION AND SELECTION

Charles J. Beatty

Staff Engineer-Systems

Singer-Simulation Products Division

Requirements for CRT systems are appearing in nearly all of today’s flight simulator specifications.  The CRT system, together with an interactive keyboard, is used at instructor and operator stations to perform functions previously accomplished with dedicated devices such as switches, potentiometers, lights, repeater instruments, and plotters.  Specification and selection of such CRT system hardware requires a firm definition of the CRT’s use and an understanding of what impact each specification requirement has on the configuration and cost of the resulting system.  If careful analysis of each desired display system characteristic is not performed, the resulting specification will impose impossible or costly constraints on prospective suppliers.

The molecular array illustrated in figure 1 depicts relationships between pairs of system specification components.  No one component stands on its own, but it will distort the whole system if given too much weight.  By systematically weighing each component when establishing requirements, costly or unnecessary characteristics will be avoided.

The following issues of discussion are designed to clarify the complexities of dictating characteristics and to suggest options or features desirable in simulator applications.  The order of discussion is typical of a logical approach to developing an end product specification.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 
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simulator maintenance and test system

Christopher M. Collins

Systems Analyst

Singer-Simulation Products Division

The Simulator Maintenance and Test System (SMTS) is a semi-automatic, totally integrated and flexible system designed to facilitate Flight Simulator and Weapon System Trainer Test Programs.  It provides a cost effective means of performing real-time system hardware verification testing and is ideally suited to the testing and troubleshooting of complex state-of-the-art electronic circuit cards and assemblies such as those associated with the simulator linkage system (computer digital input/output conversion equipment).  The system thus reduces to a minimum the arduous and laborious tasks of simulator hardware checkout that usually requires several engineers, a variety of test equipment, and very often, special linkage coupling devices.  SMTS employs management information techniques to provide a practical method of accurately documenting the numerous simulator electronic assemblies and subassemblies.  The system utilizes a simple interactive CRT system and an easily modifiable database to establish an effective and optimal interface between man and the machine.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 
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mission planning tablet–

a new concept for the training instructor

Igor V. Golovcsenko

Electronics Engineer

Naval Training Equipment Center

A number of devices such as tablets, joysticks, and light-pens are presently available for the input of graphic information to a computer (1).  These devices make it possible to interact very effectively with a computer program.

This report describes a specific method using one such device for data input from an instructor’s console.  The method allows the instructor to insert geographic mission parameters directly from a graphic data tablet.  This is considerably more convenient and less time consuming than data entry through punched cards or alphanumeric teletypewriter-type keyboards.

A prototype Mission Planning tablet has been demonstrated in the computer Laboratory of the Naval Training Equipment Center.  The tablet was utilized to draw and input preprogrammed flight paths, terrain contours, boundaries, and emitter positions directly from an Operational Navigation Chart.  The format of the command language was identical to the instructor’s language in Device 15E22, EA-6B Team Tactics Trainer.  The capability of data input through a Mission Planning tablet could form a part of an on-line capability to interactively construct and modify a mission or scenario.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.
 Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website.

a field-programmable logic processor for training systems

John Edward Dye

Design Engineer

and

Lee Vaughn Dively

Vice President

Burtek, Inc.

The next generation in the evolution of training systems may be controlled by logic processors using a software technique similar to Burtek’s STEP II.  It features a software program that accepts a mnemonic English vocabulary, and the user is furnished with an input editor to incorporate logic revisions necessary to reflect updating changes in the system being simulated.

Over the past decade manufacturers of training systems have relied increasingly on computers and associated hardware as a means of simulating complex responses from sophisticated training equipment.  Indeed, as the cost and size of digital computers have been reduced through technological advances in the industry, the tendency has been to use digital computers on less complex training equipment.  And, we can expect this trend to continue on into the foreseeable future.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 
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synthesized acoustics simulation

Robert P. Rodgers, Manager

Tactics Systems Engineering Section

Singer-Simulation Products

Airborne antisubmarine warfare (ASW) simulation focuses to a great extent on the acoustics world.  This paper describes the real-world part of the problem, acoustic simulation approaches, and, finally, the implementation of an Inverse Fast Fourier Method of simulating passive ASW acoustic systems.

Effective ASW acoustics simulation requires a comprehensive analysis and understanding of the real-world problems (illustrated in Figure 1) in the following major areas: acoustic sources, environments, acoustic receivers, and processors–display and control.

Each of these must be analyzed to define the real-world characteristics in order that the appropriate effects required may be reflected into system math models.  A brief discussion of each of these areas follows.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.
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from submarine to satellite

diverse applications for digital image generation techniques

Murry Shohat

The Singer Company–Simulation Products Division

Attaching digital image generators (DIG) to existing and new operational flight and weapon system trainers is indeed attractive, since it increases the amount of training to be attained with new simulators and can extend the utility and useful life of older ones.  But our thinking need not be restricted solely to flight training.  If real-time digitally generated visual scenes are good for the pilot, why not also for the submarine commander or astronaut?

The visual simulation diversity evident in this question emphasizes the flexibility of digital technology.  It is a flexibility in which virtually all applications for visual systems in the training environment can be fulfilled from a single technological base.

Figure 1 lists a number of existing and potential visual system training applications.  Some of these are unique in that they have nothing whatever to do with pilot training in takeoff and landing maneuvers.  In this respect, these applications represent new training system concepts in which the visual simulation requirements are diverse, ranging in detail content from a few hundred to many thousands of scene elements.

This range of scene complexity has resulted in the emergence of two distinct digital techniques for the production of computer generated visual scenes on cathode ray tube and other display devices: raster and calligraphic deflection.  Calligraphic deflection is also termed “stroke writing”, “directed beam” and “X-Y deflection”.  These terms are interchangeable.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 
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the experimental radar prediction device (erpd)

Major David L. Donaldson, USAF

Rome Air Development Center, Intelligence and Reconnaissance Division

and

Alexander J. Grant, System Engineer

General Electric Company

Several Air Force studies have shown that the existing light-optical radar simulators are inadequate to support the prediction needs for low altitude missions of the older radar systems such as that used by the F-4D.  These studies have also shown that they cannot support procedural training and enroute navigation for newer radar systems such as that used by the F-111.

Having no adequate mechanical technique to produce radar predictions has resulted in almost total reliance on hand-drawn predictions.  The use of hand-drawn predictions has many deficiencies that make this technique non-responsive to current needs.  Hand-drawn predictions are, in general; inconsistent in quality, detail, and accuracy because of the variation in individual operator skills and the lack of current, accurate, large scale source materials.  In a tactical situation, it is desirable to plan an optimum mission; that is, to select the best penetration route, bomb or airdrop run corridor, flight profile, and offset aiming points.  This requires the production of several sets of predictions.  Tactical situations are often very dynamic and require near instant response to an operational targeting order.  A 12 to 36 hour response from receipt of order to mission execution does not permit the time-consuming analysis and photographic support necessary for preparation of hand-drawn radar predictions.  Tactical experience has shown that 3 to 5 hours are often required for a hand-drawn prediction of a detailed target area.  This prediction, of course, is only valid from one point in space and requires additional time for another prediction from a different location or heading.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 
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Radar navigation trainer, device 15f12

John W. Hammond

AAI Corporation

Dan G. Dixon and Milton J. Lohr

Defense Mapping Agency’s Hydrographic Center

Device 15F12 is a digital landmass and target simulator for surface search radar sets.  It will be used to train CIC teams and bridge personnel in the techniques of shipboard radar navigation and collision avoidance.  The trainer provides simulated radar video for landmass and target returns coordinated with depth indicator readings and a dead reckoning plot.

This trainer is currently under development by the Naval Training Equipment Center.  AAI Corporation is the prime contractor, and the digital landmass and bathymetric database is being produced by the Defense Mapping Agency Hydrographic Center.

The landmass region simulated by Device 15F12 is 64 by 64 nautical mile square.  The Norfolk-Hampton Roads is the first such area to be simulated.  Ownship and 12 surface ship targets can be maneuvered within a 164 square nautical mile area centered on the landmass region.

In the stand-alone mode of operation, ownship and the 12 targets can be maneuvered by the Device Operator with helm and engine orders or the ship tracks can be part of a pre-programmed exercise.  In the alternate mode of operation, Device 15F12 provides simulated radar landmass video for one bridge of the TACDEW Master Simulation Program.

Ownships simulated radar is adjustable over a very broad range of antenna, receiver and transmitter characteristics.  These are pre-grammable and can be varied by the Device Operator to simulate almost any United States Navy surface search or 2D air search radar.

The radar video simulation includes sea return as well as returns from targets, land, cultural features and navigation aids.  The digital database includes bathymetry for depth indicator simulation.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 
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new concepts of ew environmental simulation

for operator training

William H. McMillan

Director of Engineering

Antekna, Incorporated

To be effective in the field of EW environmental simulation we must be aware of and design in accordance with technologies that vary as a result of other technologies.  For just as technological changes have varied the environment in which the EW operator finds himself, they have also altered the equipment with which he samples that environment.  This continuing technological growth of radar and ECM equipment must, therefore, be accompanied by an expansion of equipment and techniques for the training of operators. 

That technologies change is certainly not a new problem; it is the rate of change that has become the challenge and seems to create more problems for us than it resolves.  As a result, equipment and technique must teach operators to react effectively in tomorrow’s environment, not in yesterday’s–or even today’s.  Instructors must be able to help students learn to adapt to changing environments with new ECCM techniques rather than simply teaching them how to respond to existing environments and known sequences.  The operators must be continuously trained to adapt to these changes in hardware and the language used to describe them or the panic of obsolescence will severely attenuate his learning potential and his ultimate usefulness in an environment that requires his expertise.  The environment in which he operates has become extremely complex and very unforgiving of mistakes.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 
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the operation of computer-managed instruction in the navy–

current and future perspectives

Dr. Duncan N. Hansen

Professor of Foundations of Education

Bureau of Educational Research and Services

Memphis State University

and

Robert P. Fishburne, Jr.

Doctoral Candidate

Memphis State University

The Navy CMI system represents the most outstanding large computer-based, individualized instructional system developed to date; an important achievement for which there are several reasons.  First and foremost, there has been and continues to be exemplary training effectiveness within the system.  The logistic achievement of a computer supporting in excess of 3,000 students represents a first in this field.  A more dramatic achievement is the cost beneficial outcome–a savings of $10.2 million during FY 75; a savings rarely found in the beginning life cycle of a training system.  Finally, the Navy CMI system has institutionally integrated Navy technical training into common practices and styles while achieving its own unique benefits.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 
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an evaluation of computer based instruction for

performance of “hands-on” training evolutions

Joel W. Radsken

General Electric Ordnance Systems

Joseph F. Grosson

Strategic Systems Projects Offices

This paper describes an evaluation conducted at the Guided Missile School, Dam Neck, Virginia where three different computer based systems were used to compare computer based instruction (CBI) with conventional instruction.  The objective was to ascertain if certain “hands-on” training evolutions could be performed on CBI and thus reduce requirements for tactical training equipment.  A 72-man control group was used, and a significant amount of data was collected and statistically analyzed.  The data indicates that CBI can indeed be utilized with significant cost benefits derived by avoiding procurement of the tactical training equipment it replaces.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 
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effective training through simulation–now

Nicholas A. Sieko

Vice President of Educational Research and Development

 and

Joseph A. Breslin

Manager of Human Factors

Educational Computer Corporation

Annual military budgets of many billions of dollars are expended on the education and training of hundreds and thousands of men each year.  As in the public sector, until this last decade the process of instructional program design in the military community has been guided largely by intuition, personal judgement and an acceptance of existing procedures of operation in the school and classroom.  During this latter period some innovative teaching methods and media were developed, but the implementation of these techniques has been slow and limited.

A readily apparent reason for this is the reluctance of the educational community to introduce change into established school curriculums.  In addition, more subtle problems have been emerging.  One is the growth of ardent disciples of various training media and methods (e.g., AET’s, JPA’s, CAI, Programmed Text, etc.).  Each “discipline” appears parochial in its preoccupation with its own capabilities and techniques.  Another problem is the lack of uniformity in design and acceptance of the results of field validation of these new training techniques.

In short, while some of these new concepts have been introduced, we are still analyzing, investigating and talking about them while very little positive action has been taken to include them in new or existing programs.

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engineering computer systems for simulaTORs

Charles F. Summer

Project Engineer in the Computer Laboratory of the Research and Technology Department

Naval Training Equipment Center

Computer system engineering in the context of this paper includes both hardware and software.  Real-time systems controlled by computers are inherently different from conventional scientific and business ADP environments.  There are special system problems and special considerations of timing program organization to achieve effective real-time processing and control.  This paper addresses problems and procedures for engineering computer systems for real-time trainers and simulators.

In analyzing previous computer systems engineering efforts by trainer contractors, a number of problem areas have been identified.  Frequently, the real-time simulation problem was molded to a previously selected computer.  It was decided to use a specific computer according to some rationale and the contractor would “fit” the simulation problem to the computer instead of initially sizing the computer to the problem.  This one item is a key consideration for achieving a good real-time system for trainers.  Invariably, under such a philosophy a machine is selected which is either oversized, thereby wasting the extra capacity, or the problem must be significantly modified such that the fidelity of simulation suffers.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.
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concept of a performance specification

and its role in design of a training device

Dr. John A. Modrick

Staff Scientist in the Life Sciences Group

Systems & Research Center, Honeywell, Inc.

My own first reaction after I proposed writing a paper on the concept of a performance specification was “who needs it?”  Certainly we do not need to add to the hodgepodge of loosely defined verbiage and concepts that are already too conspicuous in our writings.  However, on further reflection, I became convinced that there is a need for the concept.  I have discovered that human factors specialists and engineers in different disciplines are struggling with the problem of how to go from the identification of the need for a device to an engineering specification against which a device can be built.  Further, what is required and how to proceed are recurrent topics of discussion.

The basic idea is not new or unfamiliar.  Everyone who had participated in the design of a training device, or caused one to be designed, has at some point gone through an exercise of stating what he wants the device to be able to do and how he intends to use it; that exercise is functionally equivalent to writing a performance specification.  The objective for this paper is to formalize the concept.

The presentation will be facilitated by the definition of some terms.  In some instances the selection of a specific word is arbitrary and there may be other words sufficiently flexible in usage that they can be defined satisfactorily for present purposes.  For example, the terms functional and performance specification tend to be used interchangeably and either would be adequate.  These semantic distinctions are not significant at this time and the terms will be defined in order to settle on a single usage.

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structured software design

W.L. White

Program Project Supervisor

Honeywell, Marine Systems Division California Center

A relatively new software development concept is emerging in industry that will lower production costs and increase software product usability.  The objective of this paper is to present this new concept to the Navy, so that achievement of an improved, cost-effective software product, available from a variety of procurement sources, may be realized.

In the late 1960’s a new term, “structured programming”, emerged in the programming industry.  Theoreticians well known to the programming field have presented formal papers discussing this subject.  Notable among these is Parnas, for his design concepts, and Dijkstra, for his programming language.

The term “structured programming”, from my viewpoint, is somewhat of a misnomer; “structured software design” seems rather more appropriate.  My opinion in this regard is based on the fact that the word “programming” is limiting in nature, being more often constrained to the equivalence of flow charting and coding.  The concept presented in this paper transcends those boundaries.  Also included is the presentation of a management solution of the programming problem, in the form of a “chief programmer team” concept.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 

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Papers published, but not presented:

automated training

Charles G. Aboyoun, Staff Engineer

John L. Glaize, Staff Engineer

Singer-Simulation Products Division

The development of large-scale naval tactical decision-making trainers has created the need for flexible automated training tools.  This point can be illustrated by briefly describing the requirements of a recently delivered naval tactics trainer.  The trainer contains fourteen cabins, one Marine Headquarters (MHQ) and seven controller stations. The trainer was designed to provide tactical training from the one on one (cabin vs. target or cabin) engagement level to the full war game level (14 cabins & MHQ vs. synthetic targets).  Each cabin can be configured as any air, surface, or subsurface vehicle.  The interaction between trainees in these cabins and the MHQ is monitored by the controllers during the tactical exercise.  One hundred twelve synthetic targets representing any air, surface, or subsurface vehicle can be introduced into the exercise and can be controlled by the controllers or cabin crews.  The roles of the controllers are to act as umpires, monitor trainee reactions, and to evaluate override weapon engagements.

Due to the flexible nature of a tactical decision-making trainer, the need for a flexible automated training system became apparent.  To meet this need, an extended level of automated training has been achieved through the development of a Training assistance system (TAS) employing a special training-device-oriented compiler and interpreter.  By utilizing its own computer, disk, and A/N display hardware, this system allows user personnel to develop a library of Training Assistance Programs (TAPS) which can:

1)      Create standard situations for trainees

2)      Monitor critical parameters associated with trainee reactions and provide alert messages to the controllers

3)      Score trainee reactions

4)      Relieve controllers of target control operations.

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computer resources integrated support plan,

applied in training systems acquisition

Philip S. Babel

Computer Group Leader in the Simulators and Human Factors Division

Directorate of Crew and AGE Engineering

Aeronautical Systems Division, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

The rapidly expanding application of programmable digital computer systems to the design of real-time crew training systems has amplified the complexity and impact of computer programs (software) in the world of training devices and simulators.  Computer equipment and computer program systems implement math model descriptions of real-world performance and characteristics.  In addition, computer programs implement environmental stimuli simulation, facilitate advanced instructional provisions, record and playback student performance and provide maintenance functions.  As a result of these expanding applications of computer systems in simulators, the life-cycle effectiveness of a simulator is largely dependent upon the adaptability and flexibility of the computer system.  The computer system must be configured with growth and supportability provisions to incorporate new operational requirements and incorporate changes in weapon system performance characteristics.

It has traditionally been assumed that changing “software” (i.e., the computer program system) is a simple matter.  Although computer programs can be modified and new programs written to change system performance independent of hardware, very real and often unexpected complications, limitations and restrictions are encountered in the attempts to change and expand computer programs.  Careful planning and the identification and specification of proper requirements can facilitate the potential flexibility inherent in computer programs as information processing elements of the system.

Within this context and awareness, a new planning concept has been formalized to address acquisition of computer resources in defense systems, including crew-training systems.  An Air Force all-commands committee under the chairmanship of the author developed this plan.  The plan does not put forth-original planning requirements, but rather formalizes a total integrated plan requiring participating command involvement.  This concept is titled the Computer Resources Integrated Support Plan (CRISP).  The term “computer resources” is intended to include the totality of computer equipment and computer programs, plus the related documentation, contractual services, personnel and supplies.

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social factors and training effectiveness–

the affective domain revisited

LCDR Robert J. Biersner, MSC, USN

Human Factors Section, Naval Education and Training Support Command

Many educators, trainers, and even psychologists appear to delimit instruction to the domains of psychomotor or cognitive learning, and attribute learning proficiency to a cluster of psychomotor and cognitive skills and abilities, which may be inherited or learned.  Little attention has been devoted to the relationship between instructional success and social development – the affective domain in which interpersonal skills learned in instructional situations are important to advanced learning development and achievement, as well as to the overall social and occupational adjustment and effectiveness of the trainees.

Personnel enter the Navy today having learned a variety of responses to peers, authorities, and institutions.  These responses are generalized to the Navy, and adjustment and effectiveness in the Navy (including Navy training situations) is dependent on whether these responses are largely conforming/cooperative or conflicting.  For many years, recruitment from jails and courtrooms favored those who conflicted with society.  These personnel could be tolerated in a smaller Navy, which consisted of simple, independent tasks.  During World War II, team performance became critical largely because of advancements in fire-control technology and aviation, and those who conflicted with the work group could not be retained.  In addition, the need to maintain a large, defensive Naval force in the post-war era required that personnel attrition be reduced as much as possible. 

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a functional approach to structured programming

Dr. M. Leonard Birns

Senior Computer Scientist

Computer Sciences Corporation

As the functional requirements of training devices have become more complex, as digital techniques have become more sophisticated, and as the hardware required to implement these techniques has become more available, the digital computer has become increasingly essential in the field of training simulators.  Simultaneously, because of the increasing amount of software required, as well as the changing ratio of hardware to software costs, it has become necessary to emphasize software development and software reliability has led to a proliferation of techniques for software implementation.  Of these, structured programming is presently most popular.

Structured programming has attained such a level of importance as a technique that it has become something of a “buzz word” in the industry, being used to describe many techniques which imply some predetermined structure, such as modularity, even if they do not necessarily adhere to structured programming principles.  In addition, certain development techniques, such as top-down development, have become associated with structured programs–although there is no necessary correspondence between the structure of the program and the techniques by which it was developed.

The objective of this paper is to present a definition for structured programming (in no way considered to be original), and a description of some structured programming techniques.  This description will lead to a discussion of a limitation of the totally top-down, structured approach to real-time software development, this limitation being the frequent lack of a functional orientation.  A technique will be described which allows this limitation to be overcome by superimposing a functional critique on the control structure provided by structured programming techniques.

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new approaches to social instruction

Dr. Arthur S. Blaiwes, Research Psychologist

Dennis R. Weller, Phychologist

Human Factors Laboratory, Naval Training Equipment Center

This project reflects, along with an expanding realm of related events, a basic philosophical revolution that appears to be occurring in our society.  A consideration of these philosophical issues is important to a fuller understanding of the research and development reported herein. 

Major transformations are seen to be underway in our attitudes about war, ecology, life purposes, human capabilities, and social action.  A common thread seeming to run through a variety of such complex attitude changes is the idea that human beings must be capable of a lot more harmony within themselves and within the universe.  Hence, “harmony” is the keyword underlying a philosophical revolution that is making its influence felt in a variety of areas of human concern.

One of the major ends sought by the “harmony” revolution is man’s harmony with other men.  Harmony as a goal evolves from materialistic goals where man defined the better life as food on the table and a roof overhead.  Consistent with these lower level goals was lower level means.  Man has been a manipulator and exploiter of other men.  Manipulation served man well in overcoming the obstacles that he defined as standing in the way of his materialistic goals.

Changes in the emphasis among goals, from material to harmony, have necessitated changes in the means to reach the goals, from manipulation to humanity.  Thus, the new philosophy is grounded, in large part, on new, more humane definitions of man.  “Man’s inhumanity to man” has become a catch phrase calling attention to the incongruity that arises when one considers “man’s inhumanity” in relation to a growing conception of man as a being of great, barely tapped potentials.

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s

developments of machine speech understanding

for automated instructional system

Robert Breaux and Ira Goldstein, Research Psychologists

Human Factors Laboratory, Naval Training Equipment Center

This paper describes further progress in the development of automated adaptive instructional systems.  The technology of machine speech understanding is the most recent addition to our repertoire of training technologies, and it gives us automated training capability in areas thus far unamenable to advanced training techniques.  The concept and preliminary functional design of one such system were presented in the Proceedings of the Seventh NAVTRAEQUIPCEN/Industry Conference.  For convenience, this paper will review the earlier work and then go on to provide implementation details and research results.

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new approach of training to hit moving targets

Allen Cohen

Project Engineer

Naval Training Equipment Center

Hitting a moving target, be it an enemy soldier running across a field, a moving vehicle or an aircraft, is different feat.  Many war veterans can testify that this is true, for although hundreds of varied weapon types were fired at enemy aircraft, most planes would get away.  When an Army or Navy inductee enters training in the early phases, he is introduced to the military basic weapon–the rifle.  Preliminary Army rifle training consists of becoming familiar with parts of the rifle, its nomenclature, dismantling and cleaning processes.  The training continues to where he is taught elementary procedures in firing the rifle.  He is shown the proper rifle grips, firing positions (such as kneeling and prone) and is taught the technique of zeroing his rifle and sight adjustments.  Then actual firing exercises follow where the trainee fires at stationary targets such as M31 (Figure 1).  The M31 series of targets depicts the head and shoulder of an average size man.  When the target is hit, it drops, and the hit is registered or scored.  Note that all the training described so far deals with stationary targets.  However, in combat, many targets are not stationary.  Unless a rifleman in combat has other specific orders, he fires on the enemy soldier upon sight or detection.  He has been trained that to hit a target moving laterally he should aim far enough in front so that the bullet will meet the target.  Depending on the range, he aims at forward edge of body or one body width in front of the target.  If the target is running, these target leads are doubled.  It is readily seen that these techniques do not reinforce the firer’s ability to instinctively lead a moving or fleeting target properly since they do not compensate for varying distance, speeds and aiming angles.

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use of flight simulators for selecting

undergraduate aviators

Dr. Alan Diehl

Engineering Psychologist

Training Analysis and Evaluation Group (TAEG)

United States Navy

One of the major costs in conducting military undergraduate aviator training results from the ineffective screening of candidates.  Approximately 25% of all entering candidates fall to graduate as Naval Aviators.  Unfortunately, many of these students are not identified until significant training resources (personnel, aircraft and time) have been expanded.  It has been widely shown that selecting the “better” candidates, early, reduces the number of attrites occurring during the later phases of flight training.

It is also well known that as the selection of candidates improves, training time and expenses decrease.  Marlowe, Escobar and Rowland (1974) recently noted that student Naval Aviators who received the better flight grades also tended to require less training time per man.  This difference results from instructors varying the length of individual flights to the student’s existing performance levels.  Thus, the less able students consume more resources while trained than their more able counterparts.  A very important question then is what type of testing criteria is most effective in predicting which candidates will perform better as pilots will.

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an educational technology assessment model

Larry R. Duffy, Program Manager for C.E. Systems Development

IBM Corporation, Federal Systems Division, Cape Kennedy Facility

IBM under contract to the U.S. Navy, Training Analysis and Evaluation Group has developed an Educational Technology Assessment Model (ETAM).  It consists of a series of procedural tasks for assessing the true “life cycle” value of a proposed “training innovation.”  Value is determined by systematically considering benefits and liabilities, internal and environmental risks, potential range of applicability, and economic worth.  A comprehensive pattern of taxonomic elements based upon psychological learning principles and instructional economics gives procedural guidance for establishing the innovation’s range of application.  The assessment structure incorporates decision trees and economic analysis techniques for providing decision-making guidance.

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new concepts in training feedback

Dr. Frederick N. Dyer, Senior Psychologist

Training Analysis and Evaluation Group

United States Navy

The purpose of this paper is to produce changes in students that will increase their ability to perform satisfactorily in future jobs.  Unfortunately, our present ability to monitor the actual process of student change is extremely limited.  We typically depend on achievement tests that are given days or weeks following instruction to assess the effects of that instruction.  When we do obtain immediate feedback about the effects of instruction, it is when the student voluntarily provides it.  However, many factors operate to prevent such voluntary reporting of learning difficulties.  At times, unfortunately, students prefer that the learning problem not only remain undetected but uncorrected. 

Current research in the areas of psychophysiology and nonverbal communication indicates that it may be possible to monitor student cognitive states in order that failures of training can be quickly detected even without the cooperation of the student.  In addition, attentional and motivational processes that are prerequisites to learning can be monitored so that when these processes change, action can be taken to restore them, or, barring this, to terminate the training that would otherwise be wasted.

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multiplexed, pulse width modulated channels for

audio communications in training equipment

Robert Milton Eisenberg

Manager of Communication and Navigation

Singer-Simulation Products Division

Training devices today are becoming increasingly complex.  This is particularly true in naval vehicles are simulated.  Trainers of this type are generally composed of rooms or “cabins” which are typical of naval vessel Combat Intelligence Center (CIC) rooms.  One recently designed trainer consists of 15 cabins, 14 of which are CIC rooms with the fifteenth configured as a Marine Headquarters (MHQ).  This trainer includes an auditorium where monitoring and problem control is performed at seven controller positions.

A trainer of this size requires long cable runs to interconnect the cabins.  When existing building wiring troughs are used, noise may be included into the trainer signal conductors, from adjacent power conductors.  The amplitude of the induced noise is generally low enough to cause no significant problems in logic lines when differential drivers and receivers or TTL logic are utilized.  Since a logic level less than 0.8 volts is interpreted as zero, the system is tolerant of any cross coupling up to this magnitude.  Conventional audio lines, however, do not have the advantage of this guard band.  Balanced lines aid considerably in noise immunity, but routing must be carefully planned to ensure equal line pair lengths to maximize noise cancellation.

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a bayesian method for evaluating trainee proficiency

Kenneth I. Epstein

and

Dr. Frederick Steinheiser, Jr.

United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

No instructional system is complete without a strong testing component.  We hope that our instruction has been well enough designed so that any student who begins an instructional program will be able to achieve all of the objectives that the program was designed to teach.  However, some students may require remedial or other supplementary instruction to master all of the objectives, even through the program was carefully developed.  Furthermore, during the development of the instruction, test data from prospective students are required to first revise and later validate the instruction.  In order to support the instructional development activities and to make decisions about the abilities of students, who have completed instruction, a powerful testing program is necessary.

The final desired output of a test for a given examinee is information, which allows us to pinpoint his ability to do whatever is required by an objective.  That is, we observe a test score and must then infer the ability of the examinee.  This paper outlines a “Bayesian” method for drawing such inferences.  In addition, for adequacy of the method as a function of the number of test items administered and the effects of the tester’s beliefs about the examinee population on the inferences drawn are discussed and illustrated.

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tec–validated service school instruction at the unit level

LTC John A. Goetz

Chief, Training Extension Courses at the

Army Combat Arms Training Board, Fort Benning, Georgia

The Training Extension Course, acronym TEC, is an instructional product titled after its intended use.  It provides soldiers in Army units with packaged, individualized, multimedia, performance-oriented training materials representing the latest doctrine and concepts from proponent Army service schools.

Before we go any further, it is important to understand the role, relationship and character of institutional and unit training within the Army.  Institutions provide the initial entry training to enlistees and officers as well as professional development training to NCO’s and officers at more advanced stages in their careers.  Although institutional training is the more visible, more programmed and more glamorous part of individual training in the Army, various experts estimate that a career enlisted person will receive only 10-20% of his training in an institutional environment.  The remaining 80-90% will be received in the unit environment.  Consider these cases:

The average Skill Level 1 soldiers (E1-E4) in a combat arm must master 75-220 skills, only 40-60 of which are taught in the 16 weeks of basic training.  The remainder is the responsibility of the unit commander to impart.

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trig-an algoithm for generating a planar terrain

elevation model for drlms

Alexander J. Grant

Systems Engineer

General Electric Company

To generate the database for a digital radar landmass simulator (DRLMS), it is necessary to define the terrain model, which will accurately represent the real terrain elevation and also provide data compression.  To achieve this end, the General Electric DRLMS uses a planar approximation.  This use of a planar terrain elevation model by the General Electric DRLMS is not only the data base storage technique, but it is also basic to the General Electric DRLMS technology.

It became apparent from the outset of the new DRLMS technology that the procuring agencies not only wanted but would insist on a requirement that data bases used by their training devices be untouched by human hands; that is, created from the source data in a totally automatic manner on general purpose computers.  Although much more efficient data compression could be achieved if man were in the loop to aid in the pattern recognition problem, the use of human judgement would in their judgement make an inferior product when viewed from the controllability standpoint.

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graphic representation of simulation equipment capabilities

by use of performance analysis tables

David J. Harbour

Project Engineer

Hughes Aircraft Company

and

Edgar A. Bennett

Education Specialist

Naval Training Equipment Center

Performance Analysis Tables and associated graphical presentations provide a much-needed tool for the Instructor-Operator to dynamically control a training exercise to adapt it to environmental conditions and trainee’s ability.

Presently, training exercises are run on equipment using sophisticated training devices and large amounts of equipment.  These are normally idealized exercises, in that they specify a given set of initial conditions.  As the exercise progresses, the instructor usually can control several parameters to alter the exercise for any number of reasons.  When the instructor makes a change, he is not always sure the change he is making will improve the exercise.  The change is based primarily on “guesswork and experience.”

The purpose of the exercises is often not achieved because the change that was made reduces the training quality of the exercises rather than enhancing it.  Had the instructor had a graphical representation of the computer program, he could have made a change with a high degree of confidence that his change would improve the exercise.  These graphs must reflect the equipment’s operating characteristics, which often differ from the design characteristics due to equipment modification, inadequate design, program changes, or equipment degradation.

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ADVANCES IN RADAR TRAINING

James D. Hood

Supervisor, Advanced Systems Group

Honeywell, Marine Systems Division California Center

Radar operator training has traditionally been accomplished by a combination of instruction utilizing either radar simulators or the operational equipment.   Typically, training can be conducted more effectively with the radar simulator when the simulator reproduces the characteristics of the operational radar system to a high degree of accuracy.

Simulating the ground mapping modes of radar has proved to be a technical challenge because of the large quantity of data to be stored, retrieved, processed and displayed.  Accurate ground mapping radar simulation, nevertheless, is required by the Armed Forces to provide realistic training and at the same time reduce flight time required for radar training on the operational equipment.  Digital Radar Landmass Simulators (DRLMS) currently being delivered to the Navy and the Air Force by Honeywell are proving to have the simulation fidelity necessary to train radar operators in a ground-based device.

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Simulation cost versus fidelity

James D. Hood

Supervisor, Advanced Systems Group

Honeywell, Marine Systems Division California Center

Many training devices used by the Armed Forces rely on the art of simulation as an aid in the teaching process.  Simulation within the context of training devices involved equipment that looks and acts like something, which it is not.  For example, training devices for sonar operators have been built incorporating only simulations of the operational sonar system and involving none of the actual sonar equipment.  The simulator looks and acts like the operational equipment to the extent necessary for training but does not replicate the operational system

A variety of techniques are used for simulating operational equipment for the purpose of training.  The key element in most simulations is a mathematical description of the phenomena being simulated.  This mathematical description related the characteristics of the simulator to the “real world” phenomena being represented.

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considerations of human eye safety in the design and development of a laser engagement system

Dr. Paul F. Jacobs

Senior Physicist

Xerox Electro-Optical Systems

Laser Engagement Systems (LES) of the type recently developed by Xerox Electro-Optical Systems involve the intentional direction of pulsed laser radiation at humans.  Since the hazard of ocular irradiance is obvious, it is imperative that such systems be eye safe to the point of insuring that no permanent retinal damage can be inflicted regardless of the tactical environment.  The analysis developed in this paper considers the influence of power levels, pulses duration, multiple pulses, laser beams divergence, distributed and point source characteristics and, finally, the matter of retinal thermal relaxation.  The results of this analysis are a series of constraints, which must be placed upon the design of a LES system in order to insure human eye safety under all conditions.

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evaluation of the effective beam geometry

for a laser transmitter and a threshold detector

Dr. Paul F. Jacobs

Senior Physicist

Xerox Electro-Optical Systems

During the recent development of a tactical Laser Engagement System (LES) it became necessary to accurately determine the effective beam geometry for a Gallium-Arsenide laser transmitter used in conjunction with a series of fixed threshold detectors.  Of particular interest was the knowledge of the diameter of the effective detection zone as a function of range, laser power level, detector sensitivity and threshold level, laser beam divergence and atmospheric extinction.  A theoretical model, based upon threshold detection at a critical irradiance level, results in a closed-form solution for the effective beam diameter as a function of all the stated parameters.  The resulting equation successfully predicts the so-called “tube” effect, which has been discovered in experimental field tests, as well as the maximum effective range of the system.  The equation has been programmed for the XDS Sigma 7, and computer-generated beam geometry plots are now available.  The plots provide valuable system design data, which has already helped to make the proposed EDM/LES more cost-effective.

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training situation analysis study for the

t-34c expanded primarY flight training phase

Walter M. Komanski and Richard E. Picton

Training Specialists in the Analysis and Design Branch

Systems Engineering Division, Naval Training Equipment Center

This paper describes the activities performed and the procedures utilized to conduct a Training Situation Analysis of the proposed Navy Expanded Primary Flight Training Phase.  The proposed expanded primary is the central feature of the Chief of Naval Air Training, Long Range Pilot Training System (LRPTS) (see Figure 1).

The objectives of the LRPTS are to modernize Navy pilot training, to reduce cost of training and manpower required, and to train to meet future requirements.  Additional objectives are to reduce downstream attrition and to improve the basis for pipeline selection.  With the implementation of the Expanded Primary Flight Training Phase, the T-34B Aircraft and the instructional syllabus utilized in the present Primary Flight Training Phase will be replaced with the T-34C Aircraft and a significantly modified instructional syllabus.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 

navy instructor training in transition

Karen D. Lam, Psychologist

Training Analysis and Evaluation Group (TAEG) of the Chief, Naval Education and Training

With continuing advances in educational technology and increasing emphasis on the systems approach to training, the role of the Navy instructor is changing.  No longer is the instructor’s role limited to one of a purveyor of information and a teacher of skills.  The job requirements of the instructor are becoming increasingly more complex as training system analysis, design, implementation, and evaluation become more sophisticated.  The instructor is increasingly being required to manage complex instructional systems and to develop curricula processes and which require advanced skills in the area of instructional technology.

The increasing emphasis on savings in training resources and the trend toward standardization in the processes of design, implementation and management of training also have broad implications for the training of Navy instructors.  Currently, the Navy operates six instructor training schools, one on the West Coast, and five in the eastern United States.  The adoption of standard procedures of curricula development and instructional system management portends the possibility of cost savings through instructor school consolidation.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.  
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universal infantry weapons trainer

Albert H. Marshall, Physicist

and

Robert J. Entwistle, Photographic Technologist

Physical Sciences Laboratory at the Naval Training Equipment Center

The Universal Infantry Weapons Trainer (UIWT) provides a modern approach to training U.S. Marine Corps infantrymen, under simulated battlefield stress conditions.

UIWT is a portable indoor trainer that can be located at the required training site; to minimize training time lost to travel.  Training can also be conducted in adverse weather conditions, and at any hour of the day.  Realistic simulations of battlefield targets are provided by motion picture film.  Weapon recoil and blast noises are also simulated.  Immediate feedback on trainee proficiency is available, as well as a permanent record of score.

The system utilizes frame-locked motion picture projectors.  One projects the visual battlefield scene and another an invisible target, which is animated to correspond with the correct aiming, point for the target’s motion and speed.  An infrared receiver is located on the weapon to be simulated.  The infrared detector has four quadrants.  The data from the four quadrants are processed by a read-only memory (ROM) circuit to determine the trainee’s proficiency which is fed back immediately to the training station.  This system provides score information in the form of hit, or nine areas of near miss.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.
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an underwater acoustic model fidelity study

E. F. Meyer

Project Engineer in the Analysis and Design Branch

Naval Training Equipment Center

The U.S. Navy currently relies heavily upon tapes recorded at sea for training acoustic operators, particularly in the task of signature analysis.  The use of such tapes is considered to introduce certain limitations or constraints.  An alternative approach to the use of sea tapes for training is the development of computer-generated simulation models.  However, models of high fidelity are expensive to develop and to implement in real time.  Therefore, the question arises, could a lower level of model fidelity (one which is less expensive to develop and implement) be utilized effectively for certain portions of the training pipeline.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 
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instructional systems development–state of the arT and

directions for the future

Dr. Melvin D. Montemerlo

Educational Psychologist at the Human Factors Laboratory

Naval Training Equipment Center

The study, which resulted in this paper originally, started out as an effort to determine the state of the art of the Systems Approach to Training (SAT).  However, during the course of the study, the Navy dropped the term “SAT” in favor of Instructional Systems Development (ISD).  The Air Force also made this change.  Previous to the use of “SAT,” the Navy used the term “Training Situation Analysis” (TSA).  The Army has retained the use of the term “Systems Engineering of Training” (SET).

SAT, SET, TSA, and ISD are names of various methodologies, which were developed for use by laymen (i.e., other than experienced training program developers), in producing maximally effective and efficient training programs.  In the past when the military incurred problems which required maximally effective training programs or the use of the state of the art in training technology, expert training program developers were brought in from groups like the American Institute for Research, HumRRO, and Dunlap & Associates.  Methodologies such as those listed above represent attempts to model the ways in which successful training program developers work.  It was hoped that formalizing the behaviors of the experts would allow laymen to achieve the success of the experts by copying their behaviors.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 
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generation of air navigation maps

Charles P. L. Mortimer

Senior Engineer in Training Systems Engineering

Singer-Simulation Products Division

Since the earliest days of flight simulators, there has been a requirement to portray in some form the position of the simulated aircraft with respect to its surroundings.  The Instrument Flight Simulators being developed for the United States Air Force Undergraduate Pilot Training Program (UPT-IFS) are no different in this respect, except that one central operator station supports four independent cockpits.  In this context, the operator station comprises four CRT displays which allow two operators to assist the cockpit-located instructors and also provide Air Traffic Control messages to the flight crews.  Among its supporting roles, the operator station presents navigation information pertinent to cross-country, approach, and GCA presentations, special attention has been given to the appearance of each displayed image.  Before discussing the UPT-IFS operator navigation displays in detail, the history of navigation display technology is briefly reviewed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. 
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the spectrum of multiple-sampled non-causally

interpolated waveforms

Dr. Robert T. P. Wang

Senior Principal Development Engineer

Honeywell, Marine Systems Division California Center

Recent advances in computational and storage hardware have made it possible to produce complex signals in real time to simulate the diverse sounds that are picked up by hydrophones in sonar systems.  The generation of such sound signals is important to shorebased simulation trainers that use operational equipment in-board from the hydrophone and its preamplifiers.  This type of trainer design is known as a “stimulator”, since the output signal from the simulator “stimulates” or drives operational equipment.  In contrast to this class of trainer design is the pure simulator, where everything in the real world is modeled, and the output drives meters, cathode ray tubes (CRT) and earphones to simulate the instrumentation, display and sounds a sonarman sees and hears in an operational sonar room.

The approach used in the design of a sonar trainer depends heavily on the long-term objectives of a program, and the cost effectiveness of the approach in meeting those goals.  It is obvious that a mix of methods is possible.  Given that a hybrid approach satisfies the needs of the customer, the degree of mix depends on the most technically expedient locations into which simulated signals may be injected into the operational equipment and st6ill provide the most cost-effective trainer.  Without delving into the pros and cons of simulation versus stimulation, this paper deals with the spectrum of sound generated by some new digital synthesis methods.  The need to study the spectral characteristics of the synthetic underwater sound is fundamental to the requirement of providing a realistic simulation that allows effective training.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.
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the trainer integrated design disclosure report

Philip M. Wigler

Sales Manager

United States Electronic Publications, Inc.

In keeping with the theme of this conference “New Concepts for Training Systems” we have heard and will be hearing of new concepts, philosophies, and packaging for hardware.  I also will discuss new concepts and philosophies, but for technical publications, not hardware.  This year, many of you have responded to RFP’s calling for something new in technical manuals, the Trainer Integrated Design disclosure Report or TIDDR.  This requirement is replacing the conventional technical manual s defined by MIL-M-82376.

The basic intent of this paper is to provide an overall view of the TIDDR and its potential effect on existing company organization and procedures.  Since the TIDDR is now a requirement, what changes will have to occur in your organization to generate the TIDDR accurately, on schedule, and last but not least, at profit?  Specifically I will discuss what is a TIDDR; why use the TIDDR; cost impact of the TIDDR; and preparing the TIDDR.

No attempt will be made to describe the procedures involved in developing the TIDDR nor will any attempt be made to define the advantages or disadvantages of the TIDDR in part or as a complete document.  However, since this is a new requirement, I will delve into some background on this concept.  Recognizing different organizational structures, different man-loading problems, and different levels of experience, my discussion will be general in nature so as to apply to most situations.

Presently, publication personnel at NTEC are preparing Appendix B to MIL-M-82376, which will replace the TIDDR requirement; however, whether the TIDDR or Ap0pendix B to MIL-M-82376 is called for by the RFP, your publication requirements and costs will remain about the same.  So when I talk of TIDDR during this presentation keep in mind that your RFP may call for Appendix B.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.
 Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website.