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INTRODUCTION TO THE CONFERENCE

G. V. Amico

Director of Engineering

Naval Training Equipment Center

The theme of this year’s conference, “Readiness Through Simulation,” is fitting since it emphasizes the vital role that training, and particularly training equipment, plays in a peacetime environment.  This theme not only permits us to objectively assess capabilities and shortcomings of the inventory of training equipment, but also enables us to project capabilities of future systems.  While previous conferences have placed emphasis on product improvement and training effectiveness of future training systems, I plan to assess the capabilities of training systems already in the inventory which are located at formal schools and fleet activities.  This evaluation of the inventory will also focus attention on those factors, which could improve the training effectiveness and supportability of these systems.

First, I would like to spend a few moments presenting information on the capabilities, which exist in the present inventory.  This training capability is achieved through a Navy/Marine Corps inventory of $683 million of training equipment representing 2,844 trainers with an acquisition value of over $1,000 each.  I have translated the extensive utilization data which are collected and processed on 290 of the major devices by the Naval Training Equipment Center for the chief of Naval Operations into another domain; namely, that of equivalent operational training, including the magnitude of threat and number of simulated weapons which are fired in synthetic training exercises.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT OF A SHIP HANDLING SIMULATOR

T. C. Hutchison, M. J. Kirby, and W. Zdan

Sperry Systems Management

The U. S. Merchant Fleet is an essential element of our commerce and defense.  American Flag Vessels operate under very stringent regulations governing vessel safety and the protection of life at sea.  However, collisions and groundlings involve a significant number of vessels each year.  This constitutes a problem, which warrants an organized effort toward solution.

Research to identify causes and define solutions to problems such as collisions and groundings is a natural application for simulation.  The conditions of an experiment can be controlled, and results observed more accurately than if actual vessels were used.  Study variables can be changed over wide ranges.  New equipments and procedures can be investigated more easily and quickly in a simulator than in the real world.  Potential risk situations can be investigated without endangering either the “own ship” or other traffic.  Also, the cost of simulation is generally much less than the cost of a comparable study using full-scale ships in an actual harbor or seaway.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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GENERATION OF AUDIO SIGNALS FOR SONAR SIMULATION/STIMULATION WITH DIGITAL TECHNIQUES

Morris H. Stephenson and Forrest D. Suchey

Honeywell, Marine Systems Division

Sonar signals are conventionally divided into two categories:  (1) shaped, broadband components, such as ambient, ship flow and propeller cavitation noises, and (2) narrowband components, including machinery noise, echoes, and reverberations.  This paper will explain how Honeywell uses digital data processing to generate these signals for use in sonar trainers.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A SYSTEM ORIENTED BENCHMARK FOR TRAINING SIMULATORS

P. S. Babel and Dr. M. L. Birns

Aeronautical Systems Division

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

An important task in the development of training simulators is determining the computing system that is adequate for the computational task required.  The definition of the simulator computational system as well as ensuring its adequacy has been rendered more difficult by the increasing complexity of available computer systems, the ever changing computer systems market and the growing sophistication of the training simulator computation requirement.

Several selection tools have been previously available, but are generally CPU rather than system oriented.  Since these computer selection tools do not address simulation-processing parameters, they are of limited utility in selecting computer systems for this application.  Hence, the Air Force is striving to develop a computational system selection technique which is based on training simulator requirements and is flexile enough to be used in the various types of computational systems presently found in training simulators.  The tool required is a system benchmark, which will measure the total capability of the computational systems.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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INCORPORATION OF DIGITAL AVIONICS SYSTEMS

IN THE B-1 TRAINING SIMULATOR

O. R. Moyen-Van Slimming

Aeronautical Systems Division

The B-1, which is intended to replace the B-52 in the Strategic Air Command (SAC) inventory, has several simulator requirements, ranging from study carrels to full mission simulators.  The Aircraft has a sophisticated avionics package, similar to that in the FB-111.  It controls the navigation, weapon delivery and defensive functions for the aircraft.  It utilizes a number of analog and digital computing devices whose functions have an impact on the simulator.  A detailed analysis of the avionics system was accomplished in order to identify the problems that may be encountered in fulfilling the avionics function requirements for the crew training simulator and indicate which approach(es) to implementing the avionics functions would be most cost effective over the life cycle of the B-1 simulator.  There are several simulator requirements which have no equivalents in the aircraft.  One such requirement is the capability to freeze the mission, usually with the intent to reset the simulated aircraft to another position or to instruct the crew concerning a portion of the mission without their having to concentrate on aircraft status.  Another such requirement is parameter freeze, i.e., and the ability to freeze certain parameters so that the crew can concentrate on other tasks.  These requirements represent a definite challenge to the implementation of avionics functions in the simulator.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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AIR-TO-SURFACE FULL MISSION SIMULATION BY THE ASUPT SYSTEM

Eric G. Monroe

Systems Engineering Branch, United States Air Force

Human Resources Laboratory, Flying Training Division, Williams Air Force Base

Air-to-surface weapons delivery is one realm of visual flight simulation that has been rather neglected until recent investigations were made by the USAF to determine the state-of-the-art in this area.  As part of this investigation (Project 2235, Air-to-Ground Visual Evaluation), the Advanced Simulator for Undergraduate Pilot Training (ASUPT) system was expanded to include the additional capabilities required performing air-to-surface weapons delivery.  Evaluations of the various systems under consideration have shown the ASUPT computer image generation approach to air-to-surface visual simulation to be the most viable.  This paper summarizes the engineering modifications made to the ASUPT system for Project 2235 and presents the operational capabilities of the new system configuration.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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AN AIR TRANSPORTABLE PROGRAMMABLE AIR-TO-AIR COMBAT SIMULATOR

Richard J. Heintzman

United States Air Force, Aeronautical Systems Division

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

The demand for increasing use of flight simulators within the military has led to requirements for broader application and more efficient utilization.

The use of mobile simulators is by no means new to either the Air Force or Navy.  Both services have used such devices effectively for years; the Air Force units being mounted in railcars and the Navy units being trailerized for highway transportation.

Current mobile simulators are limited to instrument flight simulation.  The Air Force during the 1960s added visual attachments; however, this effort was unsuccessful.  Recent advancements in mini-computers, microprocessors, and in computer image generation (CIG) make mobile simulators in general and visual mobile simulators in particular more feasible.

Aerial combat simulation is potentially a high payoff application of mobile simulation.  This paper attempts to define a minimal cost, low-risk approach to Air Transportable Programmable Air-to-Air Combat Simulators (ATPAACS).

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SIGNIFICANT FEATURES OF THE UNDERGRADUATE PILOT TRAINING-INSTRUMENT FLIGHT SIMULATOR (UPT-IFS) VISUAL/FLIGHT SYSTEM

Thomas S. Melrose

Aeronautical System Division, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

The USAF Undergraduate Pilot Training-Instrument Flight Simulator (UPI-IFS) System design combines several state-of-the-art improvements that promise to provide a highly realistic and effective training alternative to actual flight training.  A significant part of the UPT-IFS system is its Visual Subsystem and its relationship to the total simulator complex.  Limitations of previous visual systems dictated the need for establishing minimum image quality requirements and associated test procedures for the UPT-IFS system.  These included the utilization of image detail criteria in terms of image contrast as a function of resolution levels of modulation transfer function (MIF), the employment of raster transformation to achieve the required low eye-height, the use of a high resolution color Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) in an infinity image display, optimized terrain modeling, and depth-of-field criteria.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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VERISIMILITUDE TESTING–

A NEW APPROACH TO THE FLIGHT TESTING OF AIR FORCE SIMULATORS

Major James A. Richmond, USAF, Aeronautical Systems Division

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

The purpose of this paper is to explain the mechanics and rationale of an improved approach to simulator flight testing that the Air Force has been taking with its most recent simulator procurement.  The goals have been to fly and test the simulator so as to identify problems that it may have had in performance and handling qualities.  Problem identification has been done in a scientific manner and “tweaking” has been avoided.  The test method that has been developed and used, I call verisimilitude testing.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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EVALUATION OF THE SYNTHETIC FLIGHT TRAINING SYSTEM

(DEVICE 2B24) FOR MAINTAINING IFR PROFICIENCY AMONG EXPERIENCED PILOTS

D. O.Weitzman, M. Fineberg, H. Ozkaptan

United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

and

CW4 G. L. Compton

United States Army, Fort Campbell

Since the early days of flying, flight simulators have been in use and their value has been amply demonstrated.  Flight simulators have evolved from the Link Trainer, which was widely used for pilot training in the Second World War, into precisely engineered devices capable of accurately computing the aerodynamic responses of an airplane to control inputs, and of reproducing realistic cockpit instrument indications for all flight situations.  It was realized, as Adams (1957) points out, that flight simulators have many advantages over the operational situation.  First, the simulator provides its users with greater control over ambient conditions.  Whereas the “real” world is subject to unpredictable variations, a simulator can provide planned variation of various elements of the real situation with unessential elements in the real situation omitted.  Second, the simulator can represent dangerous elements in flight more safely.  Emergency procedures that would be too dangerous to teach in the air may be taught safely in ground-based simulators.  Third, a major advantage offered by simulators is their low operating costs in comparison with the costs of operating aircraft.  For these reasons, simulators continue to play an important role in pilot training during initial acquisition, transition training, and for maintenance of established flying skills.  The importance attached to simulators in meeting training goals is; of course, predicated on the assumption that training given in the simulator will transfer to the aircraft.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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COMBAT READINESS THROUGH ENGAGEMENT SIMULATION

LTC George J. Stapleton, United States Army

Program Manager, Engagement Simulation

US Army Training Support Center, Fort Eustis

For nearly three years the US Army has been experimenting with, refining, and implementing a series of training techniques which employ engagement simulation mechanisms, along with proven instructional models, to improve unit tactical training.  Some see the advent of engagement simulation as merely another step along the Army’s path toward increased realism in training.  Others see engagement simulation as a near perfect simulation of combat, while still others believe engagement simulation is nothing new, and that in one form or another, “we have been doing this kind of thing for years.” Probably none of the foregoing opinions on engagement simulation are entirely right, nor are any totally incorrect.  More properly, the techniques at issue certainly simulate the violent interactions of weapons in combat, although imperfectly, and in so doing add much realism to our tactical training.  While we can point to excellent training with conventional techniques, some of the aspects of engagement simulation are truly new, or are at least substantial revisions of earlier ways of doing things.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SIMULATION OF A WEAPONS FIRE SIMULATOR MODELED AS AN OPTICAL COMMUNICATION CHANNEL

J. Cormack, B. Petrasko, and R. Phillips

Department of Electrical Engineering, Florida Technological University

and

A. Cannon

Naval Training Equipment Center

This paper presents a method of simulating various noise sources in a Weapons Fire Simulator System that has been modeled as an Optical Communications Channel.  This Weapons Fire Simulator System is composed of laser transmitters mounted on weapons that fire blank cartridges, and laser receivers mounted on targets.  The laser transmitter sends out “kill” beam pulses to the target whenever blank cartridges are fired.  Detection of these pulses at the target signifies a “hit.”  The entire system along with the optical communication channel is simulated in a general-purpose computer program called SCEPTRE.  This analysis package is an efficient means of modeling the communication channel characteristics and determining signal-to-noise ratios as functions of various electrical and physical parameters.  Also the SCEPTRE program is a versatile tool for circuit noise calculations.  The main advantage is a single SCEPTRE run computes the total noise output from a large number of noise sources distributed throughout the circuit.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TANK DRIVER AND TANK GUNNER TRAINING SIMULATORS

Jean Baradat

LMT Simulators

We are witnessing a growing interest from utilizers in classroom training for tank crews.  Simulators exist, or are being developed, which provide efficient training.  The purpose of this paper is to specify the concept of tank crew training and to isolate the functions of each new member, the features of the simulators to be used for their training.

Analysis of the interworking of the members of a tank crew shows that coordination is provided entirely by the tank commander; there is practically no direct relationship between the gunner and the driver.  It is true that their actions are coordinated–reducing speed, or taking up a suitable firing position–but the information, especially visual, which they individually use and the actions they undertake are either totally independent or only slightly correlated.  Tank crew training can thus be broken down into independent and specialized phases.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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WIDE-ANGLE SCANNED LASER VISUAL SYSTEM

Carl R. Driskel

U.S. Army Office of Project Manager for Training Devices

and

Dr. A. M. Spooner

Redifon Flight Simulation, Limited

An experimental investigation is being conducted to determine the feasibility of using scanned lasers to generate and display real world scenes for military training applications.  The technical objective is to provide high resolution tactical scenes over a continuous wide field of view.

The United States Army and Air force are supporting the development of a breadboard laser camera and display system to investigate the capability of the system and applicability of this approach to military training requirements.  Completion of the breadboard system is scheduled for third quarter 1978.

The prime contractor is American Airlines Incorporated.  Redifon Flight Simulation, Limited, as subcontractor, is conducting the main body of the work, and the Sira Institute, England, is providing expertise on optical and electronic systems.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A DATABASE GENERATION SYSTEM FOR DIGITAL IMAGE GENERATION

Arthur P. Schnitzer

The Singer Company, Link Division

In the last ten years, we have witnessed a fortyfold increase in the edge processing capability of real-time digital image generation (DIG) systems.  While it would appear unlikely that the next decade will product another fortyfold increase in capacity, one thing, at least, seems clear.  Like some insatiable science fiction monster, today’s DIG system is devouring databases at a prodigious rate that promises to be ever increasing.  To satisfy this gargantuan demand, as well as the desire of users for more detailed and realistic simulation, greater emphasis will have to be placed on the database generation process.  Indeed, we have already seen the beginnings of this trend in recent procurement specifications.  The DIG for the BF-111 simulator not only specifies a total database storage capacity several times the size of the deliverable database, but also requires the delivery of a database generation facility, thus hinting at the Government’s intent to fill up this spare storage capacity after delivery.  In recognition of the substantial effort required to generate visual simulation databases, there is even a quantitative specification of database generation speed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A NEW VISUAL SIMULATION TECHNIQUE FOR PILOT TRAINING

Carl J. Vorst

McDonnell Douglas Electronics Company

Visual simulation has become a major factor in replacing aircraft hours with simulator hours for pilot training.  Rapid increase in visual use, made possible by computer generated imagery (CGI) technology, is in turn a major factor in increased simulator use.  Generally replacing television model and film approaches, CGI has demonstrated training flexibility and low cost when properly applied.  This paper presents application of a new CGI technology particularly suited to the problem of pilot training that technology being the heart of the VITAL system developed by McDonnell Douglas Electronics Company.

A general CGI characteristic is that equipment complexity is directly related to instantaneous scene content.  Of the two general CGI categories, raster and calligraphic (stroke written) scan, both require similar size data base storage and processing capability.  An important difference is that raster scan requires a significant amount of parallel processing while calligraphic processing is serial.  This translates to the potential for considerable hardware savings with calligraphic use.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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PERSPECTIVE ERROR IN VISUAL DISPLAYS

Robert Entwistle and Neil Mohon

Naval Training Equipment Center

Perspective in photographic reproductions is one of the most important visual cues to a human observer primarily because it is almost always used subconsciously to make some determination about the photographed subject.  Many photographs, especially in the advertising industry, introduce significant errors in the perspective of the object but that error is rarely detected by the conscious mind of the observer.

Consider the example photographs of an automobile shown in figure 1.  The two pictures were made with the automobile in exactly the same location relative to the background scene.  However, quite a different impression is relayed to the mind from figure 1a than figure 1b.  Figure 1a was made using a 200-mm focal length lens on a 33-mm camera, while figure 1b was made using a 33-mm focal length lens on the same camera.  Advertising photographs are often made using short focal length lenses in order to make the car appear longer, more attractive, or to emphasize some particular detail.

One basic anomaly in our “advertising oriented” mind is that we accept the erroneous perspective of figure 1b without question.  Maybe we expect it.  The next time you see an automobile advertisement, or any advertisement, consciously look for the errors in perspective.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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COMPENSATING FOR FLIGHT SIMULATOR CGI SYSTEM DELAYS

G. L. Ricard, D. A. Norman, and S. C. Collyer

Naval Training Equipment Center

Modern flight training simulators are usually equipped with digital computers that measure the pilot’s control activities, determine the simulated aircraft’s responses, and provide student performance data for the instructor.  Recent developments have made it possible to extend digital processing techniques to the generation of visual images, allowing an entirely computer-controlled training environment where a flight dynamics processor calculates the responses of a simulated aircraft and a computer generated imagery (CGI) system presents the changing visual scene to the pilot via a graphics display.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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MICROPROCESSOR CONTROL OF HIGH-SPEED PIPELINE SIGNAL PROCESSORS

Dr. Orin E. Marvel and Mr. Darrel K. Hadley

Honeywell

Marine Systems Division

Schedule constraints, availability requirements, functional equipment modularity, and costs are driving the design of high-speed pipeline processors.  This paper describes the evolution of signal processor products for radar and sonar trainers that have led to the adoption of microprocessor controlled implementations.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A MOTION SENSING MODEL OF THE HUMAN FOR SIMULATOR PLANNING

L. R. Young and R. E. Curry

Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

and

W. B. Albery

Advanced Systems Division, Air Force Human Resources Laboratory

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

The conventional use of simulators for flight research, be they moving base or fixed base, has involved an attempt at reproducing some aspects of face validity without determining either the requirements for such validity or the aspects of the simulation which are really important in either research or training.  Limited knowledge of the physiological sensing mechanisms, especially for the perception of motion, has forced upon the simulation community an acceptance of “expert pilots” opinions as the sine qua non of simulator design and acceptability.  Yet, very rarely do two pilots agree on all aspects of a simulator’s fidelity.  With the development of better models of physiological processing of sensory signals and a framework for their use based upon modern control theory, we are now in a position to improve upon this situation for simulator planning.  This paper describes a number of parallel research efforts (Ref.1), which are being carried out by the Air Force Human Resources Laboratory, to (1) improve the basic physiological subsystems descriptions and (2) integrate these subsystems into a model for simulator planning.  It is anticipated that such a model will not only aid in the planning of simulators but also possibly become a major portion of the simulator’s drive logic.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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PILOT PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM FOR THE A-7 NIGHT CARRIER LANDING TRAINER (NCLT)

Thomas J. Klein and Carl E. Mattlage

Vought Corporation–Systems Division

Vought Corporation–Systems Division, is under contract to NAVAIR (4131) to develop a pilot performance measurement system that will aid the Landing Signal Officer (LSO) during training in the A-7 Night Carrier Landing Trainer (NCLT).  This paper discusses (a) how parametric performance data (lineup and glideslope error, sink rate, airspeed, etc.) are collected on categories I and II A-7 replacement pilots during NCLT and night carrier qualifications, (b) how the data will be statistically analyzed to determine those factors that indicate student progress, (c) how these factors will be combined into a single predictive index, and (d) how the program products can be applied as training aids.  Finally, the results of preliminary analyses are presented.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TRAINING USING INTERACTIVE COMPUTER GRAPHICS FOR SIMULATION

Alice M. Crawford and Richard E. Hurlock

Navy Personnel Research and Development Center

Conventional military training of performance-oriented skills generally requires that students study concepts in an individualized learning module and then practice on actual equipment or a high-fidelity simulator.  Not only are these training programs costly, but considerable research has shown that, for certain skills, such hands-on practice with operational equipment may not be necessary for adequate transfer of training (Hageman and Stockton, 1975).

Rather than high fidelity appearance, the critical component in determining the effectiveness of a training device may be the degree to which students are allowed to practice behaviors crucial to performance in the operational situation (Analysis of the Transfer of Training, Substitution, and Fidelity of Simulation of Training Equipment, 1972).  Thus, researchers are beginning to focus more attention on the underlying principles of learning as opposed to concentrating on creating exact replications of the actual equipment.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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MAXIMIZING FLIGHT FIDELITY; INTEGRATION OF NAVAL AIR TEST CENTER CAPABILITIES INTO THE PROCUREMENT OF MAJOR AVIATION TRAINING DEVICES

R. T. Galloway

Naval Air Test Center

Flight test engineers and test pilots from the Naval Air Test Center (NATC) have recently become involved with evaluating the flight fidelity of new Operational Flight Trainers (OFT) and Weapon Systems Trainers (WST) being procured by the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps.  The purpose of all NATC flight fidelity evaluations is to answer the question: Does this Device fly like the airplane?  To formulate such an answer, these engineers and test pilots compare OFT/WST simulated flying qualities, performance, engine systems, and weapons/avionics systems characteristics to those of the actual airplane.  The major component of NATC testing is the application of quantitative test techniques to identify fidelity deficiencies and eliminate dependence on purely subjective analysis.  The quantitative test techniques applied here are generally identical to those routinely utilized by NATC during aircraft flight test programs.  The extent of NATC involvement in OFT/WST testing is outlined in table 1.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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PERFORMANCE ORIENTED AIRCREW TRAINING–

OPTIMIZATION THROUGH ISD*

W. M. Hinton, Jr. and R. P. Fishburne, Jr.

Calspan Corporation

Traditionally, training programs within the military have been generated in-house by a number of instructor personnel tasked with the difficult problem of sorting through all available information and developing an approach to the classroom presentation of an assigned content area.  The resulting instructor guides (outlines) and student handouts are, by necessity, based on information within each individual’s realm of experience.  This experience is largely based on prior instruction and specialized operational missions.  Of particular significance in such an approach to training is a failure to conceptualize the entire system in perspective.  This results in a piecemeal, poorly coordinated buildup of instructional units with retrofitting as the method of necessity for curriculum development.  Furthermore, the Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) approaching the task usually do not have the benefit of expertise in the principles and application of instructional technology.  The problem is complicated by the rapid turnover in instructor personnel.  Often too, an attempt is made to piece together the in-house training materials, typically instructor guides (outlines), with separately developed technical materials provided by a contractor to complement existing hardware.  The classroom instructor is ultimately left with the task of integrating the curriculum while performing within the confines of the existing policy and procedure of the training command.

*This research was supported under contract N61339-75-C-0101, “E-2C Systems Approach to Training,” for the Naval Training Equipment Center, Orlando, FL.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ACTION SPEED TACTICAL TRAINERS

Captain R. H. Graham, Royal Navy (Retired)

Ferranti Limited

This paper demonstrates the requirement for a shore-based Naval tactical trainer; outlines the types of training that can be conducted and the disciplines in which training can be given.  It explains how the trainer can be used for tactical investigations; lists the principal features of a low cost ASTT, and concludes with a short example of a tactical game.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SIMULATION PROCUREMENT MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES

Capt P.S. Daly and CDR G. R. Norrington

Aviation Training Devices Branch

Aviation Manpower and Training Division

Office of the Chief of Naval Operations

“Our job is to fool you.”  This statement by a senior executive of a simulator-manufacturing firm neatly summarizes the accepted essence of training through simulation.  Such a succinct statement, however, tends to mask the enormity of the tasks of synthesizing the training environment realistically enough to ensure a positive transfer of training, while keeping costs within reason.  Industry has risen to the technological challenge by developing training media which, for the most part, faithfully perform according to our specifications.  Although a portion of the quantum jump in training technology resulted from a wartime economy and the national space effort, most military applications were fostered by the energy crisis.  In 1974 and 1975, there was an unprecedented infusion of funds into our simulator acquisition program.  During this period, the Congress cam to the realization that simulators could be used for substitution of flying hours, rather than simply supplementing them as in the past.  The airlines had been doing it for years!  Why was the military so far behind?  All required forces were not acting simultaneously to create the utilization paradox that presently confronts simulator procurement managers.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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USING CAI TO MEASURE TEAM READINESS

Norman Copperman

Honeywell Marine Systems Division

and

Paul ASA Dorian

FLEASWTRACENPAC

COMNAVSURFPACINST C3590.1 requires for all ASW platforms a four-phase ASW training and readiness improvement program, with the first three phases conducted at FLEASWTRACENPAC and the fourth phase conducted at sea.  This instruction requires that “All training conducted . . .be evaluated and assigned a numerical grade.  In addition, the ship will be provided copies of detailed grading sheets on each team member.”

Phase I, Basic Attack Team Training consists of two days for ships equipped with AN/SQS-23 and three days for ships equipped with AN/SQS-26.  It involves classroom instruction in terminology, plotting, tracking, classification, search, localization, and single ship attach procedure.  It also includes trainer problems that begin with single ship/single target and progress to dual ship/aircraft coordinated operations (including CZ and LAMPS), culminating with graded attach exercises.  The 14A2 ASW team trainer is the backbone of the training program.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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AN APPROACH TO STIMULATION OF OCEAN

MULTIPATH PHENOMENA FOR SONAR TRAINING DEVICES

Michael F. Sturm and Irwin S. Frost

Honeywell

Marine Systems Division

To meet the increasing threat imposed by well-equipped, modern submarines, active and passive sonar systems with highly sophisticated signal processing and display subsystems must be developed.  Training of sonar operators to use these systems effectively requires simulation of actual operations whenever possible.  This can be achieved by providing a training system that:  (1) simulates operational equipment, or (2) stimulates the actual tactical hardware.  The trainer must present the trainee with the same operating situation that he will encounter in real-world combat conditions, including the ocean acoustic model.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE SIMULATOR INSTRUCTOR–A READINESS PROBLEM

Dr. John P. Charles

Appli-Mation, Inc.

The increasing pressure to extend utilization of simulator training, the continuing increase in sophistication of weapon systems, and the accelerating application of advanced simulator technology are creating new sets of problems for the simulator training system.  Many of these problems are centered on one of the key sub-systems–the instructor.  Most of these problems which will be discussed in the following paragraphs, stem from the failure to treat simulation training as a system, and in particular, the failure to adequately structure the role of the instructor and to design the required interface.  Thus, while wide-angle visual systems, complex motion platforms and sophisticated CRT’s have been added, the functions and interface for the instructor have been largely ignored and the resultant instructor console becomes a victim of design “fall-out.”  To complicate the problem, the characteristics of the instructor pilot and the operational training concept are also changing significantly.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ESTABLISHING TRAINING CRITERIA ON AN ECONOMIC BASIS

Steven L. Johnson

Calspan Corporation

The training community has toiled for many years in an attempt to establish exactly what is meant by the phrase “training effectiveness.”  Although no one can precisely define it, the concept of effective training is of interest to psychologists and managers alike.  The question is continuously being posed by managers:  “is our training program cost-effective?”  Subsequently, training psychologists begin expounding on the multitude of factors that comprise the known principles of learning (reinforcement, habit patterns, immediate feedback, etc.).  At the end of the discussion, the managers conclude that they know (viscerally) that training is necessary but they recognize that the psychologists cannot convince each other, let alone “laymen.”  Thus, the schism between the “shrink” and the “bean counter.” The goals of the present paper is to develop a quantitative and, more importantly, a communicable framework for establishing training effectiveness criteria that can be used and understood by both the training specialist and the manager.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DD-963 CLASS DESTROYER

ENGINEERING CONTROL AND SURVEILLANCE SYSTEM TRAINER

H. C. Robinson, Jr.

The Singer Company, Link Division, Silver Spring Operation

The Navy requires trained crews for operation and maintenance of the DD-963 Destroyer Engineering Control and Surveillance System (ECSS).  Engineering crew training onboard ship is not optimum in terms of personnel safety, equipment readiness requirements, fuel conservation, environmental considerations, manpower assignment, and other logistical considerations.  The new and highly automated design of the DD-963 Class destroyer and the limited availability of these ships for training engineering crews emphasize the use of an alternative training approach.  The DD-963 Class destroyer ECSS trainer provides effective operation and maintenance training in a wide spectrum of situations that cannot be practically performed under normal operations on board ship.  Capabilities of software simulation models create a trainer that can accurately duplicate ship conditions from cold steel to cruising.  With a versatile training device of this type, ECSS crews–through practical experience in operations and maintenance–can be thoroughly prepared for virtually every aspect of their particular assignments onboard ship.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE VOICE DATA COLLECTION PROGRAM A GENERALIZED RESEARCH TOOL FOR STUDIES IN SPEECH RECOGNITION

Robert Breaux

Naval Training Equipment Center

and

Michael W. Grady

Logicon, Inc.

The technology of machine speech understanding, integrated with advanced instructional technology, has demonstrated the capability to automate training for tasks, which are characterized by the use of restricted, stylized speech.  Such a training system for the GCA Controller has been described at NTEC/Industry Conferences in 1974 and 1975.  This paper discusses the development since that time of a more generalized laboratory research system designed to support speech recognition studies for evaluation of essentially any vocabulary set.  Moreover, the program provides the experimenter with sufficient flexibility to investigate training the student on the vocabulary itself; that is, the critical task of teaching proper phraseology to the student.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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PILOT ACCEPTANCE AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF VISUAL SIMULATION

Conrad L. Kraft, Charles L. Elworth, and Charles D. Anderson

Boeing Aerospace Company

and

William J. Allsopp

Boeing Commercial Airplane company

The primary value of the effort, which is the subject of this report, is that it represents a novel application of research techniques usually reserved for more academic pursuits to simulation system procurement.  The requirement for this test was specified in the document provided to prospective suppliers of the visual simulation system sought by the Flight Crew Training organization of the Boeing Commercial Airplane Company for installation on its moving base simulators for the 707, 727, 737, and 747.  The more common approach appears to be limited to reliance on opinions of a few senior flying personnel and members of management.  The present study (while not permitting the rigor attainable in the more narrowly circumscribed laboratory experiment) is an example of the extension of research techniques to equipment procurement involving the display of complex perceptual stimuli.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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AUTOMATED SCORING OF INSTRUMENT FLIGHT CHECKS

H. Kingsley Povenmire and LCDR Kent M. Ballantyne

United States Coast Guard, Aviation Training Center

United States Coast Guard helicopter pilots receive annual instrument and emergency training in the Variable Cockpit Training System simulator.  Many portions of initial aircraft transition training are also conducted in the simulator.  Initial instrument ratings as well as annual instrument renewals are given on the basis of simulator checkrides, which are automatically scored by the computer.  Scores are kept for as many as 12 parameters at a time.  This paper discusses the first three years of experience with automated scoring.  Moderate correlations were found between subjective instructor scores and automated scores.  Although not useful for individual pass-fail decisions, normative comparisons of the automated scores are responsive to changes in the training program.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SIMPLIFYING THE MEASUREMENT OF COMPLEX SKILLS

IN A TRAINING SIMULATOR

Brian D. Shipley, Jr.

United States Army Research Institute

William V. Hagin and Vernon S. Gerlach

Arizona State University

Student pilots must learn to operate a complex system in an unstable, frequently dangerous environment.  These operational factors make stringent demands on an instructor pilot (IP) as he evaluates student pilot (SP) performance in an aircraft.  The IP must monitor SP behaviors, unsafe performance conditions, and dangers in the airspace.  Observations in all relevant areas of performance must be remembered or recorded and then used to arrive at a meaningful evaluation of performance skill.

Clearly, the IP must process large quantities of information.  As training tasks become more complex or dangerous, demands on the IP tend to increase and IP’s tend to be less and less able to ad4quately process all the essential information.  As the information processing load increases, the integrity of safety procedures, training effectiveness, and evaluation methods may be compromised.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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MAINTENANCE READINESS THROUGH EFFECTIVE SIMULATION TRAINING

Nicholas A. Siecko

Educational Computer Corporation

Prepare maintenance technicians to be job-ready.  That is the goal of maintenance training.  As it exists today, it works with varying degrees of proficiency.  Much of it could work better if all the necessary training aids and devices were available to the training facility: Audiovisual devices, Maintenance Training Units (MTU’s), Actual Equipment Trainers (AET’s), Simulation Models, etc.  How and what devices are selected for a particular application is an exercise in itself, and as such is often the reason why many training facilities don’t have the necessary training aids.  Effort is spent evaluating and determining which or what device best suits a particular need.  In the meantime the training facility is making do with whatever it has.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SIMULATION OF MICROPROCESSOR OPERATION

FOR PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT AND CHECKOUT

D. L. Trimble and B. E. Petrasko

Electrical Engineering and Communication Sciences Department

Florida Technological University

This paper is part of work done for the National Science Foundation under Grant GK 42071 titled “Investigation of the application of a hardware parsed recursive string processing language to graphical systems.”  The aim of this grant is to firmware parse a certain class of input strings in the development of an extensible string processing language similar to text reckoning and compiling (TRAC).  During this grant, a full operating language called TOSCL was developed to run on a Data General NOVA 1220.  The second phase was to implement the parse on the Intel 3000 system.

The primary aim of this paper is to describe the implementation of microprograms using a sixteen bit minicomputer and to show some of the software developed to support microcoding, assembling of microcode, loading the microcontrol store, and the debugging of the microprograms.

The development of Intel’s Schottky Bipolar LSI microcomputer elements has brought microprogramming to the field of microprocessors.  These devices allow almost infinite variety of design applications, control word size, and control word configuration.  This versatility makes the development of support software a difficult if not impossible task.

The emphasis in design and construction of the TOSCL microprogramming system was to be able to microprogram with the least amount of effort.  Since the major programming effort was to be the development of TOSCL, only a minimum of software was developed.  The minimum support required was:

1)       A symbolic editor,

2)       A microcode assembler,

3)       A loader for microcontrol store, and

4)       Microprogramming debugging aids. 

This paper shows how these programs combined with hardware functions allowed simulation and debugging of the Intel 3000 microprocessor system.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SIMULATION TESTING OF LAUNCH CRITICAL SHUTTLE GROUND SUPPORT EQUIPMENT AT THE LAUNCH EQUIPMENT TEST FACILITY–

KENNEDY SPACE CENTER

R. T. Uda, S. R. Dandage, and D. C. Macdonald

Planning Research Corporation

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is currently developing an economical space transportation system known as the Space Shuttle.  Various ground support equipment (GSE) has to perform critical functions to assure a successful launch of the Shuttle vehicle.  In order to test this equipment under simulated launch conditions, NASA is activating a Launch Equipment Test Facility (LETF).  This facility will simulate effects such as vehicle deflections and oscillations at the pad, rain, cryogenic shrinkage, vehicle lift-off, and solar heating.  A physical description of the LETF and its cost-effective utilization is provided in this paper.  Test articles, test categories, and test descriptions are detailed.  Particular emphasis is placed on simulation equipment and conditions.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A PROCEDURAL PROPOSAL FOR RELATING TRAINING DEVICES TO JOB SPECIFICATIONS

Lowell C. Yarusso

Naval Education and Training Support Center

For a number of years, the related problems of establishing training device requirements and evaluating the ability of a device to deliver the improvements in students performance expected of it, have been widely discussed.  The Chief of Naval Education and Training Support (CNETSUPPORT) Instruction 1551.5 identifies approved procedures for conducting a training situation analysis to establish the training specifications and/or military characteristics (MCs) of a device. Efforts to develop and systematize Transfer of Training Effectiveness Evaluation (TTEE) procedures have already been documented and are continuing with technical reports expected shortly.  Despite these and related efforts, there appears to be within the device procurement/validation process, a noticeable paucity of effort directed toward the goal of assuring that a device fills a viable fleet need.  And yet, within the available literature, there exists a common thread, specific behavioral objectives (SBOs), which, properly recognized and seized upon, will yield a systematic approach and provide documentation of each device’s validity in terms of the needs of the fleet.  Recently, Naval acceptance of the Interservice Procedures for Instructional Systems Development (IPOSD), NAVEDTRA 106A, has added new and consolidated familiar procedures for systematic curriculum development and, hence, for coordinated device procurement.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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