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COST EFFECTIVENESS OF FLIGHT SIMULATORS FOR MILITARY TRAINING

Dr. Jesse Orlansky

Mr. Joseph String

Institute for Defense Analyses

The Purpose of this Paper is to evaluate research and development on the cost and effectiveness of flight simulators used for training. The use of flight simulators for purposes other than training is not considered.  This study was performed for the Deputy Director of Defense Research and Engineering (Research and Advanced Technology).

The advantages of flight simulators for training purposes are well known. They permit close observations of pilot performance and immediate feedback which improves learning; they permit training pilots in many types of malfunctions not often encountered in flight, they are safe and permit training independent of weather, air traffic and the availability of aircraft; they save fuel, ammunition, targets, wear and tear on airplanes and, above all, the lives of pilots. But simulators also have some important disadvantages. Even the most advanced simulators have limited fidelity in external vision, platform motion and flight equations, they cannot provide the motivation and stress possible only in aircraft; and they are expensive to produce and to operate.

SOFTWARE MANAGEMENT OF A COMPLEX WEAPON SYSTEM SIMULATOR

Albert S. Goldstein

Wendell J. Newell

The Boeing Company

This paper presents the history and lessons learned in the development and implementation of the computer programs for a large complex Weapon System Trainer (WST).   The WST is a high fidelity simulator of the B-52 and KC-135 crew stations.  The WST includes visual, motion, sound, and a highly flexible instructional system.  The contract for the development of a production prototype unit began in mid-1977.  The development team consisted of the Boeing Company, Wichita as integrator and several subcontractors responsible for the various stations and systems.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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INFANTRY WEAPONS TRAINER

Albert H. Marshall and Bon F. Shaw

Naval Training Center.

Dr. Herbert C. Towle

University of Central Florida

The infantry Weapons Trainer is an electrooptics-based, microcomputer-controlled, training device that enables tactical infantry weapons training under a simulated high-stress battlefield environment in a classroom or aboard ship. In a short period of time a trainee can be subjected to a large variety of combat situations where each trainee’s performance is analyzed in real-time, and immediate feedback is given to both the trainees and instructor. Combat scenarios can be changed to fit any potential battlefield requirement.

KEEPING DOWN THE COST OF TRAINING–A CHALLENGE TO THE USER

Alexandra B. Taylor

The Singer Company

Simulator users, in particular the military, are facing restrictive procurement budgets as well as rapidly increasing maintenance costs for existing simulators. The simulator industry would like to meet the challenge of keeping down both the acquisition cost and the support cost of future training devices.  Industry attempts to limit procurement costs by utilizing designs and software developed on previous programs. At the same time, industry attempts to develop and offer new designs in areas, which yield a significant decrease in the cost of ownership. At times however, industry is constrained for a Request for Proposal (RFP) that specifies detailed design rather than performance objectives. These design specifications often have serious cost impacts. Detailed design specifications can be replaced by functional specifications, which will allow industry maximum design creativity while giving the user a more cost-effective training device.

Government sensitivity to the cost impact of detailed design specifications is reflected in Office of Management and Budget (OMB) Circular A-109, Major Systems Acquisitions.  OMB A-109 recommends defining system or training objectives rather than specifying detailed system design and performance requirements.  OMB A-109 emphasizes the definition of mission needs and program objectives independently of a particular system or technological solution in order to stimulate innovation and competition.  By writing a functional procurement specification, industry will be encouraged to create, explore, and develop alternative system design concepts.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ADVANCED INSTRUCTIONAL CONCEPTS IN FLYING TRAINING SIMULATION

Dr. Ronald G. Hughes

 Air Force Human Resources Laboratory.

The following material is the script portion of a sound/slide presentation entitled “Advanced Instructional Concepts in Flying Training Simulation.”  The presentation is unclassified, and is available upon request from AFHRL/FT, Williams Air Force Base, Arizona 85224.

Economic and resource constraints demand more cost-effective approaches to routine training needs.  The impact of these constraints upon the air Force is seen in the increased use of simulators at all levels of flying training.

This research represents the beginning of an effort by the Flying Training Division of the Air Force Human Resources Laboratory to collect data upon which to base such guidance.  The research approach involves studying the effects of a variety of instructional variables as measured by performance on representative “benchmark” tasks.  Among the tasks considered are carrier landings, aerial refueling, and air-to-surface weapons delivery.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE INFLUENCE OF FULL-MISSION SIMULATION ON VISUAL SYSTEM CAPABILITY

Lt. Col. Manfred Hass

Peter Guldenpfennig

In evaluating the prototype full-mission simulator for Western Germany’s multi-role combat aircraft, the PANAVIA TORNADO, important experience was gained in determining the degree of quality demanded of the visual system by this type of simulator.

The role of the TORNADO as the principal battlefield interdiction and strike aircraft for the West German military required pilots to maintain a high degree of combat readiness for a multitude of tactical situations.  Four Air Force and two Navy wings should be operational by 1985 and the overall program calls for each wing to be equipped with a full-mission simulator capable of performing a degree of realism never achieved before in simulation with the German Air force.  The simulators are to be delivered progressively over a three and one half-year period starting in 1981.

Decisive consideration of the TORNADO training program took place during 1975.  At that time, start-of-the-art technology in motion systems, digital radar landmass simulation and, in particular, computer-generated visual image systems (CGVIS) indicated that a full-mission simulator was both technically and economically feasible.

A major condition of the TORNADO training program was to develop, integrate and evaluate the CGVIS in prototype form before committing to a definitive technical specification.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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APPLICATION OF THE CILOP PRINCIPLE TO SIMULATORS

Michael P. Scher

 Hughes Aircraft Company

The acronym CICLOP was coined by the Department of Defense just a few years ago. It stands for  “Conversion in Lieu of Procurement” and was an attempt to decrease the cost of new programs. Although the acronym has almost faded into oblivion, the concept remains both valid and active.

The basic principle behind CILOP is to decrease the cost of programs by modifying existing systems rather than starting from scratch.  This principle moves along two separate and distinct tracks, both starting from a common point but traveling in different directions.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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RADAR WARNING TRAINING DEVICES

Wilhelm Gerhardt and Bert R. Lindsey

McDonnell Douglas Electronics Company

The proliferation of sophisticated hostile radar-directed weapon systems, and the complexity of modern radar warning systems (RWS) dictates that our aircrews are thoroughly trained in the techniques of electronic warfare (EW). Mission success is directly dependent upon the aircrew’s competence in interpreting the threat environment via the radar warning displays and their ability to react quickly and correctly to this threat situation. This competence and ability are achievable only with extensive, high-caliber training. To provide this training within today’s time and economic constraints requires multiple training media utilized to produce the most cost-effective combat ready results.

This paper suggests augmentation of existing academic and flight-simulator training with a hands-on interactive desktop trainer for improved indoctrination and refresher training, as well as in flight simulation to reinforce this training in a high stress environment.

The paper describes a compact universal desktop trainer, which is software programmable to simulate the user’s radar warning system. A method of entering and changing threat data and creating mission scenarios for the trainer, which requires no programming ability, is described. The paper also discusses in-flight simulators, which provide simulated threat presentations on the actual radar warning equipment and display threat responses to flight and tactical maneuvers.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A NEW CONCEPT FOR APPLICATION OF MICROCOMPUTER TECHNOLOGY TO REAL-TIME TRAINERS

Charles F. Summer

 Naval Training Equipment Center

This paper presents a summary of an analysis of a new and unique concept of microcomputer technology application to real-time trainers that has been developed by NAVTRAEQUIPCEN. It summarizes the technical objectives, the conceptual analysis, technical feasibility, and life-cycle cost trade-offs. The required technologies for system implementation are identified and a status of the exploratory development to achieve the required technologies and demonstrate concept feasibility is provided.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DEVELOPMENT OF A LANDING SIGNAL OFFICER TRAINER

J. W. Lacy and C. W. Meshier

 Vought Corporation

The Landing Signal Officer (LSO) Trainer, developed through an austere yet comprehensive research and development program at Vought, will provide another first in naval aviation training. It will provide simultaneous simulation training, with performance evaluations for LSO’s and pilots in a closed-loop mode. LSO on-the-job training requirements for the control of actual aircraft are eased. JP-5, aircraft flight hours, aircraft maintenance, and time in the training of an LSO are direct savings. In an era of more restrictive budgets and reduced operations, the opportunities to teach and learn aircraft control are more limited. The Landing Signal Officer Trainer will increase the training opportunities and provide a closed-loop pilot/LSO training relationship.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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AIRCRAFT SIMULATORS–RECENT IMPROVEMENTS

AND AREAS OF RESEARCH

Dr. M. McKinnon and Mr. D. Raptis

 CAE Electronics Ltd.

The aircraft simulator industry follows closely the state of the art in all the disciplines of interest in flight simulation, both commercial and military.

This paper presents recent improvement in motion hardware and software, their interdependence as well as active areas of research and possible future trends.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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IMMEDIATE LEARNER ACHIEVEMENT AS AN EFFECT OF AESTHETIC EMBELISHMENT IN EDUCATIONAL ART

Roger D. Markham, Audio-Visual Media Project Engineer

Naval Training Equipment Center

The purpose of this study is to determine the effects of levels of artwork in audio-visual sound-slide teaching devices on message comprehension. More specifically, the experiment was undertaken to determine whether a student can obtain as much information from simple art (line drawings, stick figures, geometric patterns, etc.) as he/she can from a more complex rendition of the same subject, including full human figures, extremely detailed subject matter, use of color and more embellishment for the purpose of intensifying the aesthetic quality of the visual.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DESIGNER’S IMAGINATION AND EXISTING HARDWARE AND CREATIVE SOFTWARE PERFORMANCE-BASED MULTI-IMAGE INSTRUCTION

Dennis Duke, Education Specialist

and

 Murray Tesser , Chief, Television Production

United States Army Signal Center and Fort Gordon

Today’s Department of Defense has made great advances in developing and utilizing innovative training materials within the last ten years. The Army, for instance, currently employs the Instructional System Development (ISD) model in the design of all training material. This model is unparalleled in defining and analyzing instruction in a very logical and coherent manner.  However, the model is only a tool. The development of quality training packages is dependent upon the competence and imagination of instructional designers. This paper seeks to review and transcend the ISD model in suggesting methodological training innovations for cost effective strategies to improve instructional packages.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TRAINEE MONITORING, PERFORMANCE MEASURING, BRIEFING,

AND DEBRIEFING

David R. Mitchell

Gould Inc., Simulation Systems Division

My purpose in writing this paper is to present in an organized way some of the methods that are being employed in today’s state-of-the-art digital flight simulators to monitor trainee performance and to provide simulator instructors with effective briefing and debriefing tools. It is not my purpose to suggest that the information presented herein represents the ultimate in design, or that it represents future methods that will be employed, since we in the simulation field know that much work is being done in this area and that much work remains to be done.

Rather, my intention is to present typical methods and system hardware that is being employed. You may draw your own conclusions as to the effectiveness of this typical system which will be described. In fact, it is my hope that you will find this paper an aid to drawing your own conclusions regarding this most important aspect of the simulation training problem.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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INTEGRATION OF ELECTRONIC WARFARE SIMULATION

INTO THE F-16 WEAPONS SYSTEM TRAINER

John F. Lethert

Aeronautical Systems Division

 Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

The F-16 Simulator Program consists of the purchase of a set of Weapons System Trainers (WST) for the United States Air Force, plus expanded Operational Flight Trainers (OFT) for the United States Air Force, the Royal Norwegian Air Force, the Royal Danish Air Force, the Royal Netherlands Air Force, and the Belgian Air Force as well as for Foreign Military Sales.

An F-16 WST will consist of the systems illustrated in Figure 1.  Each of the systems, the basic OFT (hereinafter designated OFT), the Electronic Warfare Trainer Device (EWTD), the Digital Radar Landmass Simulation (DRLMS), and the Fighter/Attach Simulator Visual system (F/ASVS), is known as a building block.

An expanded OFT will consist of an OFT, and either a DRLMS, and EWTD or both.  It does not include a F/ASVS or interconnection of OFT cockpits.

Each building block will be purchased on separate contracts.  The Simulator System Program Office developed this concept to take maximum advantage of technologies in each area of simulation without being constrained to a single contractor’s approach.

This paper will discuss the system engineering aspects of the integration process and their application to the preparation of the Request for Proposal (RFP) for the F-16 EWTD.  It will begin with an overview of each building block and then it will discuss four basic integration principles.  Next it will briefly overview the Electronic Warfare (EW) simulation problem.  Finally, it will discuss the application of the basic integration principles to the EWTD procurement and how this application resulted in the derivation of another principle, which was also applied to the EWTD and will become central to integration of other building blocks.

A MECHANISM FOR COMMUNICATING SIMULATOR

INSTRUCTIONAL FEATURE REQUIREMENTS

Paul W. Caro, Robert N. Isley, and Lawrence D. Pohlmann

Seville Research Corporation

Almost constant advances in the capabilities and complexity of flight training devices have characterized the history of flight simulation.  Most of these advances have involved increased fidelity of simulation. That is, simulator design has emphasized physical correspondence between the device and the aircraft simulated and between the simulated and aircraft (real) environments.  As a result, flight simulators increasingly look, feel, sound and perform like aircraft.

The emphasis upon fidelity in simulator design has resulted in devices that are costly to procure and operate. In spite of such costs, however, fidelity in flight simulators is widely acclaimed as useful and, in many cases, even essential to effective training.  Because of the cost of high fidelity devices, the development of simulator designs that permit more efficient training is a necessary goal.

A simulator designed to permit efficient training is one whose instructional and other features permit instructional activities to be conducted with a relative minimum of time and effort.  Several recent efforts to develop more efficient simulators have sought to achieve greater efficiency by eliminating the instructor from portions of the instructional process through development of instructional features that permit automatic training and performance measurement (e.g., Brown, Waag and Eddowes, 1975, Semple, Vreuls, Cotton, Durfee, Hooks, and Butler, 1979).  Others have concentrated on developing new measures of performance (Walsh, Burgin, and Fogel, 1979) or on manipulation of the task cues present during simulator training (Hughes, Paulsen, and Brooks, 1978).  A few studies have examined the role of the instructor in non-automatic simulator training and the manner in which the simulator’s instructional features facilitate or hinder that role.  These latter studies have concentrated upon simulator instructor/operator stations (IOS)–the focus of control of most instructional features–and the extent to which IOS design impacts instructional efficiency.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE GOOD STICK INDEX

A PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT FOR AIR COMBAT TRAINING

Charles W. Meshier and Samuel B. Moore

Vought Corporation

Robert E. Coward

Air Force Human Resources Laboratory

Tactical Research Branch, Luke Air Force Base

Measuring the proficiency with which a pilot performs a basic fight maneuver is a difficult task. Many parameters come into play. . .the least of which is the frequently used term. . .skill.  A simulated environment provides an easily managed atmosphere in which to develop and design proficiency measurement techniques, or performance measurements, that may eventually be applied in an airborne environment.  This paper reports on one candidate system that has been studied and validated based on the expert opinion of instructor pilots providing air combat training to Tactical Air Command  (TAC) Pilots.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SPACE SHUTTLE SINGLE SYSTEM TRAINER

Robert L. Myers

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

Henry G. Brown, Hal W. Halpin, and Terry L. Stratton

Ford Aerospace and Communications Corporation

The Space Shuttle Single System Trainer was developed to enable more effective use of available training time on the Shuttle Mission Simulator by off-loading basic systems training from the mission simulator.  In comparison to the mission simulator, the trainer is a low-cost interactive systems trainer using two medium fidelity student stations, each containing the Orbiter forward and aft flight deck displays and controls. These student stations are interfaced with application programs in a minicomputer to provide a realistic flight training environment. The trainer math model fidelity enables the use of normal mission checklist and malfunction procedures in operating the Orbiter systems. The trainer provides systems level operations and skill training to shuttle flight crews, flight controllers, and flight operations support personnel on a single Orbiter system basis. Display and control familiarization, normal operation and malfunction procedure training are completed in the trainer in preparation for all-up flight crew training in the mission simulator.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TRIDENT COMMAND CONTROL SYSTEM ONBOARD TRAINING:

SIMULATE OR STIMULATE

Dr. Edward F. Rizy

Raytheon Company

Submarine Signal Division

This study was conducted under contract with the Naval Underwater Systems Center

Onboard training has probably been a feature of shipboard operations as long as there have been ships. Military vessels are typically in training mode during peacetime.  Fleet Ballistic Missile (FBM) submarines have been somewhat of an exception.  This strategic deterrent deploys and operates under secure and alerted conditions.  Nevertheless, the FBM platform is used customarily for training junior officers and seamen on the basics of FBM operation, middle-grade officer’s enlisted men in supervision and command.  Team and ship training exercises are used to practice and verify ship control, emergency and missile launch procedures.

A Command and Control System (CCS) level onboard training system is postulated not to supplant existing training but to complement and amplify it.  At this early stage of electronic training device development for onboard application, some positions in the ship’s complement are very difficult to integrate into an onboard training plan.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A DYNAMIC SIMULATOR FOR TRAINING

WITH MAN-PORTABLE AIR DEFENCE WEAPONS

John A. Kreuzer

Brunswick Corporation, Defense Division

Charles L. Norris

Atlantic Research Corporation

William F. Hill

Dynamic Simulation

The depth of training required for weapons systems that have a high man-engagement performance requirement is a difficult task. Should a man solely depended upon to engage and destroy a high-performance/high value threat be allowed to train by actually firing the weapon?  When the gunners number in the thousands and the weapon costs in the thousands, would this be practical?   Conversely, can the gunner realistically be totally trained without experiencing a live weapon firing? Even the USA and USMC differ in their solutions to this dilemma as evidenced by their individual approaches to training for the Redeye Weapon. Hopefully, both services will realize that for the new Stinger Weapon, the common goal must be a well-trained, confident gunner.

Both the Redeye man-portable air defense weapon and its upgraded version, designated Stinger, are designed so that one man can shoulder-launch the missile to intercept and destroy threats ranging from hovering helicopters to high-speed maneuvering jet aircraft threats.

The necessity for having a well-trained gunner that can engage a high-value threat on the first attempt requires a high degree of weapon confidence and operational proficiency.  Brunswick Corporation as the prime contractor for the United States Marine Corps to develop a Redeye Launch Simulator (RELS) and a Singer Launch Simulator (STLS) believes the answer lies in providing a trainer that allows a cost-effective live firing experience.  This training of a new student or requalification of a trainer gunner can be effectively culminated by firing a low-cost duplication of the actual weapon.

RELIABILITY ENHANCEMENT OF SIMULATORS THROUGH

PARTS CONTROL

Mr. Robert E. Depp and Mr. John F. Raye

Defense Electronics Supply Center

One of the major cost factors in the acquisition of a new military weapon system is the electronic equipment and the associated parts used in that system. During the recent past, the proliferation of new electronic parts types have both helped and hurt the cost of electronic equipment in military systems.  The ever-increasing development of new electronic devices has made it difficult to maintain current designs. This situation has ultimately resulted in diminishing sources of supply along with reliability and maintenance problems for military equipment.

Past studies in the Department of Defense (DOD) and Congress have concluded that an effective standardization and parts control program during design helps lessen ownership costs and establishes a known reliability level for electronic equipment.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SOME CRUCIAL PROBLEMS IN TRAINING TANK GUNNERY SKILLS

Dr. David W. Bessemer and Dr. Brian L. Kottas

United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

Fort Knox Field Unit

Instructional systems development presents many problems for tasks that can be accomplished a variety of ways, and particularly for tasks containing unobservable processes. While unobservable processes are often ignored in instructional systems development, the way in which they are performed can have significant impact on operational performance. Evaluation of a tank gunnery trainer emphasized that considering only observable measures of performance when training gunners to engage moving targets was insufficient.  The operational performance in hitting a moving target depends critically on the amount of lead applied. The correct amount of lead, in turn, depends on the target speed. There are, however, several different (unobservable) cognitive strategies for determining lead based on target speed. The current research demonstrates that the cognitive strategy selected for training will have a marked impact on operational performance, and that selection of a strategy to be trained rests on an understanding of underlining psychological processes.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A SIMULATION MODEL FOR BATTALION COMMAND TRAINING

Dr. Alexander W. Dobieski

Systems Engineering & Intregration Division

Defense and Space Systems Group of TRW, Inc.

The combined Army Tactical Training Simulator (CATTS), designed and built by TRW Defense and Space Systems Group, is training battalion staffs at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, via computer simulation. In this relativity new application, a real-time interactive simulation accepts and executes command decisions made by trainees and provides real-time reports on the status of forces.  The CATTS simulation model was developed from two existing models: the maneuver and fire analyzer (MAFIA) and the Small Independent Action Forces (SIAF). This paper focuses on the major modules within the simulation: terrain, target acquisition, ground fire and engagement, ground movement, air movement and fire, logistics, and command and control.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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AIR-GROUND ENGAGEMENT SIMULATION (AGES):

REALISTIC AND EFFECTIVE TRAINING FOR AIR DEFENSE PERSONNEL

Earl S. Stein Ph. D. and Donald E. Erwin Ph.D.

United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

Fort Knox Field Unit

The development of team skills of United States Army combat units has traditionally involved “by the numbers” crew drills or field training exercises (FTX). In both methods, realism or training fidelity has been marginal. Field training exercises require a rigid adherence to imaginary situations administered by the subjective decision of umpires. The FTX often includes preplanned scenarios where units perform on cue and the tactical behaviors of leaders or individual soldiers have relatively little to do with the mission outcome.  As casualties are assessed using an arbitrary decision process, soldiers often engage in behaviors that would be highly impractical in combat (i.e., frontal assaults of propositioned defenses).  There were essentially no incentives to avoid the line of incoming fire, because the consequences were ill defined.

Early attempts at improving realism through simulation in a military context concentrated on individual skills such as the flight training simulator.  In a combat situation, however, a tactical unit’s performance depends on individual soldier skills and on a complex of team collective skills, the nature of which has been much debated (Collins, 1977).  The training of collective skills, including the coordination of activities among unit elements, is the focus of Engagement Simulation (ES).

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN NAVY FIRE FIGHTER TRAINERS

Hubert H. Cadel , Wallace N. Guthrie, Jr., and Edmond Swiatosz,

Naval Training Equipment Center

Shipboard fires represent a constant and pernicious threat to the safety of personnel, the preservation of shipboard equipment and, ultimately the combat readiness of Naval forces.  In response to this threat, the Naval Education and Training Command, through the Naval Training Equipment Center, has initiated experimental development efforts in support of its goal to provide more effective fire fighter training in a pollution free environment.  This research and development has provided a viable technical baseline from which to apply the potential of modern technology to this long-standing Navy Problem, a problem compounded by the growing number of restrictions imposed on man’s relationship with his environment and the shortage of fossil fuels.

The expedient and effective extinguishment of shipboard fires is directly related to the ability of shipboard personnel to:

1)       Properly identify and classify fires

2)       Communicate the threat

3)       Select and properly employ appropriate equipment

4)       Take appropriate offensive action to contain and extinguish the fire without undue risk of personal injury.

These behaviors must be instinctive to crewmembers acting either individually or as members of a shipboard damage control team.  The loss of personnel and equipment by fire on board ship is dramatically reduced by a high state of readiness of the crew, a goal that is largely dependent on the effective transfer of training in a realistic fire fighting training environment.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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CIG TRANSLUCENT FACE SIMULATION PROVIDES MULTIPLE BENEFITS

Dr. Marvin Bunker

General Electric Company

Military training trends are placing increasing emphasis on use o simulators for full-crew, full-mission training.  Visual scene simulation must provide effective visual cues with a high degree of realism and a minimum of distracting effects.

The relationships between objects and their shadows, and the changes in these relationships as the observer moves in the gaming area have been demonstrated to be extremely effective in contributing to the mental correlation process by which an observer extracts knowledge of the world from visual observations.  Computer Image Generation (CIG) applied to visual scene simulation has always had the capability to validly portray shadows modeled as part of a fixed environment, but has had difficulty coping with changing illumination or shadows of moving objects.

The optical laws, which apply to transmission of light through translucent faces, are quite simple, and it was readily demonstrated that such faces could be used to provide excellent simulation of shadows.  This provided the incentive to devise algorithms for such simulation, which would be feasible for implementation in real-time hardware.

After the capability to simulate translucent faces was developed, ideas arose for their use in applications other than shadows.  They were used for windows, with very realistic results.  Overlapping translucent spheres and ellipsoids were used for smoke and cloud simulation.  For this application to be satisfactory, the processing must be modified from that process conforming to the laws of physics.

An extremely fruitful use for translucent faces is in implementation of gradual transition between versions of three-dimensional models.  This application is expected to be of even greater significance that the use for which they were developed.  As in the case of cloud simulation, processing must depart from physical laws for gradual transition–but in a different manner than for clouds.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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COMPUTER -GENERATED TEXTURING TO MODEL REAL-WORLD FEATURES

Dr. Geoffrey Y. Gardner

Research Department

Grumman Aerospace Corporation

Current Computer Image Generation (CIG) systems don’t provide adequate training effectiveness because they lack the realism to provide pilots with many of the real-world flying cues upon which they have come to depend. This lack of realism is a direct consequence of an oversimplified database consisting primarily of straight edges.  This paper describes an alternative database developed at the Grumman Aerospace Corporation. The database avoids edges and uses texturing to model real-world features far more faithfully than conventional CIG systems. The increased realism produces a more valid scene representation and provides the kind of flying cues encountered in actual flight.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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REAL-TIME GENERATION AND SMOOTH SHADING OF QUADRIC SURFACES

Johnson K. Yan

Singer/Link Division

In flight simulation, it is necessary to portray manmade curved objects, such as water towers, oil storage tanks, bomb craters, silos, other aircrafts, etc. The following describes an algorithm for the efficient generation of curved surface objects in real-time; i.e., at thirty frames per second.

Early computer-generated image systems approximated curved surfaces by a number of planar surfaces.  The shade across each of these surfaces was constant and was computed by calculating the dot product of the sun’s illumination direction with the normalized surface normal.  As a result, curved objects look faceted.  To eliminate this faceted appearance, Gouraud [1] introduced an algorithm for continuous shading across boundaries of planar surfaces.  This algorithm improved the appearance of curved objects but doesn’t eliminate completely the faceted effect because the shade gradient is still discontinuous at the boundaries.  Another shortcoming is that the silhouette of the object is still composed of straight edges.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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EVALUATION OF FIREARM SIMULATION SYSTEMS FOR TACTICAL TRAINING OF POLICE

Robert D. Doering, Ph.D., P.E.

Professor of Engineering

University of Central Florida

In recent years there has been a growing interest in development and use of weapons for simulations systems on the part of the military in this country and its NATO allies.  This interest generally reflects the growing costs of training exercised where live ammunition is expended and the increased flexibility that simulation weapon firing permits in developing tactics and training personnel under actual fire.

It is noted that the police are generally confronted with the same requirements in their training programs and particularly in “SWAT” team exercises.  Additionally, it should be recognized that the police perhaps have a greater need for field training with firearm simulation systems since, as a group, they are more frequently subjected to weapons fire and injury situations.  The police officer then should also be afforded the opportunity to train with such systems where he could learn and practice the responses which would increase his chances of survival.

This paper describes the initial research effort to develop such a training system in cooperation with the Orlando, Florida Police Department.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A MICROCOMPUTER IMPLEMENTATION OF A SIMPLE VISUAL DISPLAY SYSTEM

Jerry W. Campbell

Florida Power Corporation

Dr. Christian S. Bauer, P.E.

Department of Industrial Engineering and Management Systems

University of Central Florida

Computer-driven visual display devices are receiving increasing user acceptance in the development and deployment of simulators and trainers for complex systems.  Most of the attention paid these systems has been on the high end of the price/performance spectrum, with full-color, real-time displays for aircraft/spacecraft training simulators becoming the rule and not the exception.  There exist other areas of potential application of computer-controlled visual systems, specifically in low-cost trainers designed for initial familiarization or proficiency maintenance on specific areas of systems performance.   Such trainers do not need the fidelity or flexibility required of complex systems, but can be optimized for a specific function, such as training pilots for contact approaches to airfields.

This paper discusses some of the basic aspects of implementing “simple” computer graphics and presents an example in the form of simulated night landing displays at Herndon Airport in Orlando, Florida.  The three-dimensional projections were calculated and displayed on a video monitor in the form of two-dimensional scenes.  Motorola 6800 Microprocessor-based hardware was used as the interface to a video monitor.  A description of the various operating parameters for simulated flight landings is presented.  Included in the discussion are various pictorial representations of simulated landing approaches at Herndon Airport, and suggestions for improving and performance of the system are outlined.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SOFTWARE LIFE-CYCLE COST

Dr. Gerry C. White

Naval Training Equipment Center

Life-cycle cost estimation can be a means to avoid mistakes in system design that would result in large costs.  Successful life-cycle forecasting, however, requires the ability to predict, with reasonable confidence, the total cost (life-cycle cost) associated with the development, acquisition, and ownership of a system.  Unfortunately, life-cycle cost analysis has not been satisfactorily applied to computer software systems.  Unlike hardware, logistic parameters for software are difficult to predict and measure.  Thus, software costs have been difficult to predict.  Life-cycle costing of hardware systems has evolved into a systematic approach involving concept formulation, contract considerations, development/production and operations/disposal.  Such an approach has been useful to define areas of high-support costs, evaluate alternative support policies, determine impact of operational requirements on support alternatives, and to provide for long-range cost prediction.  This paper examines the cost of real-time simulation computers with emphasis on computer software life-cycle costs.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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INSTRUMENTATION SUPPORT FOR EVALUATING MILITARY EXERCISES

Drs. Y.A. Hosni and D.G. Linton

Department of Industrial Engineering and Management Systems

University of Central Florida

A feasibility study of low-cost feedback information mechanisms for Multiple Integrated Laser Engagement System (MILES) was conducted at University of Central Florida.  An optimum mix between man and machine was the approach used in the analysis and design of the proposed system.  The system includes mechanisms for data collection, analysis, and displaying information for exercise evaluation.  Instrumentation includes hand-held terminals, central computer, and the necessary man-machine interfacing software and devices.  In addition to feasibility and cost, system compatibility with more sophisticated follow-on systems was also considered.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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COMPUTER AIDED SYSTEM FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF AIRCREW TRAINING (CASDAT)–A GENERIC APPROACH TO COST-EFFECTIVE ISD

Dr. Patrick E. Smith and Steven A. Murray

Veda, Incorporated

The effectiveness of current instructional development systems in the military cannot be argued.  Unfortunately, neither can the great cost of the formal procedures used to design such systems.  Instructional systems development (ISD) has expanded in scope during the past few years as ever-new applications are found for this approach to training design.  More recent, however, are cost-reduction efforts in the form of automated aids to the ISD process.  These aids include computerized systems for developing task lists, for writing behavioral objectives, for structuring syllabi, etc., and they vary in terms of their complexity, cost, and the extent to which they assist the ISD developer to create and them manage his instructional program.

Veda, Incorporated is presently under contract to the Naval Training Equipment Center (NTEC) to design and implement one such automated aid for the development of aircrew training.  This system, Computer Aided System for the Development of Aircrew Training (CASDAT) will be described in this paper.  An emphasis will be placed on the unique, generic feature of the underlying task model.  This generic structure applies across all types of aircraft, missions, and flight crew positions, and possesses several important advantages for instructional development, management, and research.  Having taken the step to automate the methods of ISD, it appears to be time for examining these methods to establish just what it is we wish to automate.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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INDIRECT FIRE SIMULATION USING REMOTELY PILOTED HELICOPTER

Dr. Ronald L. Phillips and Dr. Yasser Hosni

College of Engineering

University of Central Florida

This paper is a feasibility discussion of incorporating remotely piloted helicopter (RPH) into the Multiple integrated Laser Engagement System (MILES) Exercises so as to simulate and assess casualties of indirect fire.  The paper describes existing systems and current proposals for fire in engagement exercises the problems of compatibility between MILES equipment and RPH’s.  A new approach is then proposed which uses an RPH to carry a receiver/transmitter which relays the MILES code from the firing weapon onto the target.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A VERSATILE WEAPON ENGAGEMENT SCORING SYSTEM (LWESS)

Roy H. Deen

TRADOC Combined Arms Test Activity

Fort Hood, Texas

Richard Wangler

International Laser Systems, Inc.

The lightweight Weapons Engagement Scoring System (LWESS) was conceived by the TRADOC Combined Arms Test Activity (TCATA) and was designed and built by International Laser Systems, Inc. (ILS).  LWESS is an evolutionary replacement of TCATA’s aging Weapons Engagement Scoring System (WESS).  The goals set for LWESS were the result of the lessons earned from the use of WESS.  LWESS has not stood the test of time in the field, but it is evident that a giant step has been taken in achieving these goals.

Specifically, TCATA required real-time casualty assessment (RTCA) by the target without support from an omnipotent central computer.  It was also required that test data be collected by each player and saved for communication back to central as conditions allowed.  TCATA needed an improved installation, maintenance, test control, and test coordination concept to minimize the recurring cost of test support.  And, last but not least, the engagement simulations’ algorithms, cues, and signatures needed improvement.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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MARKSMANSHIP AND GUNNERY LASER DEVICE (MAGLAD)

Don R. Woods, Program director

International Laser Systems, Inc.

Hugh Burgay, Project Engineer

Naval Training Equipment Center

The Marksmanship and Gunnery Laser Device (MAGLAD) system (Figure 1) provides simulation of the firing of live M16A1 ammunition during marksmanship training.  An eye-safe laser transmitter produces pulses of harmless light in place of potentially lethal and expensive live ammunition.  The system includes simulation of firing against both stationary and moving full-scale targets, in addition to the 1/12^th-scale record fire range.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A COST-EFFECTIVE METHODOLOGY FOR AIRCREW TRAINING DEVICES

Drs. Gail H. Marcus and Joseph T. Patterson

Analytic Services, Inc.

This paper provides a technical description of a methodology and associated computer software developed by Analytic Services for the Air Force Human Resources Laboratory (AFHRL) for evaluating the cost and effectiveness of devices used in aircrew training programs.  The primary purpose of the methodology is to identify the most cost-effective mix of training devices (including aircraft, simulators, PTTs, etc.) for aircrew training for a given weapon system.  The methodology is applicable to training programs at all levels for both existing and future weapon systems.  The computer model requires input data on training requirements and device training capabilities, some of which is not presently routinely available.  The model uses the requirements and capabilities data to identify all mixes of devices that can satisfy the training requirements; it then uses device acquisition and operating costs to select the most cost-effective mixes of devices for accomplishing the training and to compute the life-cycle costs of these sets of devices.  The computer software is stored in AFHRL UNIVAC 1108 at Brooks Air Force Base, Texas.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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PILOT PERFORMANCE IN THE VISUAL CARRIER LANDING TASK–SIMULATOR VS. FLIGHT

Moses Aronson

Naval Training Equipment Center

At the 6^th NTEC-Industry Conference, 13 November 1973, I presented a paper entitled,  “New Approach to the Evaluation of Visual Attachments to Flight Simulators”.   Some of the bases for the approach given then will now be re-emphasized, and an application to an in-house experiment will be presented.

Present methods of measuring performance characteristics of a visual attachment do not indicate whether visual cues which a pilot uses to perform a visual flight task are adequately presented to him.  Lybrand in 1958, stated that the best way of assessing a visual attachment is to have experienced pilots fly specific flight paths, and base rating on judgments of these pilots to supplement available evidence.  By 1975 it was recognized by a Working Group of the fluid Mechanics Panel of Advisory Group for Aeronautical Research and Development (AGARD), reference 3, addressing pilot performance and learning in simulated landings, that “the landing maneuver is subject to a number of direct performance measures.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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USING THE MICROPROCESSOR TO TAILOR COMPUTER SYSTEMS TO TRAINING SIMULATOR REQUIREMENTS

Nicholas A. Siecko

Educational Computer Corporation

The advent of the microprocessor has ushered in a new era of computer applications.  The power and economy of the microprocessor opens entire new fields for computer applications and will change many existing techniques that now use mini and full scale CPU.  It is this power and combined economy that allows the microprocessor to be tailored to each particular application rather than fitting system requirements to existing processors.

Educational Computer Corporation’s use of multiple microprocessors in a “Federated Multiprocessing Architecture” is an example of tailoring the processing system to fit the application.  It also represents changing an existing mini-computer application.  The EC 3, as was its predecessor, the EC II, is specifically designed to accommodate the requirements of simulator operation.  However, the microprocessor has provided the EC 3 a multifold increase in capability and power, plus a decrease in mainframe hardware costs.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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VISUAL INFORMATION DISPLAY SYSTEM

Captain Craig F. Smith and Mr. Cecil Bone

United States Army Combat Developments Experimentation Command

Mr. Dennis J. Rutledge

DBA Systems, Inc.

The Visual Information Display system (VIDS), built by DBA Systems, Inc. for the United States Army combat Developments Experimentation Command (CDEC) represents an innovative and flexible approach to the display of field experimentation data.  A fundamental aspect of CDEC’s experimentation mission is that of two-sided, free-play field exercises in which casualty assessment is carried out in near real-time, with a high level of data collection instrumentation on down to the individual player elements which can be infantrymen, tanks, aircraft, or other weapon systems.  The purpose of this form of experimentation is the collection of pertinent data from a realistic battlefield environment.

The primary function of VIDS is the graphical representation of player position and status data which is collected and processed by the CDEC Real-Time Casualty Assessment Instrumentation for use in real-time monitoring and post-trial analysis of experimentation activities.  The display is multichromatic, and utilizes pre-programmed symbols to depict various player types.  In addition to computational and display equipment, VIDS includes a map digitization system, which provides the capability to record and process terrain or other data for background information overlays.

This paper presents an overview of the VIDS and the CDEC Instrumentation to which it is interfaced.  It discusses the capabilities and design features which are built into the display system.  Finally, other potential uses of VIDS or a VIDS type system are considered.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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COMPUTER GENERATION OF FULL COLORED TEXTURED TERRAIN IMAGES

Bruce Schachter

General Electric Company

Computer generated shaded relief maps have been used in cartography for a number of years.  Most systems produce gray level images which are simple orthographic projections of the terrain surface.  We will show how digital terrain data can be used to create more realistic displays.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ADVANCED FEATURES IN CONTROL LOADING AND MOTION SYSTEMS FOR SIMULATORS

Jean Baradat and Michel Lacroix

Thomson-CSF Simulateurs LMT-France

The ideal simulator would be a device in which a pilot could feel he was effectively in a real vehicle and which would also be easy to operate, easy to maintain and cost little.  Although these characteristics are somewhat conflicting, there are reasonable solutions, which provide a fair compromise.  This paper describes the solutions adopted by Thomson-CSF Simulateurs LMT for motion systems and control leading systems in particular.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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EMULATION AS A SONAR TRAINER MODEL VALIDATION AND VERIFICATION TOOL

Bruce R. Walker

Honeywell, Inc.

The development plan for the design and delivery of the Fleet Ballistic Missile Sonar Operational Trainer (FBM SOT) real-time operational computer program included the verification of the mathematical models and their hierarchical structure.  Verification was accomplished by the development and utilization of an emulator, a nonreal-time computer program written in Fortran.  This emulator was used to:

1)       Verify the model algorithms and associated logic

2)       Verify program architecture

3)       Provide test case data for checkout of the real-time operational program (RTP).

The emulator was also intended to serve as a test bed for future real-world data base improvements, and is provided as part of the deliverable SOT system.

This paper describes the conception, development, and use of the emulator as a mathematical model development, validation, and verification tool.  Detailed design information is presented elsewhere.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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RECENT ADVANCES IN OCEAN MODELING TECHNIQUES FOR SONAR TRAINERS–FBM SOT

Linda Q. Sax

Honeywell, Inc.

Realistic simulation of the received signals from ships and submarines is the primary objective of the Fleet Ballistic Missile Sonar Operational Trainer (FBM SOT) built by Honeywell’s Training and Control system Center.  The sonar suites on board the FBM submarines provide reliable information conveying a target’s movement and identity.  Acoustic properties of the ocean significantly affect the visual and aural representations of a ship’s signal.  The ocean medium’s variability can be used advantageously in locating and tracking a ship as well as to cause confusion resulting in tactical errors.  Recognizing and utilizing various sound propagating characteristics of the oceans is an essential training goal.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ALGORITHMIC PRESCRIPTIONS FOR INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT

Suzanne E. Sax and John M. Moscicki

Grumman Aerospace Corporation

The algorithmization of instruction has gained prominence since the introduction of the concept to education.  Algorithms are generally considered to be a sequence of operations applied to any problem within a given class of problems which, when followed, guarantee an expected result.

Algorithms, in the strict sense of the word, possess these properties of generality and resultivity.  However, the concept of algorithmization has widespread implications for education in applications where such precision is not possible.  Landa (1974) has termed algorithms used for such purposes “algorithmic prescriptions”.  To distinguish algorithmic prescriptions from strictly mathematical algorithms, Merrill (1977) labels them as “heuristic procedures”.  While recognizing that there are such distinctions between mathematical and prescriptive algorithms, this paper will refer to both classes of procedures as algorithms.

An algorithm may take various forms:

1)       Prose test

2)       Numbered steps

3)       Question lists

4)       Branching booklets

5)       Flow charts

6)       Directed graphs

7)       Decision tables, etc. (Bunderson, 1970).

Coscarelli (1978) discusses the merits of different representations of algorithms noting that the form of representation may influence one’s problem solving tactics.  The flow chart format is proposed as most appropriate for representing complex procedural operations.  The flow chart and numbered steps formats were selected to represent the algorithms presented herein.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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APPLICATION OF SOFTWARE DESIGN METHODOLOGY FOR SMALL MAINTENANCE TRAINERS

Michael C. Dashow and Michael A. Kogan

Grumman Aerospace Corporation

The prime purpose of Simulated Avionics Maintenance Trainer (SAMT) Common Core Program was, and still is, to design and develop the hardware and software designs and techniques which will allow us to build and deliver training equipment that is cost effective and very responsive to short delivery schedule restrictions.  Common hardware and software modules are to be developed which will supply our company with a menu of technology available for the SAMTs of the near future.  It is anticipated that this will be a continuing effort so that we can update our capabilities as new requirements come over the horizon.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A GENERALIZED SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT AND SUPPORT ENVIRONMENT FOR THE A-6E WEAPON SYSTEM TRAINER (A6E-WST)

Martin C. Blyseth

Grumman Aerospace Corporation

As the role of software becomes an increasing, if not overwhelming, factor in the complexity, cost, and schedule of training devices, maintaining and assuring management visibility and control have become a decided challenge.  As change and growth become a way of life for large software systems, this challenge extends throughout the life cycle of the device, encompassing the support phase as well.  The software development environment for the A-6E Weapon ‘system Trainer (A6E-WST) was spawned to meet this challenge.

It is the intent of this paper to provide an overview of the environment and tools created for the development and support of the software for the A6E-WST.  The principal objective was to produce an environment, which minimized the cost and schedule for the development of the device software while providing substantial visibility, traceability, and manageability for the software product.  Secondary objectives were to:

1)       Reduce the cost and improve the value of documentation,

2)       Provide a generalized platform for technological growth, and

3)       Provide for extension to other and future training devices.

The software development environment is an integrated collection of software tools, management systems, and procedures, which are operational in Interdata 8/32 and IBM 370/168 mainframes.  Automation of functional capabilities for simplicity of use and reliability of performance has been a keystone concept during the development of this environment.  Accordingly, in addition to the development of proprietary software, maximum utilization is made of off-the-shelf software packages from such companies as Infodata Systems, Cincom Systems, and Applied Data Research Inc.  This ensemble of resources, software tools, management systems, and computing systems as a collection, is referred to as the Grumman software Development Facility (SDF).

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TRAINING REQUIREMENTS DETERMINATION DURING EARLY PHASES OF WEAPON SYSTEM ACQUISITION

James J. Vaughan, Jr., Ph.D.

Advanced Systems Department

Dynamics Research Corporation

The Weapon System Acquisition Process (WSAP) has generally been characterized by an inadequate consideration of manpower, personnel, and training implications resulting from early design decisions.  In response to this situation, the United States Navy has been involved in the design, development, and consistent improvement of a Military Manpower Versus Hardware Procurement (HARDMAN) methodology.  The purpose of this methodology is to assess the implications of manpower, personnel, and training requirements early and continually throughout the WSAP.

As indicated in the reports describing the application of the methodology to the Shipboard Intermediate Range Combat System (Dynamics Research Corporation, 1978), the LSD-41 main propulsion plant (Dynamics Research Corporation, 1979a), and the Undergraduate Jet Flight Training System (Dynamics Research Corporation, 1979b), the methodology has been considered successful in generating manpower and personnel requirements for a proposed weapon system.  However, due to a lack of contractual emphasis, the methodology has provided only a preliminary process for generating training requirements. 

To satisfactorily close the loop of the HARDMAN methodology necessitates a Training Requirements Analysis (TRA) methodology step, which will accurately determine the training implications, associated with a proposed weapon system.  This paper will propose a TRA step which provides the above determination and which is amenable to application early in the WSAP.  The TRA has been designed in a manner which makes it compatible with the existing process of the HARDMAN methodology.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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COMMON MODEL TEAM TRAINER

John J. Barkley

Naval Underwater System Center

Submarine sonar and fire control training has entered a new era–one of increased system complexity and increased training requirements.  Indeed, the onset of embedded computer-based systems, such as AN/BQQ-5, complicated the situation even further by allowing differently performing versions of similar-looking systems.

The purpose of this paper is to propose both a technical approach and a development plan for a new generation of submarine combat team trainer systems, emphasizing the use of common problem control, target model and environmental model modules.  The Common Model Team Trainer (CMTT) will provide a consistent level of training realism and capability across multiple trainer devices and allow maximum utilization of Navy resources both at development laboratories and at trainer installations.

Consideration of this approach is especially significant now since most current trainers are scheduled for system rearchitecture or upgrade over the next five years–an excellent time frame for CMTT.  This approach is applicable to sonar and fire control trainers currently installed and/or planned for SSN, SSBN and TRIDENT.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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IMPLEMENTING AIRCREW JUDEMENT TRAINING

Dr. Fritz H. Brecke and Mr. Steven A. Murray

Veda Incorporated

A fighter pilot delays his lag roll for an extra second–and instead of flying too close to his target, falls into a perfect shot position; his timing is the result of years of experience.  A Landing signal Officer (LSO), guiding aircraft aboard his carrier, calls a pilot for power a moment before it is needed and thus prevents a settling approach; his acute sensitivity has taken hundreds of hours to develop.  A Tactical Action officer (TAO), in the Combat Information Center of his ship, correlates all of the information from an ambiguous radar signal with the weapons available to him and correctly assigns ship missiles to a low-altitude bomber; long months of training and practice have made the difference between survival and disaster.

Each of these jobs–and there are many more like them in the armed forces–is an example of what is generally called judgment.  That is, each job requires more than perceptual or motor skills.  Jobs such as these require the ability to select among methods of problem solving, to weigh alternatives under stress and with limited information, as well as the ability to be innovative when the situation requires.  No one can argue that judgment is not a valid reflection of trained performance.  Few however, can define judgment in a fashion which is usable for efficient training development.  The major stumbling block is previous efforts to develop methodologies for judgment training has been their attempt to work with too global a definition of what judgment is.  This paper reviews some recent work in this area and suggests potential solutions to the problem of judgment training (specifically, for aircrew tasks) which, though limited in scope, lend themselves to relatively easy implementation.

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