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COST EFFECTIVENESS OF FLIGHT SIMULATORS FOR MILITARY TRAINING

Dr. Jesse Orlansky

Mr. Joseph String

Institute for Defense Analyses

The Purpose of this Paper is to evaluate research and development on the cost and effectiveness of flight simulators used for training. The use of flight simulators for purposes other than training is not considered.  This study was performed for the Deputy Director of Defense Research and Engineering (Research and Advanced Technology).

The advantages of flight simulators for training purposes are well known. They permit close observations of pilot performance and immediate feedback which improves learning; they permit training pilots in many types of malfunctions not often encountered in flight, they are safe and permit training independent of weather, air traffic and the availability of aircraft; they save fuel, ammunition, targets, wear and tear on airplanes and, above all, the lives of pilots. But simulators also have some important disadvantages. Even the most advanced simulators have limited fidelity in external vision, platform motion and flight equations, they cannot provide the motivation and stress possible only in aircraft; and they are expensive to produce and to operate.

SOFTWARE MANAGEMENT OF A COMPLEX WEAPON SYSTEM SIMULATOR

Albert S. Goldstein

Wendell J. Newell

The Boeing Company

This paper presents the history and lessons learned in the development and implementation of the computer programs for a large complex Weapon System Trainer (WST).   The WST is a high fidelity simulator of the B-52 and KC-135 crew stations.  The WST includes visual, motion, sound, and a highly flexible instructional system.  The contract for the development of a production prototype unit began in mid-1977.  The development team consisted of the Boeing Company, Wichita as integrator and several subcontractors responsible for the various stations and systems.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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INFANTRY WEAPONS TRAINER

Albert H. Marshall and Bon F. Shaw

Naval Training Center.

Dr. Herbert C. Towle

University of Central Florida

The infantry Weapons Trainer is an electrooptics-based, microcomputer-controlled, training device that enables tactical infantry weapons training under a simulated high-stress battlefield environment in a classroom or aboard ship. In a short period of time a trainee can be subjected to a large variety of combat situations where each trainee’s performance is analyzed in real-time, and immediate feedback is given to both the trainees and instructor. Combat scenarios can be changed to fit any potential battlefield requirement.

KEEPING DOWN THE COST OF TRAINING–A CHALLENGE TO THE USER

Alexandra B. Taylor

The Singer Company

Simulator users, in particular the military, are facing restrictive procurement budgets as well as rapidly increasing maintenance costs for existing simulators. The simulator industry would like to meet the challenge of keeping down both the acquisition cost and the support cost of future training devices.  Industry attempts to limit procurement costs by utilizing designs and software developed on previous programs. At the same time, industry attempts to develop and offer new designs in areas, which yield a significant decrease in the cost of ownership. At times however, industry is constrained for a Request for Proposal (RFP) that specifies detailed design rather than performance objectives. These design specifications often have serious cost impacts. Detailed design specifications can be replaced by functional specifications, which will allow industry maximum design creativity while giving the user a more cost-effective training device.

Government sensitivity to the cost impact of detailed design specifications is reflected in Office of Management and Budget (OMB) Circular A-109, Major Systems Acquisitions.  OMB A-109 recommends defining system or training objectives rather than specifying detailed system design and performance requirements.  OMB A-109 emphasizes the definition of mission needs and program objectives independently of a particular system or technological solution in order to stimulate innovation and competition.  By writing a functional procurement specification, industry will be encouraged to create, explore, and develop alternative system design concepts.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ADVANCED INSTRUCTIONAL CONCEPTS IN FLYING TRAINING SIMULATION

Dr. Ronald G. Hughes

 Air Force Human Resources Laboratory.

The following material is the script portion of a sound/slide presentation entitled “Advanced Instructional Concepts in Flying Training Simulation.”  The presentation is unclassified, and is available upon request from AFHRL/FT, Williams Air Force Base, Arizona 85224.

Economic and resource constraints demand more cost-effective approaches to routine training needs.  The impact of these constraints upon the air Force is seen in the increased use of simulators at all levels of flying training.

This research represents the beginning of an effort by the Flying Training Division of the Air Force Human Resources Laboratory to collect data upon which to base such guidance.  The research approach involves studying the effects of a variety of instructional variables as measured by performance on representative “benchmark” tasks.  Among the tasks considered are carrier landings, aerial refueling, and air-to-surface weapons delivery.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE INFLUENCE OF FULL-MISSION SIMULATION ON VISUAL SYSTEM CAPABILITY

Lt. Col. Manfred Hass

Peter Guldenpfennig

In evaluating the prototype full-mission simulator for Western Germany’s multi-role combat aircraft, the PANAVIA TORNADO, important experience was gained in determining the degree of quality demanded of the visual system by this type of simulator.

The role of the TORNADO as the principal battlefield interdiction and strike aircraft for the West German military required pilots to maintain a high degree of combat readiness for a multitude of tactical situations.  Four Air Force and two Navy wings should be operational by 1985 and the overall program calls for each wing to be equipped with a full-mission simulator capable of performing a degree of realism never achieved before in simulation with the German Air force.  The simulators are to be delivered progressively over a three and one half-year period starting in 1981.

Decisive consideration of the TORNADO training program took place during 1975.  At that time, start-of-the-art technology in motion systems, digital radar landmass simulation and, in particular, computer-generated visual image systems (CGVIS) indicated that a full-mission simulator was both technically and economically feasible.

A major condition of the TORNADO training program was to develop, integrate and evaluate the CGVIS in prototype form before committing to a definitive technical specification.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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APPLICATION OF THE CILOP PRINCIPLE TO SIMULATORS

Michael P. Scher

 Hughes Aircraft Company

The acronym CICLOP was coined by the Department of Defense just a few years ago. It stands for  “Conversion in Lieu of Procurement” and was an attempt to decrease the cost of new programs. Although the acronym has almost faded into oblivion, the concept remains both valid and active.

The basic principle behind CILOP is to decrease the cost of programs by modifying existing systems rather than starting from scratch.  This principle moves along two separate and distinct tracks, both starting from a common point but traveling in different directions.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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RADAR WARNING TRAINING DEVICES

Wilhelm Gerhardt and Bert R. Lindsey

McDonnell Douglas Electronics Company

The proliferation of sophisticated hostile radar-directed weapon systems, and the complexity of modern radar warning systems (RWS) dictates that our aircrews are thoroughly trained in the techniques of electronic warfare (EW). Mission success is directly dependent upon the aircrew’s competence in interpreting the threat environment via the radar warning displays and their ability to react quickly and correctly to this threat situation. This competence and ability are achievable only with extensive, high-caliber training. To provide this training within today’s time and economic constraints requires multiple training media utilized to produce the most cost-effective combat ready results.

This paper suggests augmentation of existing academic and flight-simulator training with a hands-on interactive desktop trainer for improved indoctrination and refresher training, as well as in flight simulation to reinforce this training in a high stress environment.

The paper describes a compact universal desktop trainer, which is software programmable to simulate the user’s radar warning system. A method of entering and changing threat data and creating mission scenarios for the trainer, which requires no programming ability, is described. The paper also discusses in-flight simulators, which provide simulated threat presentations on the actual radar warning equipment and display threat responses to flight and tactical maneuvers.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A NEW CONCEPT FOR APPLICATION OF MICROCOMPUTER TECHNOLOGY TO REAL-TIME TRAINERS

Charles F. Summer

 Naval Training Equipment Center

This paper presents a summary of an analysis of a new and unique concept of microcomputer technology application to real-time trainers that has been developed by NAVTRAEQUIPCEN. It summarizes the technical objectives, the conceptual analysis, technical feasibility, and life-cycle cost trade-offs. The required technologies for system implementation are identified and a status of the exploratory development to achieve the required technologies and demonstrate concept feasibility is provided.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DEVELOPMENT OF A LANDING SIGNAL OFFICER TRAINER

J. W. Lacy and C. W. Meshier

 Vought Corporation

The Landing Signal Officer (LSO) Trainer, developed through an austere yet comprehensive research and development program at Vought, will provide another first in naval aviation training. It will provide simultaneous simulation training, with performance evaluations for LSO’s and pilots in a closed-loop mode. LSO on-the-job training requirements for the control of actual aircraft are eased. JP-5, aircraft flight hours, aircraft maintenance, and time in the training of an LSO are direct savings. In an era of more restrictive budgets and reduced operations, the opportunities to teach and learn aircraft control are more limited. The Landing Signal Officer Trainer will increase the training opportunities and provide a closed-loop pilot/LSO training relationship.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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AIRCRAFT SIMULATORS–RECENT IMPROVEMENTS

AND AREAS OF RESEARCH

Dr. M. McKinnon and Mr. D. Raptis

 CAE Electronics Ltd.

The aircraft simulator industry follows closely the state of the art in all the disciplines of interest in flight simulation, both commercial and military.

This paper presents recent improvement in motion hardware and software, their interdependence as well as active areas of research and possible future trends.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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IMMEDIATE LEARNER ACHIEVEMENT AS AN EFFECT OF AESTHETIC EMBELISHMENT IN EDUCATIONAL ART

Roger D. Markham, Audio-Visual Media Project Engineer

Naval Training Equipment Center

The purpose of this study is to determine the effects of levels of artwork in audio-visual sound-slide teaching devices on message comprehension. More specifically, the experiment was undertaken to determine whether a student can obtain as much information from simple art (line drawings, stick figures, geometric patterns, etc.) as he/she can from a more complex rendition of the same subject, including full human figures, extremely detailed subject matter, use of color and more embellishment for the purpose of intensifying the aesthetic quality of the visual.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DESIGNER’S IMAGINATION AND EXISTING HARDWARE AND CREATIVE SOFTWARE PERFORMANCE-BASED MULTI-IMAGE INSTRUCTION

Dennis Duke, Education Specialist

and

 Murray Tesser , Chief, Television Production

United States Army Signal Center and Fort Gordon

Today’s Department of Defense has made great advances in developing and utilizing innovative training materials within the last ten years. The Army, for instance, currently employs the Instructional System Development (ISD) model in the design of all training material. This model is unparalleled in defining and analyzing instruction in a very logical and coherent manner.  However, the model is only a tool. The development of quality training packages is dependent upon the competence and imagination of instructional designers. This paper seeks to review and transcend the ISD model in suggesting methodological training innovations for cost effective strategies to improve instructional packages.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TRAINEE MONITORING, PERFORMANCE MEASURING, BRIEFING,

AND DEBRIEFING

David R. Mitchell

Gould Inc., Simulation Systems Division

My purpose in writing this paper is to present in an organized way some of the methods that are being employed in today’s state-of-the-art digital flight simulators to monitor trainee performance and to provide simulator instructors with effective briefing and debriefing tools. It is not my purpose to suggest that the information presented herein represents the ultimate in design, or that it represents future methods that will be employed, since we in the simulation field know that much work is being done in this area and that much work remains to be done.

Rather, my intention is to present typical methods and system hardware that is being employed. You may draw your own conclusions as to the effectiveness of this typical system which will be described. In fact, it is my hope that you will find this paper an aid to drawing your own conclusions regarding this most important aspect of the simulation training problem.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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INTEGRATION OF ELECTRONIC WARFARE SIMULATION

INTO THE F-16 WEAPONS SYSTEM TRAINER

John F. Lethert

Aeronautical Systems Division

 Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

The F-16 Simulator Program consists of the purchase of a set of Weapons System Trainers (WST) for the United States Air Force, plus expanded Operational Flight Trainers (OFT) for the United States Air Force, the Royal Norwegian Air Force, the Royal Danish Air Force, the Royal Netherlands Air Force, and the Belgian Air Force as well as for Foreign Military Sales.

An F-16 WST will consist of the systems illustrated in Figure 1.  Each of the systems, the basic OFT (hereinafter designated OFT), the Electronic Warfare Trainer Device (EWTD), the Digital Radar Landmass Simulation (DRLMS), and the Fighter/Attach Simulator Visual system (F/ASVS), is known as a building block.

An expanded OFT will consist of an OFT, and either a DRLMS, and EWTD or both.  It does not include a F/ASVS or interconnection of OFT cockpits.

Each building block will be purchased on separate contracts.  The Simulator System Program Office developed this concept to take maximum advantage of technologies in each area of simulation without being constrained to a single contractor’s approach.

This paper will discuss the system engineering aspects of the integration process and their application to the preparation of the Request for Proposal (RFP) for the F-16 EWTD.  It will begin with an overview of each building block and then it will discuss four basic integration principles.  Next it will briefly overview the Electronic Warfare (EW) simulation problem.  Finally, it will discuss the application of the basic integration principles to the EWTD procurement and how this application resulted in the derivation of another principle, which was also applied to the EWTD and will become central to integration of other building blocks.

A MECHANISM FOR COMMUNICATING SIMULATOR

INSTRUCTIONAL FEATURE REQUIREMENTS

Paul W. Caro, Robert N. Isley, and Lawrence D. Pohlmann

Seville Research Corporation

Almost constant advances in the capabilities and complexity of flight training devices have characterized the history of flight simulation.  Most of these advances have involved increased fidelity of simulation. That is, simulator design has emphasized physical correspondence between the device and the aircraft simulated and between the simulated and aircraft (real) environments.  As a result, flight simulators increasingly look, feel, sound and perform like aircraft.

The emphasis upon fidelity in simulator design has resulted in devices that are costly to procure and operate. In spite of such costs, however, fidelity in flight simulators is widely acclaimed as useful and, in many cases, even essential to effective training.  Because of the cost of high fidelity devices, the development of simulator designs that permit more efficient training is a necessary goal.

A simulator designed to permit efficient training is one whose instructional and other features permit instructional activities to be conducted with a relative minimum of time and effort.  Several recent efforts to develop more efficient simulators have sought to achieve greater efficiency by eliminating the instructor from portions of the instructional process through development of instructional features that permit automatic training and performance measurement (e.g., Brown, Waag and Eddowes, 1975, Semple, Vreuls, Cotton, Durfee, Hooks, and Butler, 1979).  Others have concentrated on developing new measures of performance (Walsh, Burgin, and Fogel, 1979) or on manipulation of the task cues present during simulator training (Hughes, Paulsen, and Brooks, 1978).  A few studies have examined the role of the instructor in non-automatic simulator training and the manner in which the simulator’s instructional features facilitate or hinder that role.  These latter studies have concentrated upon simulator instructor/operator stations (IOS)–the focus of control of most instructional features–and the extent to which IOS design impacts instructional efficiency.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE GOOD STICK INDEX

A PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT FOR AIR COMBAT TRAINING

Charles W. Meshier and Samuel B. Moore

Vought Corporation

Robert E. Coward

Air Force Human Resources Laboratory

Tactical Research Branch, Luke Air Force Base

Measuring the proficiency with which a pilot performs a basic fight maneuver is a difficult task. Many parameters come into play. . .the least of which is the frequently used term. . .skill.  A simulated environment provides an easily managed atmosphere in which to develop and design proficiency measurement techniques, or performance measurements, that may eventually be applied in an airborne environment.  This paper reports on one candidate system that has been studied and validated based on the expert opinion of instructor pilots providing air combat training to Tactical Air Command  (TAC) Pilots.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SPACE SHUTTLE SINGLE SYSTEM TRAINER

Robert L. Myers

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

Henry G. Brown, Hal W. Halpin, and Terry L. Stratton

Ford Aerospace and Communications Corporation

The Space Shuttle Single System Trainer was developed to enable more effective use of available training time on the Shuttle Mission Simulator by off-loading basic systems training from the mission simulator.  In comparison to the mission simulator, the trainer is a low-cost interactive systems trainer using two medium fidelity student stations, each containing the Orbiter forward and aft flight deck displays and controls. These student stations are interfaced with application programs in a minicomputer to provide a realistic flight training environment. The trainer math model fidelity enables the use of normal mission checklist and malfunction procedures in operating the Orbiter systems. The trainer provides systems level operations and skill training to shuttle flight crews, flight controllers, and flight operations support personnel on a single Orbiter system basis. Display and control familiarization, normal operation and malfunction procedure training are completed in the trainer in preparation for all-up flight crew training in the mission simulator.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TRIDENT COMMAND CONTROL SYSTEM ONBOARD TRAINING:

SIMULATE OR STIMULATE

Dr. Edward F. Rizy

Raytheon Company

Submarine Signal Division

This study was conducted under contract with the Naval Underwater Systems Center

Onboard training has probably been a feature of shipboard operations as long as there have been ships. Military vessels are typically in training mode during peacetime.  Fleet Ballistic Missile (FBM) submarines have been somewhat of an exception.  This strategic deterrent deploys and operates under secure and alerted conditions.  Nevertheless, the FBM platform is used customarily for training junior officers and seamen on the basics of FBM operation, middle-grade officer’s enlisted men in supervision and command.  Team and ship training exercises are used to practice and verify ship control, emergency and missile launch procedures.

A Command and Control System (CCS) level onboard training system is postulated not to supplant existing training but to complement and amplify it.  At this early stage of electronic training device development for onboard application, some positions in the ship’s complement are very difficult to integrate into an onboard training plan.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A DYNAMIC SIMULATOR FOR TRAINING

WITH MAN-PORTABLE AIR DEFENCE WEAPONS

John A. Kreuzer

Brunswick Corporation, Defense Division

Charles L. Norris

Atlantic Research Corporation

William F. Hill

Dynamic Simulation

The depth of training required for weapons systems that have a high man-engagement performance requirement is a difficult task. Should a man solely depended upon to engage and destroy a high-performance/high value threat be allowed to train by actually firing the weapon?  When the gunners number in the thousands and the weapon costs in the thousands, would this be practical?   Conversely, can the gunner realistically be totally trained without experiencing a live weapon firing? Even the USA and USMC differ in their solutions to this dilemma as evidenced by their individual approaches to training for the Redeye Weapon. Hopefully, both services will realize that for the new Stinger Weapon, the common goal must be a well-trained, confident gunner.

Both the Redeye man-portable air defense weapon and its upgraded version, designated Stinger, are designed so that one man can shoulder-launch the missile to intercept and destroy threats ranging from hovering helicopters to high-speed maneuvering jet aircraft threats.

The necessity for having a well-trained gunner that can engage a high-value threat on the first attempt requires a high degree of weapon confidence and operational proficiency.  Brunswick Corporation as the prime contractor for the United States Marine Corps to develop a Redeye Launch Simulator (RELS) and a Singer Launch Simulator (STLS) believes the answer lies in providing a trainer that allows a cost-effective live firing experience.  This training of a new student or requalification of a trainer gunner can be effectively culminated by firing a low-cost duplication of the actual weapon.

RELIABILITY ENHANCEMENT OF SIMULATORS THROUGH

PARTS CONTROL

Mr. Robert E. Depp and Mr. John F. Raye

Defense Electronics Supply Center

One of the major cost factors in the acquisition of a new military weapon system is the electronic equipment and the associated parts used in that system. During the recent past, the proliferation of new electronic parts types have both helped and hurt the cost of electronic equipment in military systems.  The ever-increasing development of new electronic devices has made it difficult to maintain current designs. This situation has ultimately resulted in diminishing sources of supply along with reliability and maintenance problems for military equipment.

Past studies in the Department of Defense (DOD) and Congress have concluded that an effective standardization and parts control program during design helps lessen ownership costs and establishes a known reliability level for electronic equipment.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SOME CRUCIAL PROBLEMS IN TRAINING TANK GUNNERY SKILLS

Dr. David W. Bessemer and Dr. Brian L. Kottas

United States Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

Fort Knox Field Unit

Instructional systems development presents many prob