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THE CHALLENGE OF VISUAL SIMULATION FOR AIR FORCE FLIGHT SIMULATORS

Robert W. Beck

Aeronautical Systems Division

U.S. Air Force Systems Command

Wright-Patterson AFB

The performance requirements for visual systems to support Air Force flight simulation far exceed the requirements for visual systems which support commercial airline simulators.  The difference in requirements stems from the diversity and complexity of military fight missions.  While visual systems for airline simulators are generally easily defined and delivered on a predictable schedule, most Air Force visual system procurements are not so straightforward.  The difficulty in obtaining visual systems to meet Air Force requirements in a predictable manner arises largely from the fact that current commercially available visual systems have been designed to support airline type missions; the expansion of these systems to meet Air Force training requirements has been less than graceful.  This paper examines the differences between airlines and Air Force flight missions, the impact of these differences on system performance requirements and the resultant challenges in Air Force visual system procurement for both the Air Force and the contractor.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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HELMET MOUNTED LASER PROJECTOR

Denis R. Breglia

Advanced Simulation Concepts Laboratory

Naval Training Equipment Center

A visual simulation system design is described which provides an observer seated in a cockpit with an apparent high resolution display over a wide field of view limited only by cockpit structure.  The system utilizes a Helmet Mounted Opto-mechanical Laser Projector to produce a composite display on a high gain screen surrounding the cockpit.  The display consists of two full color laser rasters comprising an inset and a surround.  One raster is dedicated to a relatively narrow, high resolution area of interest which tracks the observer's look direction.  The other raster provides a wide, low resolution instantaneous field of view in the surrounding area corresponding to the observer's peripheral field.  The other major system components are a head attitude sensor, an eye attitude sensor and a two channel computer image generation system whose performance is tailored to the display requirements.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR DISTORTION ANALYSIS IN SPHERICAL SCREEN DISPLAYS

Richard C. Hebb

Simulation Technology Branch

Naval Training Equipment Center

In visual simulation, the distortion of imagery in wide-angle display systems is a major concern.  Effective flight training requires that imagery presented to a trainee provide a proper perspective view of his simulated environment without distortion.  Use of spherical screens (domes) introduces both perspective and geometrical distortion into the wide-angle displays.  Use of video projection systems with Computer Image Generation (CGI) offers the options of raster shaping or computer re-mapping of raster pixels for distortion correction.  The goal in distortion correction is to provide proper perspective of imagery to a trainee.  The basic causes for distortion and a computer program for analysis of spherical screen distortion will be discussed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TARGET TV PROJECTOR WITH DYNAMIC RASTER SHAPING FOR USE IN DOME SIMULATORS

Richard E. Holmes

Training Systems Group, Systems Research Laboratories, Inc.

Large dome simulators for air-to-air and air-to-ground aircraft weapons tactics trainers are coming into prominence.  In such devices, the training objective is to improve pilot proficiency and coordination by allowing the pilot to train in the use of weapons in realistic operational and threat environments.  Typically, the pilot will fight against a TV projected image that is slewed across the field of view.  Sometimes neither the pilot's eyes nor the TV projector lens is located at the center of the dome screen.  From geometrical considerations, a standard rectangular or square TV image looks distorted to the pilot.  The degree and shape of the distortion changes with the shift in location of the "target" on the screen relative to the pilot as it is slewed either by servo pointing the entire projector or by optical means.

This paper describes the design and development of a TV projector that is capable of predistorting the TV raster such that from the pilot's viewpoint the image will look rectilinear at all times.  This dynamic raster shaping can be updated at the TV field rate (typically 60 times per second) so that there is no perceptible jumpiness in the image as the shape is varied.  In addition, the raster can be zoomed to create the appearance of distance change to the target and rotated to compensate the effects caused by the mirror steering of the target image across the dome.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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VISUAL DISPLAY RESOLUTION AND CONTRAST REQUIREMENTS FOR AIR COMBAT SIMULATION: AN APPLICATION OF COMPUTER MODELING

Alfred T. Lee, Ph.D.

University of Dayton Research Institute

Ronald G. Hughes, Ph.D.

Air Force Human Resources Laboratory

A study on the effects of target resolution and contrast in air combat engagements was conducted to determine the potential impact of visual display characteristics on the effectiveness of air combat simulation training.  A large-scale computer model of air combat engagements was used to investigate the effects of 2 and 4 arc min. of target resolution and target/background contrast ratios of 0.5 and 9.0.  The study results are discussed in the context of the benefits of enhanced visual display characteristics in practicing the skills required in air combat.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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AN AUTOMATED GUNNER PERFORMANCE EVALUATOR

Melvin R. Phillips, Senior Engineer

Curtis E. Rodden, Engineer

Titusville Division

McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Co.

The training of gunners for man-portable tactical missile systems (such as Dragon) currently requires the gunner to track a vehicle-mounted target and field IR source beacon.  This means that large areas are required, approximating tactical target ranges.  These space/facility requirements limit training opportunities.  To increase opportunities while elimination (or reducing) space requirements, a simulation device is required that displays battlefield scenario images in the gunner's sight.  Currently, simulator technology can optically generate simulated battlefield scenes via a computer controlled display screen.  However, the high cost of complexity of such a system is prohibitive when used in a tactical training scenario.  This paper describes a low-cost, microprocessor-based training device to overcome these drawbacks.  The major component of the system is a high resolution graphic display sub-system that generates images via multiple gray-level video signals displayed on a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT).  The image data is stored in memory and accessed via software.  Gunner tracking movements are measured and used to modify the position of the displayed image, thus realistically simulating tactical scenes.  The gunner's performance is evaluated by determining tracking errors relative to target line-of-sight (LOS) and comparing these errors to established error limits.  Since the system will be small and relatively inexpensive, it will readily lend itself to classroom or field training.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DIGITAL PROCESSING OF COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY FOR VISUAL SIMULATION

Mr. John T. Hooks, Jr.

Manager, Image Processing

Vought Corp.

Dr. Venkat Devarafan

Engineering Specialist

Vought Corp.

This paper describes the full color out-the-window visual system simulator for the Navy' A7E Weapons System Trainer (WST), based on the Vought — developed Computer Animated Photographic Terrain View (CAPTV) concept.  The system has excellent scene realism due to its real-world photographic database.  Any geographic area can be "flown over" in the simulator with virtually no restrictions on aircraft attitude, position, altitude, heading or velocity.  The flyspace can be increased indefinitely by additions to the terrain library.  The display field of view is modularly expandable up to nearly the full encircling sphere while maintaining resolution of all parts of the scene.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TRAINING LOW LEVEL TERRAIN FLIGHT IN A SIMULATOR

Bernell J. Edwards, David L. Pohlman, George H. Buckland, and Clarence W. Stephens

Air Force Human Resources Laboratory

Operations Training Division

Williams AFB

In this study the use of augmented feedback was investigated as a means of training low altitude perceptual motor flying skills in a flight simulator.  Sixteen T-38 student pilots enrolled in Air Force undergraduate pilot training participated as subjects.  Eight subjects in an experimental group were trained to fly low level in a simulated A-10 aircraft using special altitude prompts (lights on the glareshield and auditory tones in the headset) to assist them in discriminating altitude cues provided in the simulated visual environment.  Eight subjects in a control group received training identical to that of the experimental group, less prompting.  A computerized data record system captured a continuous record of altitude, vertical velocity, number of crashes, and other performance parameters on each of eight training trials and two test runs in which prompts were omitted.  All subjects flew a total of ten runs.  The prompted group achieved significantly lower altitude performance on two of four critical task segments compared to the control group during the training trials.  However, subjects in the prompted group crashed significantly more times per trial than did subjects in the control group during the training.  During the test runs performance of the two groups for altitude, vertical velocity, and frequency of crashes was not significantly different.  The results of the study do not appear to warrant continued investigation of this technique for low level training.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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EFFECT OF FIELD OF VIEW ON PERFORMING A LOW ALTITUDE MANEUVERING TASK

Dean Carico and Lloyd D. Corliss

U.S. Army Aeromechanics Laboratory, Ames Research Center

Visual systems with a single window display are often utilized in ground based simulators used to study helicopter flying qualities during visual low altitude maneuvering tasks.  The effects of this limited field of view (FOV) on pilot assessments of flying qualities are uncertain.  A study was conducted using a variable stability UH-1H helicopter to compare restricted and unrestricted FOV for a range of flying qualities.  With the restricted FOV, the pilots reported reduced ground track precision owing to loss of visual contact with the course markers.  However, the predictable ground track of the repeated S-turn task with no obstacles made it easy for them to anticipate their maneuvers, and resulted in only a slight degradation of pilot ratings.  The degradation was not sensitive to large changes in helicopter flying qualities.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.  Order it from I/ITSEC's

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website.

TRINOSCOPE COLOR DISPLAYS FOR SIMULATION

Richard E. Holmes

Training Systems Group, Systems Research Laboratories, Inc.

Dr. F. Gerard Albers

Simulation and Control Systems Department

General Electric Company

The resolution capabilities of computer image generators (CIG) used for simulation and training have advanced to the degree that they exceed the capabilities of existing shadow mask, direct view color TV displays and color TV projectors.  One solution to this problem is the modern day implementation of a trinoscope color display that uses the optical merging of three high resolution monochrome cathode ray tubes — red, green, blue color phosphors, respectively — to produce a full color image.  Such systems are particularly suitable for telescopes and periscopes needed in tank or submarine simulations where the color-combining optics can be integrated into the simulated sight optics.  This paper describes the technical advances required to assure maximum resolution and, more importantly, superior color convergence (i.e., the capability to make the three CRT images fall exactly on top of the other so that the resulting full color image is produced without undesirable color fringing).

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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 ARMY MAINTENANCE TRAINING AND EVALUATION SIMULATION SYSTEM  (AMTESS)

Dr. Robert T. Dybas

Mechanical Engineer

PMTRADE

The AMTESS concept is considered to be a forerunner of a new direction in maintenance training.  It will have the capability of providing introductory maintenance training at the institutional level, as well as proficiency training in the field environment.  The system will be a modular and flexible maintenance concept with broad applicability to perform in various areas.  The basic AMTESS requirements were generated as a result of an extensive front end analysis by four highly experienced contractors working independently.  The Air Defense and Ordnance Schools were selected for the initial analysis effort.  As a result, each contractor provided a basic design of a system which would meet all of the AMTESS requirements.  This effort constituted Phase I of the program.  The second phase of the program resulted in the delivery of an AMTESS by each of the two most qualified contractors from Phase I.  An extensive evaluation period is planned by the Ordnance school, and the Air Defense School to ensure the training effectiveness of AMTESS.  The inherent modularity of the AMTESS and the ability of the instructors to modify POI's will provide a device with a wide range of flexibility and adaptability to overall maintenance training.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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 A PLAN FOR THE EVALUATION OF THE F-16 SIMULATED AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TRAINERS (SAMTs)

Jennifer A. Smith, Staff Scientist

Rohn J. Hritz, Program Director

George R. Purifoy, Jr., Program Manager

Applied Science Associates, Inc.

Gerard Deignan, Project Engineer

Air Force Human Resources Laboratory

Lowry Air Force Base

A research plan was developed to evaluate the cost and training effectiveness of the F-16 SAMTs.  Historically, such evaluations have been conducted by comparing the effectiveness of the simulator against that of an actual equipment trainer (AET).  However, readily comparative training devices and approaches do not exist in the case of the F-16.  To evaluate the training effectiveness of the SAMTs, a criterion referenced approach was selected.  Students will be assessed on their ability to perform maintenance tasks, taught using the SAMTs, on actual F-16 aircraft.  End-of-course measures and follow-up retention testing will be conducted.  Engine, pneudraulic, electrical, and flight control system tasks will be evaluated.  Task selection criteria include difficulty, criticality, and frequency of performance.  Specific training capabilities of the SAMTs to be assessed include two instructional features: the malfunction insertion capability and automatic student monitoring.  A comparison will be made between the performance of students trained with the malfunction insertion feature operational versus without this instructional capability.  The use of the student monitoring capability will be assessed through interviews with the course instructors.  A comparative approach was adopted for assessing the cost effectiveness of the SAMTs.  The cost of the hypothetical AET delivery system with the same set of learning objectives as the courses the SAMTs are utilized in will be computed and compared to the SAMT delivery system. Major categories in the cost model include facilities, instructional equipment, instructional materials, personnel, and supplies.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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AN INDIRECT-FIRE TERMINAL EFFECTS SIMULATOR

Robert C. Michelson

Senior Research Engineer

Georgia Institute of Technology

Engineering Experiment Station

Frank R. Williamson

Senior Research Engineer

Georgia Institute of Technology

Engineering Experiment Station

This paper describes the concept development and feasibility demonstration of a man-safe cueing system for the impact of indirect fire in a simulated battle field environment.  This system provides a safe, cost-effective method for including mortar and artillery into the battle field training/evaluation scenario for both mounted and dismounted players.  This cueing system is based on a lightweight projectile having a very low impact energy and carrying a flash/bang/smoke generator.  This projectile is launched from a low pressure pneumatic device that is capable of projecting the cue to ranges of 200 to 300 meters using a simple constant-mass, constant-drag projectile.  A manually controlled launcher was constructed to demonstrate the feasibility of the cueing concept.  A remote controlled, multiple shot launching device (providing coverage of a one kilometer diameter circle) is well within current technology.  The soft-nose projectile is designed to have a terminal energy similar to that experienced during the impact of a served tennis ball.  The flash, acoustic and smoke cues are tailored for player safety.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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MICROPROCESSORS APPLIED TO TRAINING DEVICES

Donald Ellison

Manager, Product Engineering

Gould Inc., Simulation systems Division

Computer Controlled Trainer Simulation traditionally has been done with minicomputer class processors.  Instruction, speed and flexibility, as well as good hardware and software support, are some of the reasons for the domination of the minicomputer in the area of simulation.  However, over the past decade, microprocessor performance has improved to such an extent that microprocessors may rival some of the best minicomputers currently available.  Microprocessors may be used to offload the mini in areas such as complex real time handling of I/0 and number crunching, as well as monitoring hardware status.  Distributed processors allow the mini to process more data, with less hardware needed to perform the simulation task.  Microprocessors may also replace minicomputers completely in systems requiring real time number crunching with limited precision calculations, such as radar simulation or part task trainers.  Additionally, software support has become quite extensive with many of the leading microcomputers, including ANSI FORTRAN, Basic and Pascal, making the micro a viable candidate to replace the mini computer for simulation of military or commercial equipment.  Such a system offers reduction in costs, weight, and power consumption with increased reliability and flexibility.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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VOICE-AIDED TRAINING

W.S. Meisel, President

Speech Systems Incorporated

Computer voice response and computer speech recognition can provide a valuable supplementary training aid for military training systems.  For training devices based on media or software which is hard to change, voice can provide supplementary information and allow spoken amendments to course information.  For simulators which attempt physical fidelity to a particular defense system, speech provides a medium which can communicate information to and from the student without interfering with the defense system displays or controls.

It is feasible to add computer voice response of telephone quality to most training systems.  Such voice response can be entered and changed by simply speaking into a microphone.  At least thirty minutes of such speech can be stored and retrieved digitally in a simple hardware implementation.

Speech recognition capability can add a further dimension to a voice training aid, allowing the trainee to make requests or to answer multiple-choice questions.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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GUIDES FOR VOICE TECHNOLOGY IN NAVY TRAINING SYSTEMS

Dr. Robert Breaux

Naval Training Equipment Center

Dr. Michael E. McCauley

Canyon Research Group

Dr. Paul E. Van Hemel

Ergonomics Associates

Computer speech recognition provides the enabling technology for the use of automated performance measurement and instructor support features to allow "instructorless" training for those tasks which are primarily speech in nature.  The design guides take the approach that automated, "instructorless" training is achievable through the use of computer software models of the instructor and the task.  Human factors design guidelines are provided for the integration of speech technology with the software models.  The Navy has built two prototype training systems using voice technology to capture student behavior, evaluated one of them, and is in the process of evaluating another.  Further, the training implications for airborne applications of voice technology have been developed.  The emergence of voice technology as one solution to the manpower shortage has provided justification for these efforts.  This paper describes how voice technology can make the transition from R& D to application.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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INTERACTIVE MULTI-MEDIA SYSTEM

Steven Levin

Interactive Television Company

Dexter Fletcher

Army Research Institute

Increasing systems sophistication and limited personnel resources are dramatically demonstrating the need for cost effective training, operations, and maintenance assistance at the work site.  The Interactive Multi-Media System (IMMS) addresses these needs by providing training, technical documentation, and operations information in a highly interactive format using advanced microcomputer and optical videodisc design. IMMS uses Spatial Data Management as a means to provide users with rapid and natural access to varied types of information in an easy-to-use and unified format.  There are no languages to learn or typing required with IMMS.  Optical videodiscs are used in IMMS to provide users with immediate access to interactive video-based information.  Some of the interactive videodisc functions supported by IMMS include diagnostic procedures, step-by-step assembly, maintenance, and operations activities, and technical information support.  Other multi-media aspects of IMMS include the use of variable data sources such as microfiche, videotape, remote data systems, and teleconferencing to support changes in technical information and procedures as well as off-site instruction.  Finally, embedded subsidiary incentives in IMMS stimulate the learning and usage of IMMS by users.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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