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THE CHALLENGE OF VISUAL SIMULATION FOR AIR FORCE FLIGHT SIMULATORS

Robert W. Beck

Aeronautical Systems Division

U.S. Air Force Systems Command

Wright-Patterson AFB

The performance requirements for visual systems to support Air Force flight simulation far exceed the requirements for visual systems which support commercial airline simulators.  The difference in requirements stems from the diversity and complexity of military fight missions.  While visual systems for airline simulators are generally easily defined and delivered on a predictable schedule, most Air Force visual system procurements are not so straightforward.  The difficulty in obtaining visual systems to meet Air Force requirements in a predictable manner arises largely from the fact that current commercially available visual systems have been designed to support airline type missions; the expansion of these systems to meet Air Force training requirements has been less than graceful.  This paper examines the differences between airlines and Air Force flight missions, the impact of these differences on system performance requirements and the resultant challenges in Air Force visual system procurement for both the Air Force and the contractor.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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HELMET MOUNTED LASER PROJECTOR

Denis R. Breglia

Advanced Simulation Concepts Laboratory

Naval Training Equipment Center

A visual simulation system design is described which provides an observer seated in a cockpit with an apparent high resolution display over a wide field of view limited only by cockpit structure.  The system utilizes a Helmet Mounted Opto-mechanical Laser Projector to produce a composite display on a high gain screen surrounding the cockpit.  The display consists of two full color laser rasters comprising an inset and a surround.  One raster is dedicated to a relatively narrow, high resolution area of interest which tracks the observer's look direction.  The other raster provides a wide, low resolution instantaneous field of view in the surrounding area corresponding to the observer's peripheral field.  The other major system components are a head attitude sensor, an eye attitude sensor and a two channel computer image generation system whose performance is tailored to the display requirements.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR DISTORTION ANALYSIS IN SPHERICAL SCREEN DISPLAYS

Richard C. Hebb

Simulation Technology Branch

Naval Training Equipment Center

In visual simulation, the distortion of imagery in wide-angle display systems is a major concern.  Effective flight training requires that imagery presented to a trainee provide a proper perspective view of his simulated environment without distortion.  Use of spherical screens (domes) introduces both perspective and geometrical distortion into the wide-angle displays.  Use of video projection systems with Computer Image Generation (CGI) offers the options of raster shaping or computer re-mapping of raster pixels for distortion correction.  The goal in distortion correction is to provide proper perspective of imagery to a trainee.  The basic causes for distortion and a computer program for analysis of spherical screen distortion will be discussed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TARGET TV PROJECTOR WITH DYNAMIC RASTER SHAPING FOR USE IN DOME SIMULATORS

Richard E. Holmes

Training Systems Group, Systems Research Laboratories, Inc.

Large dome simulators for air-to-air and air-to-ground aircraft weapons tactics trainers are coming into prominence.  In such devices, the training objective is to improve pilot proficiency and coordination by allowing the pilot to train in the use of weapons in realistic operational and threat environments.  Typically, the pilot will fight against a TV projected image that is slewed across the field of view.  Sometimes neither the pilot's eyes nor the TV projector lens is located at the center of the dome screen.  From geometrical considerations, a standard rectangular or square TV image looks distorted to the pilot.  The degree and shape of the distortion changes with the shift in location of the "target" on the screen relative to the pilot as it is slewed either by servo pointing the entire projector or by optical means.

This paper describes the design and development of a TV projector that is capable of predistorting the TV raster such that from the pilot's viewpoint the image will look rectilinear at all times.  This dynamic raster shaping can be updated at the TV field rate (typically 60 times per second) so that there is no perceptible jumpiness in the image as the shape is varied.  In addition, the raster can be zoomed to create the appearance of distance change to the target and rotated to compensate the effects caused by the mirror steering of the target image across the dome.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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VISUAL DISPLAY RESOLUTION AND CONTRAST REQUIREMENTS FOR AIR COMBAT SIMULATION: AN APPLICATION OF COMPUTER MODELING

Alfred T. Lee, Ph.D.

University of Dayton Research Institute

Ronald G. Hughes, Ph.D.

Air Force Human Resources Laboratory

A study on the effects of target resolution and contrast in air combat engagements was conducted to determine the potential impact of visual display characteristics on the effectiveness of air combat simulation training.  A large-scale computer model of air combat engagements was used to investigate the effects of 2 and 4 arc min. of target resolution and target/background contrast ratios of 0.5 and 9.0.  The study results are discussed in the context of the benefits of enhanced visual display characteristics in practicing the skills required in air combat.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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AN AUTOMATED GUNNER PERFORMANCE EVALUATOR

Melvin R. Phillips, Senior Engineer

Curtis E. Rodden, Engineer

Titusville Division

McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Co.

The training of gunners for man-portable tactical missile systems (such as Dragon) currently requires the gunner to track a vehicle-mounted target and field IR source beacon.  This means that large areas are required, approximating tactical target ranges.  These space/facility requirements limit training opportunities.  To increase opportunities while elimination (or reducing) space requirements, a simulation device is required that displays battlefield scenario images in the gunner's sight.  Currently, simulator technology can optically generate simulated battlefield scenes via a computer controlled display screen.  However, the high cost of complexity of such a system is prohibitive when used in a tactical training scenario.  This paper describes a low-cost, microprocessor-based training device to overcome these drawbacks.  The major component of the system is a high resolution graphic display sub-system that generates images via multiple gray-level video signals displayed on a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT).  The image data is stored in memory and accessed via software.  Gunner tracking movements are measured and used to modify the position of the displayed image, thus realistically simulating tactical scenes.  The gunner's performance is evaluated by determining tracking errors relative to target line-of-sight (LOS) and comparing these errors to established error limits.  Since the system will be small and relatively inexpensive, it will readily lend itself to classroom or field training.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DIGITAL PROCESSING OF COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY FOR VISUAL SIMULATION

Mr. John T. Hooks, Jr.

Manager, Image Processing

Vought Corp.

Dr. Venkat Devarafan

Engineering Specialist

Vought Corp.

This paper describes the full color out-the-window visual system simulator for the Navy' A7E Weapons System Trainer (WST), based on the Vought — developed Computer Animated Photographic Terrain View (CAPTV) concept.  The system has excellent scene realism due to its real-world photographic database.  Any geographic area can be "flown over" in the simulator with virtually no restrictions on aircraft attitude, position, altitude, heading or velocity.  The flyspace can be increased indefinitely by additions to the terrain library.  The display field of view is modularly expandable up to nearly the full encircling sphere while maintaining resolution of all parts of the scene.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TRAINING LOW LEVEL TERRAIN FLIGHT IN A SIMULATOR

Bernell J. Edwards, David L. Pohlman, George H. Buckland, and Clarence W. Stephens

Air Force Human Resources Laboratory

Operations Training Division

Williams AFB

In this study the use of augmented feedback was investigated as a means of training low altitude perceptual motor flying skills in a flight simulator.  Sixteen T-38 student pilots enrolled in Air Force undergraduate pilot training participated as subjects.  Eight subjects in an experimental group were trained to fly low level in a simulated A-10 aircraft using special altitude prompts (lights on the glareshield and auditory tones in the headset) to assist them in discriminating altitude cues provided in the simulated visual environment.  Eight subjects in a control group received training identical to that of the experimental group, less prompting.  A computerized data record system captured a continuous record of altitude, vertical velocity, number of crashes, and other performance parameters on each of eight training trials and two test runs in which prompts were omitted.  All subjects flew a total of ten runs.  The prompted group achieved significantly lower altitude performance on two of four critical task segments compared to the control group during the training trials.  However, subjects in the prompted group crashed significantly more times per trial than did subjects in the control group during the training.  During the test runs performance of the two groups for altitude, vertical velocity, and frequency of crashes was not significantly different.  The results of the study do not appear to warrant continued investigation of this technique for low level training.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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EFFECT OF FIELD OF VIEW ON PERFORMING A LOW ALTITUDE MANEUVERING TASK

Dean Carico and Lloyd D. Corliss

U.S. Army Aeromechanics Laboratory, Ames Research Center

Visual systems with a single window display are often utilized in ground based simulators used to study helicopter flying qualities during visual low altitude maneuvering tasks.  The effects of this limited field of view (FOV) on pilot assessments of flying qualities are uncertain.  A study was conducted using a variable stability UH-1H helicopter to compare restricted and unrestricted FOV for a range of flying qualities.  With the restricted FOV, the pilots reported reduced ground track precision owing to loss of visual contact with the course markers.  However, the predictable ground track of the repeated S-turn task with no obstacles made it easy for them to anticipate their maneuvers, and resulted in only a slight degradation of pilot ratings.  The degradation was not sensitive to large changes in helicopter flying qualities.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.  Order it from I/ITSEC's

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TRINOSCOPE COLOR DISPLAYS FOR SIMULATION

Richard E. Holmes

Training Systems Group, Systems Research Laboratories, Inc.

Dr. F. Gerard Albers

Simulation and Control Systems Department

General Electric Company

The resolution capabilities of computer image generators (CIG) used for simulation and training have advanced to the degree that they exceed the capabilities of existing shadow mask, direct view color TV displays and color TV projectors.  One solution to this problem is the modern day implementation of a trinoscope color display that uses the optical merging of three high resolution monochrome cathode ray tubes — red, green, blue color phosphors, respectively — to produce a full color image.  Such systems are particularly suitable for telescopes and periscopes needed in tank or submarine simulations where the color-combining optics can be integrated into the simulated sight optics.  This paper describes the technical advances required to assure maximum resolution and, more importantly, superior color convergence (i.e., the capability to make the three CRT images fall exactly on top of the other so that the resulting full color image is produced without undesirable color fringing).

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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 ARMY MAINTENANCE TRAINING AND EVALUATION SIMULATION SYSTEM  (AMTESS)

Dr. Robert T. Dybas

Mechanical Engineer

PMTRADE

The AMTESS concept is considered to be a forerunner of a new direction in maintenance training.  It will have the capability of providing introductory maintenance training at the institutional level, as well as proficiency training in the field environment.  The system will be a modular and flexible maintenance concept with broad applicability to perform in various areas.  The basic AMTESS requirements were generated as a result of an extensive front end analysis by four highly experienced contractors working independently.  The Air Defense and Ordnance Schools were selected for the initial analysis effort.  As a result, each contractor provided a basic design of a system which would meet all of the AMTESS requirements.  This effort constituted Phase I of the program.  The second phase of the program resulted in the delivery of an AMTESS by each of the two most qualified contractors from Phase I.  An extensive evaluation period is planned by the Ordnance school, and the Air Defense School to ensure the training effectiveness of AMTESS.  The inherent modularity of the AMTESS and the ability of the instructors to modify POI's will provide a device with a wide range of flexibility and adaptability to overall maintenance training.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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 A PLAN FOR THE EVALUATION OF THE F-16 SIMULATED AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE TRAINERS (SAMTs)

Jennifer A. Smith, Staff Scientist

Rohn J. Hritz, Program Director

George R. Purifoy, Jr., Program Manager

Applied Science Associates, Inc.

Gerard Deignan, Project Engineer

Air Force Human Resources Laboratory

Lowry Air Force Base

A research plan was developed to evaluate the cost and training effectiveness of the F-16 SAMTs.  Historically, such evaluations have been conducted by comparing the effectiveness of the simulator against that of an actual equipment trainer (AET).  However, readily comparative training devices and approaches do not exist in the case of the F-16.  To evaluate the training effectiveness of the SAMTs, a criterion referenced approach was selected.  Students will be assessed on their ability to perform maintenance tasks, taught using the SAMTs, on actual F-16 aircraft.  End-of-course measures and follow-up retention testing will be conducted.  Engine, pneudraulic, electrical, and flight control system tasks will be evaluated.  Task selection criteria include difficulty, criticality, and frequency of performance.  Specific training capabilities of the SAMTs to be assessed include two instructional features: the malfunction insertion capability and automatic student monitoring.  A comparison will be made between the performance of students trained with the malfunction insertion feature operational versus without this instructional capability.  The use of the student monitoring capability will be assessed through interviews with the course instructors.  A comparative approach was adopted for assessing the cost effectiveness of the SAMTs.  The cost of the hypothetical AET delivery system with the same set of learning objectives as the courses the SAMTs are utilized in will be computed and compared to the SAMT delivery system. Major categories in the cost model include facilities, instructional equipment, instructional materials, personnel, and supplies.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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AN INDIRECT-FIRE TERMINAL EFFECTS SIMULATOR

Robert C. Michelson

Senior Research Engineer

Georgia Institute of Technology

Engineering Experiment Station

Frank R. Williamson

Senior Research Engineer

Georgia Institute of Technology

Engineering Experiment Station

This paper describes the concept development and feasibility demonstration of a man-safe cueing system for the impact of indirect fire in a simulated battle field environment.  This system provides a safe, cost-effective method for including mortar and artillery into the battle field training/evaluation scenario for both mounted and dismounted players.  This cueing system is based on a lightweight projectile having a very low impact energy and carrying a flash/bang/smoke generator.  This projectile is launched from a low pressure pneumatic device that is capable of projecting the cue to ranges of 200 to 300 meters using a simple constant-mass, constant-drag projectile.  A manually controlled launcher was constructed to demonstrate the feasibility of the cueing concept.  A remote controlled, multiple shot launching device (providing coverage of a one kilometer diameter circle) is well within current technology.  The soft-nose projectile is designed to have a terminal energy similar to that experienced during the impact of a served tennis ball.  The flash, acoustic and smoke cues are tailored for player safety.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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MICROPROCESSORS APPLIED TO TRAINING DEVICES

Donald Ellison

Manager, Product Engineering

Gould Inc., Simulation systems Division

Computer Controlled Trainer Simulation traditionally has been done with minicomputer class processors.  Instruction, speed and flexibility, as well as good hardware and software support, are some of the reasons for the domination of the minicomputer in the area of simulation.  However, over the past decade, microprocessor performance has improved to such an extent that microprocessors may rival some of the best minicomputers currently available.  Microprocessors may be used to offload the mini in areas such as complex real time handling of I/0 and number crunching, as well as monitoring hardware status.  Distributed processors allow the mini to process more data, with less hardware needed to perform the simulation task.  Microprocessors may also replace minicomputers completely in systems requiring real time number crunching with limited precision calculations, such as radar simulation or part task trainers.  Additionally, software support has become quite extensive with many of the leading microcomputers, including ANSI FORTRAN, Basic and Pascal, making the micro a viable candidate to replace the mini computer for simulation of military or commercial equipment.  Such a system offers reduction in costs, weight, and power consumption with increased reliability and flexibility.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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VOICE-AIDED TRAINING

W.S. Meisel, President

Speech Systems Incorporated

Computer voice response and computer speech recognition can provide a valuable supplementary training aid for military training systems.  For training devices based on media or software which is hard to change, voice can provide supplementary information and allow spoken amendments to course information.  For simulators which attempt physical fidelity to a particular defense system, speech provides a medium which can communicate information to and from the student without interfering with the defense system displays or controls.

It is feasible to add computer voice response of telephone quality to most training systems.  Such voice response can be entered and changed by simply speaking into a microphone.  At least thirty minutes of such speech can be stored and retrieved digitally in a simple hardware implementation.

Speech recognition capability can add a further dimension to a voice training aid, allowing the trainee to make requests or to answer multiple-choice questions.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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GUIDES FOR VOICE TECHNOLOGY IN NAVY TRAINING SYSTEMS

Dr. Robert Breaux

Naval Training Equipment Center

Dr. Michael E. McCauley

Canyon Research Group

Dr. Paul E. Van Hemel

Ergonomics Associates

Computer speech recognition provides the enabling technology for the use of automated performance measurement and instructor support features to allow "instructorless" training for those tasks which are primarily speech in nature.  The design guides take the approach that automated, "instructorless" training is achievable through the use of computer software models of the instructor and the task.  Human factors design guidelines are provided for the integration of speech technology with the software models.  The Navy has built two prototype training systems using voice technology to capture student behavior, evaluated one of them, and is in the process of evaluating another.  Further, the training implications for airborne applications of voice technology have been developed.  The emergence of voice technology as one solution to the manpower shortage has provided justification for these efforts.  This paper describes how voice technology can make the transition from R& D to application.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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INTERACTIVE MULTI-MEDIA SYSTEM

Steven Levin

Interactive Television Company

Dexter Fletcher

Army Research Institute

Increasing systems sophistication and limited personnel resources are dramatically demonstrating the need for cost effective training, operations, and maintenance assistance at the work site.  The Interactive Multi-Media System (IMMS) addresses these needs by providing training, technical documentation, and operations information in a highly interactive format using advanced microcomputer and optical videodisc design. IMMS uses Spatial Data Management as a means to provide users with rapid and natural access to varied types of information in an easy-to-use and unified format.  There are no languages to learn or typing required with IMMS.  Optical videodiscs are used in IMMS to provide users with immediate access to interactive video-based information.  Some of the interactive videodisc functions supported by IMMS include diagnostic procedures, step-by-step assembly, maintenance, and operations activities, and technical information support.  Other multi-media aspects of IMMS include the use of variable data sources such as microfiche, videotape, remote data systems, and teleconferencing to support changes in technical information and procedures as well as off-site instruction.  Finally, embedded subsidiary incentives in IMMS stimulate the learning and usage of IMMS by users.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ON THE USE OF A FLIGHT SIMUATOR'S FREEZE FEATURE DURING ACQUISITION OF A CARRIER LANDING TASK

Ronald G. Hughes

Airforce Human Resources Laboratory

Williams Air Force Base

Gavan Lintern

Canyon Research Group

Dennis C. Wightman

Naval Training Equipment Center

Rebecca B. Brooks

Air Force Human Resources Laboratory

Williams Air Force Base

Performance errors committed during the acquisition of a carrier landing task in the simulator resulted in the occurrence of a freeze.  Pilot subjects exposed to the freeze developed control strategies which were distinguishable from those of a no-freeze control group in terms of throttle, rudder, aileron, and elevator activity.  Neither rate of learning nor level of performance was affected.  Use of the freeze, however, was reported as initially "frustrating" and as adding to the overall difficulty of acquiring the task.  With certain application, the freeze appears to be aversive, altering pilot motivation for learning the task.  Methodologically, the study's use of a probe trial technique represents a departure from the traditional transfer of training methodology for the assessment of alternative instructional treatments.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THREE APPROACHES TO THE MAN-MACHINE INTERFACE PROBLEM AT THE FLIGHT SIMULATOR INSTRUCTOR/OPERATOR STATION

Joseph L. Dickman

Sperry Systems Management — SECOR

This paper analyzes the principle of instructor/operator station (IOS) design employed in three flight simulators recently produced by the same company, Sperry Systems Management — SECOR.  The analysis brings out major differences among the three; comments on the reasons for the various approaches selected; examines the experience of users of each trainer, to the extent that data is available; and draws conclusions regarding the comparative merits of each approach.  In addition, it discusses the problem of objectively evaluating the efficiency of IOS designs in general.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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 INTERACTIVE COMPUTER GRAPHICS FOR TRAINING COMBAT VEHICLE CREWS AND COMMANDERS IN THE REQUIREMENTS AND LIMITATIONS INVOLVED IN A NUCLEAR, BIOLOGICAL, CHEMICAL (NBC) ENVIRONMENT

Mr. David M. English

Mr. John M. Ferriter

Ms. Donna M. Smith

Mr. Devin R. Kammerer

Respiratory and Collective Protection Branch, Chemical Systems Laboratory

Edgewood Area — Aberdeen Proving Ground

The training of combat vehicle crews and commanders via Interactive Computer Graphics is a feasible and effective method to maintain readiness against the existing threat of Nuclear Biological-Chemical (NBC) warfare.  Data and computer programs have been generated which provide real world chemical battlefield scenarios.  The system user encounters different battlefield scenarios and can select various defensive responses (e.g. initiate overpressure).  Dosages encountered and casualties (for unprotected crew members) suffered in the chemical battlefield simulation are tabulated.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS — A TOTAL SYSTEM PERSPECTIVE

George L. Graham, ISD Manager

Arthur F. Menton and Roger F. Schwoerer,

Principal Operations Analysts 

Grumman Aerospace Corp.

Training Effectiveness, both in terms of measurement and prediction, has become an issue of increasing concern to training system users, acquisition mangers, and contractors.  The analytic tools available to address this issue have generally come from the realm of Human Factors and have tended to focus on individual training devices rather than total training systems.  This paper describes a training system effectiveness model that addresses all elements of a jet pilot training program (academics, simulators and aircraft) which was developed through the application of Operations Analysis and Instructional System Development techniques.  The processes used to identify and validate characteristics which drive training effectiveness are described, as are the methods used to relate these characteristics to training objectives.  The techniques used to quantify the training value associated with various design options are presented along with a discussion of how the model was actually used during the training system design process.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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WRITING AN ISD TRAINING PROGRAM CONCURRENTLY WITH FULL SCALE DEVELOPMENT

Capt. Joseph C. Stein

Capt. Walter P. Petrofski

OAS/Cruise Missile Training Managers

Carswell AFB

Developing a training program concurrently with full-scale development of a new system has been looked upon by several educational professionals as being impossible.  The US Air Force desire to shorten the time from drawing board to full operational capability for a weapon system requires combining normal system life phases whenever possible.  Therefore, the 4235^th Strategic Training Squadron was tasked to develop a training program for the Offensive Avionics System (OAS) and Air Launch Cruise Missile (ALCM) Modifications to the B-52 G and H fleets concurrently with full-scale development of hardware and software for the aircraft.  Having written the training program using the ISD approach, the squadron provides insight into the problems of such an effort and the solutions it developed to overcome those problems.  Areas addressed in this paper include:

1)             Developing a core of knowledge about a new system without an established working model.

2)             Selecting an organizational method for presenting the training program.

3)             Developing training devices.

4)             Developing technical orders.

5)             Handling of changes to system operation and implementing them into the training program.

6)             Selecting instructional media.

7)             Selecting instructors.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE SIMULATOR TRAINING MATRIX

Michael P. Scher

Hughes Aircraft Company

There are five basic questions that should be answered by various DOD personnel prior to selection and procurement of a training device.  The sequence of these questions and who does the answering is a critical determinate of whether or not the ultimate user actually gets what he wants or needs to fulfill the training requirement.  An example of a simplified sequence of events or matrix is included, which can be applied universally to all new simulator procurements, modification to existing devices (CILOP — Conversion In Lieu Of Procurement), or new concepts incorporating "non training" requirements.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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CURRICULUM VIEWED AS A BINARY SYSTEM: AN APPROACH TO THE DETERMINATION OF SEQUENCE — A PROJECT REPORT

Thomas R. Renckly

Education Specialist

Curriculum Design Coordinator

U.S. Navy Recruiting Command

Gary Orwig, Ph.D.

Asst. Professor

College of Education

University of Central Florida

Determining alternative curriculum sequences is a tedious task involving many individuals and analysis of large amounts of curriculum-related information.  Because these tasks are not readily reducible to mathematical operations, and because educators and curriculum designers are generally not so inclined, computer intervention into this design process has been meager.  Nevertheless, the power of the computer to handle vast amounts of information coupled with its high speed manipulation ability makes it an ideal instrument to use in the instructional design process.  The project reported herein describes the development and application of a model by which a curriculum may be analyzed to determine alternative instructional sequences based upon curriculum objectives and limiting constraints.  The project's primary goal is to ultimately apply the model to the analysis and design of instructional sequences for 16 closely related courses currently under development by the U.S. Navy Recruiting Command.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TRANSFER EFFECTIVENESS AND STUDENT PERFORMANCE EVALUATIONS ON SIMULATORS: THEORY AND PRACTICE OF EVALUATIONS

Mr. K. Ronald Laughery, Jr.

Senior Human Factors Engineer

Calspan Advanced Technology Center

Dr. Jan L. Ditzian

Senior Psychologist

Calspan Advanced Technology Center

Buffalo, New York

Major George M. Houtman

Chief, Scientific Advisory Branch, 93 BMW/D05

Castle AFB

A key concept in evaluating the training effectiveness of any training device is the difference between its use to achieve positive transfer of training and its use to evaluate student performance.  As simulators are becoming more realistic, there is a tread towards using them not only to reduce training on the operational equipment (e.g., aircraft), but to eliminate entirely all training and evaluation on the operational equipment, for selected tasks.  In order to eliminate all operational equipment training, we must be certain that evaluations of student  performance in the simulator provide a valid assessment of actual student capabilities on the operational equipment.  The assessment of the validity of student evaluations on the simulator does not have the same data requirements as a transfer of training study, although they are similar.  Unfortunately, the differences between the two types of studies have been virtually unrecognized by the training device evaluation community.  This paper will discuss the theoretical and practical differences between the two types of studies, differences in data requirements, and an example of the differences which were observed in a study involving the KC-135 Boom Operator Part Task Trainer located at Castle AFB, CA.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TEAM PERFORMANCE MEASURES FOR COMPUTERIZED SYSTEMS

Edward M. Connelly and Pamela Johnson

Performance Measurement Associates, Inc.

A theory of system performance measures that permits evaluation of the effects on mission performance of the performance of each constituent mission task was extended to tactical data processing systems.  This system performance measure permits the evaluation of both teams and individual team members on either a mission or any portion of a mission, including specific tasks or task types.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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 THE MOTION GENERATOR FOR THE ROTORCRAFT SYSTEMS INTEGRATION SIMULATOR

Arlin Deel, Colonel, U.S. Army

Aeromechanics Laboratory USARTL (AVRADCOM)

Moffett Field

Charles A. Belsterling

Manager, Simulator Engineering

Franklin Research Center

Since World War II, the U.S. Army has considerably expanded its use of the helicopter in a variety of military functions.  As new missions were defined, new tactics, extended performance requirements and increased number of subsystems have imposed extreme demands on the pilot.  Ground-based flight simulation is the only safe practical way to investigate the tradeoff between a better-trained pilot and a more complex aircraft.  In 1975, a joint U.S. Army and NASA study was performed to establish the future needs for the simulation of rotary-wing aircraft.  As a result, a program was initiated to develop a facility that could be used by government and industry in research and development.  That facility is being developed jointly by the U.S. Army and NASA at the Ames Research Center.

In 1978 the Franklin Research Center completed the development of the concept for the motion generator to satisfy the requirements of the new simulation facility.  In 1979 they began the design of the unit which is to be installed at the Ames Research Center in 1982.  The Rotorcraft Simulator Motion Generator (RSMG) is a new four-degree-of-freedom system to replace the synergistic motion system presently mounted on the Vertical Motion Simulator at Ames.  Its extended capabilities will satisfy the requirements for research involving both fixed-wing and rotary-wind aircraft.  In this way the Army/NASA goals for an advanced facility for rotorcraft simulation are to be satisfied most efficiently.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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 INTERACTIVE FLAT PANEL INTELLIGENT DISPLAY TERMINALS AND TECHNIQUES

Elliot Schlam, Supervisory Electronics Engineer

Richard P. Tuttle, Electronics Engineer

US Army Electronics Technology & Devices Laboratory (ERADCOM)

Gerald V. Ceres, Senior Computer Programmer

Raycomm Industries Inc.

This paper discusses fully operational, user-interactive automated training equipment with sophisticated computer graphics and video that can be packaged into hardware no larger than a suitcase.  Such systems have been assembled using thin-film electro-luminescent display panels and transparent touch-panel overlays coupled with interactive software and microcomputer and memory technology.  The display quality is comparable or better than that of most CRT installations and the system intelligence can exceed that of many minicomputers.  Incorporated touch interaction enables users to be facile with its operation without undergoing undo specialized training.  Systems of this type can be used to satisfy a great majority of the Services' needs for sophisticated training and test equipment, while being completely portable and usable in a tactical environment.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ADA HIGH ORDER LANGUAGE TRAINING USING COMPUTER-BASED EDUCATION

David G. Stephan

Government Systems, Control Data Corporation

Charles B. Johnston

Education, Control Data Corporation

The Department of Defense (DOD) is spending an estimated $6 billion on software each year, and this budget is forecasted to increase by 15 to 20 percent annually.  In recognition of this software cost spiral and to halt the proliferation of computer programming languages, DOD has sponsored the development of a new language — called Ada—to provide a standard, computer-independent high order language for major defense systems software.  Ada is expected to have widespread application throughout DOD and will require training for thousands of individuals.  Control Data is developing a solution to the Ada training problem using the Control Data PLATO computer-based education system.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SOFTWARE/HARDWARE INTEGRATION – “THE MOMENT OF TRUTH”

R. J. Brousseau

Director of Software Engineering

Cubic Corporation

Integration of system software and hardware is without a doubt the system development activity which enjoys the greatest management visibility.  It is during this phase of system development that past sins of superficial analysis and design of both software and hardware surface to be seen by all and where system completion often appears to follow an asymptotic course to infinity.

This paper provides a brief summary of the software development practices followed in implementing the software for the Multi-Environment Trainer (MET), a complex multi-computer naval ship trainer, and an in-depth discussion of the procedures used to direct the day-to-day software/hardware integration activity.  Actual experiences, good and bad, are discussed and findings expressed in terms of problem solutions and recommendations.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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 TECHNIQUES FOR AVERTING PROBLEMS IN DEVELOPING TRAINER SYSTEM SOFTWARE

Carole J. Kuruma

Manager, Training Systems Department

Technology Service Corporation

Short schedules and changing requirements are common problems encountered when software is being developed for training systems.  This paper explores techniques used by Technology Service Corporation (TSC) to overcome or avert such problems while developing the B-52 OAS Part Task Trainer for the Training Services Division, Keelser Air Force Base.  Techniques for dealing with limited resources (time and budget) include carefully exploring, and assigning priorities to, system capabilities to determine the more important requirements; and employing a top-down approach.  Planning for changing requirements calls for identifying capabilities that may change; constructing a well-documented software design with application-oriented modularity; and scheduling a design freeze with late requirement changes incorporated after completion.  The paper presents step-by-step descriptions of each technique and provides examples relating directly to the part task trainer.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ANTI-ARMOR MISSILE FLIGHT SIMULATOR

Albert Marshall

Dr. Herbert Towle

Bon Shaw

Gary Bond

Advanced Simulation Concepts Laboratory

Naval Training Equipment Center, University of Central Florida

This paper describes a missile flight simulator developed to train DRAGON gunners.  It is also being adapted to a variety of similar anti-armor weapons.  The system employs a terrain board with enemy armored vehicles moving in a variety of attack scenarios.  When the gunner fires the missile he hears computer generated rocket sounds and experiences the weight loss, recoil and smoke of the missile launch.  When the smoke clears he views the missile as well as the target.  The gunner's aiming error is measured using a microprocessor controlled diode matrix array.  The matrix detector senses an IR emitting diode which is located on the miniature target.  The flight equations of motion for the missile are solved by a 16 bit microprocessor every 0.02 seconds in each axis using gunner aiming error, gravity, drag and side thruster accelerations as inputs. A second coordinated 16 bit processor controls a display that plots both vertical and horizontal aiming error for analysis of the gunner's performance.  Experienced DRAGON gunners have tested the system and attested to the realism and training potential.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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PHANTOM RANGE — AN EW TRAINING SYSTEM

Morton T. Eldridge

Teledyne Brown Engineering

Confronting NATO tactical air is a spectrum of Warsaw Pact defenses including SAMs, AAA, and airborne interceptors plus jamming of communications, fire control radars, and navigation equipment.  Aircrews faced with this array, trying to perform their primary mission, must be trained to cope with the total anticipated task-loading and at the same time become neither casualties nor disoriented such that they fail to achieve their mission objective.  Current training on large EW ranges is considered inadequate due to the limited accessibility and the infrequency with which aircrews can experience such training.  The Phantom Range, an onboard, computer-generated threat simulator, can be programmed to provide threats at given geographic locations, independent of ground emitter, with appropriate envelopes modified by actual existing terrain.  It allows the aircrew to defeat the threat by exercising proper procedures, or be "killed" if their actions are inappropriate.  The whole scenario is recorded for ground debriefing.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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 WARGAME-BASED TRAINING SYSTEMS

L. Robert Ogus

Naval Training Equipment Center

James R. Jancaitis and Russel E. Hauck

Advanced Technology, Inc.

This paper introduces a candidate model for development of wargame-based training systems and describes the application of that concept during development of the Naval Tactical Game (NAVTAG) Training System.  A wargame-based training system combines the inherent educational advantages of simulation and gaming with the best features of more formal or conventional methods of instruction.

Research indicates that gaming simulation has the potential to afford significant advantages over conventional classroom methods of training.  This appears to be particularly true for complex skills such as goal-oriented decision-making.  Wargames can be made more effective by using an integrated development approach based upon the systems approach to instructional development, and the addition of a complete set of courseware.

Some key features, or characteristics, of wargame-based training systems are that they:

1)     Utilize an Instructional Systems Development Approach

2)     Provide a Complete Wargame Training Package

3)     Are Usable in Game or Nongame Modes

4)     Are Scenario-Independent

5)     Provide Realistic Threat Portrayal

6)     Provide Basic and Advanced Modes

7)     Are Easily Modified

Other design features include a reasonable level of complexity, realism and playability; and a requirement for a minimum number of support personnel.

Wargame-based training systems are a unique approach to the special challenges of tactical decision-making training.  The concept is applicable to all services and can easily be expanded to accommodate the introduction of new technologies, weapons systems and tactics.

The authors illustrate how the design and development of a wargame-based training system is accomplished by reference to NAVTAG (Naval Tactical Game).  NAVTAG will be used aboard ship, probably in the wardroom, to afford officers an opportunity to enhance through practice (or to learn then practice) skills associated with tactics and tactical decision-making. The NAVTAG Training System is intended to complement other methods of tactical and team training, but will not attempt to simulate the physical environment or provide a basis for team training.

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A UNIQUE RADAR WARNING EQUIPMENT TRAINER CONCEPT BASED ON DIGITAL STIMULATION

Daniel Marchegiani, Alfred Tesler, and Andy Werback

Applied Technology, A Division of ITEK Corporation

Prior techniques in EW training equipment designs have used either the approach of signal injection into operational EW equipment or the approach of software real-time modeling of the EW equipment and environment.  The analog injection approach preserves the signal processing characteristics and anomalies of the EW equipment, but is costly and difficult to maintain and keep calibrated.  The software model approach is easily maintained and offers excellent simulation repeatability, but the realism is limited to the degree in which the math model simulates the equipment and environment.  The new approach presented in this paper offers the realism advantages of the signal injection approach plus the repeatability and maintainability of the software modeling approach.  Instead of injecting analog RF signals or video level signals into the operational EW equipment analog to digital (A/D) signal converter, the new approach bypasses the A/D converter and injects digitally formatted signals directly into the EW processor data collection buffer.  This approach uses general purpose digital computer equipment to generate the real-time digital pulse data and uses the operational EW equipment to process the data.  All the processing characteristics and anomalies are preserved in the EW equipment, and the repeatability and maintainability of digital versus analog signal generators are provided.

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LOW COST WEATHER RADAR SIMULATION

Dennis A. Cowdrey

Principal Development Engineer

Singer (UK), Link-Miles Division

There has been a growing interest in the use of Airborne Weather Radar simulation from both military and commercial operators of transport aircraft.  This interest, in part, stems from the need to train aircrews to fly through weather conditions, which at one time would have been give a 'wide berth', without sacrificing safety margins.  This change in requirement has arisen due to escalating fuel costs.

To date, the cost of full radar simulation has restricted its use to the more sophisticated aircraft simulators.  The Link-Miles Division of Singer has developed a low cost or simple Weather Radar Simulator for use on transport aircraft stimulators.  This paper describes the simulation techniques adopted and shows how recent advances in semi-conductor technology have been incorporated to produce a system capable of being fully integrated into an aircraft simulator.

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SIMULATION OF MODERN RADARS IN FULL TACTICS SIMULATORS

Lt. Co. Manfred Haas

German Air Force

Peter M. Gueldenpfennig

Messerschmitt-Boelkow-Blohm

Hans G. Werner

Messerschmitt-Boelkow-Blohm

The correct use of modern radar in flight and attack aircraft is one of the main tasks of the pilot and copilot.  This means that training in radar operation and image interpretation is one of the most important training aspects in a full mission simulator.  Realistic simulation of modern radars is essential to achieving the required training.

The state-of-the-art in micro-electronics, data processing, computer graphics and other relevant areas make it possible to generate all necessary radar signals in real-time using completely synthetic video generation methods.  Based on digital data bases and the appropriate aircraft and radar parameters, terrain and culture profiles are generated.  From these profiles, radar echoes simulating Ground Mapping Radar, Terrain Following Radar and the Radar Altimeter are synthesized.  Typical radar effects such as range attenuation, shadowing, far-shore enhancement, and pulse stretching are accounted for along with antenna, transmitter, and receiver characteristics of the actual radar in all operating modes.

The radar simulation is performed in real-time, with all computations up-dated at a rate consistent with the radar characteristics and the flight control system of the aircraft.  The use of a high up-date rate allows all training missions to be performed with full freedom of maneuvering in the simulator.

This paper describes the performance characteristics of a Digital Radar Landmass Simulation System (DRLMS), developed for the TORNADO Flight and Tactics Simulator, with an emphasis of its training role.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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MID-RANGE TRAINERS: CONCEPT AND DESIGN AS APPLIED TO THE B-52 OAS/CMC PART TASK TRAINER

Captain Joseph C. Stein

Captain Michael E. Shannon

OAS/Cruise Missile Training Managers

Carswell AFB

Ms. Carole J. Kuruma

Training Systems Department Manager

Technology Service Corporation

Mid-range trainers are designed to provide useful training at significantly lower cost and development time than those for full-capability (full-scale) trainers.  Mid-range trainers are appropriate for use prior to development of full-scale trainers and as supplements to full-scale trainers.  With a mid-range trainer, trainees may, for example, practice operational procedures, become familiar with system control locations and reaction times, and learn to recognize and handle system faults.  This paper describes the B-52 OAS/CMC Part Task Trainer, detailing its function as both a conversion trainer to provide the highest level of simulated training while the full-range trainer is being developed, and as a "lead in" trainer before the student moves to the full-range device.  Capabilities of the Part Task Trainer are explained.  Cost effective aspects of dual use are discussed.  Design features to provide lower initial cost and flexibility for future modifications and expansion, use of minicomputers, off-the-shelf components, and modular structure are detailed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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FOREIGN MILITARY TRAINING PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT

Johnnie A. Butler

Head, FMS Training Acquisition Branch

Naval Training Equipment Center

Modernization of the military posture of friendly foreign governments has placed uncontemplated, challenging demands on training program developers.  To minimize total cost, foreign governments use existing equipment designs where feasible.  By using existing designs, the logistics support package has already been developed; however, this package was tailored to meet the needs of United States military personnel.  All items of the logistics package are satisfactory except — training and technical publications.  Problems in these two areas become especially difficult when English is used as a second language by the procuring country.  Since their background and experiences are different, a training approach that is different than the one used in the existing package is required.  Training developers must modify existing curriculum to allow for these differences, to remove culturally offensive situations, and to tailor the training to learning patterns of the intended student.  Once the training program accomplishes its objective, problems with the technical documentation disappear.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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 NEW FRONTIERS FOR COMPUTER AIDED TRAINING

Ing. Roberto Podesta

Gajon Institute of Technology S.p.A.

Computers have been introduced in training since many years, but with good results only for limited subjects.  The main reason of the failure seems to be the passive role of the student not sufficiently motivated by the simple contact with the machine.  The system we are introducing combines the programmed learning method we developed for military technicians through 30 years of experiences, in which the student himself discovers the phenomena reaching the theory through experiments, and the possibility offered by today Computer Science, getting the advantages of both, in courses starting from basic subjects up to the most advanced electronic techniques.  In a classroom equipped by our system the individual computer gives the student a procedure for the experiments he has to perform, but the student himself has to work on an especially designed desk to set the circuit and to study it, making measurements and giving the computer his conclusions.  The computer can evaluate student's answers, letting him proceed if they are correct, asking him to repeat in the opposite case, adding other explanations to help him and keeping his score.  Furthermore, it controls an integrated audiovisual system, showing to the student automatically films or transparencies connected with the current group of experiments he is performing.  Instructor's function has not been cancelled, but exalted, because through his master computer he can control the complete classroom, checking students' work at any step, and helping the one who really needs his presence, not disturbing the others.  Resuming, we realized a system in which the student has at his disposal two instructors, the computer for the routine, and the teacher when necessary proceeding at his own pace.

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"TRAINING WITH A SHORTENED RANGE CARTRIDGE FOR AUTOMATIC RIFLE"

Jean Chevalier (Colonel S.T.A.T.)

Francois Ambrosi (Ingenieur en Chef de l'Armement D.T.A.T.)

In order to allow for firing manoeuvre, on the ground, of the combat group in reasonably safe conditions, a shortened range firing system, adaptable to the French automatic rifle, has been developed.

In a first part, after having recalled the military requirements, the system's conditions of use are exposed, and in particular those of its associated 5,56 ammunition.

The second part is devoted to the description of the materiel which has been studied on the ground of the military specifications issued from the requirements stated before.

The materiel is composed of a kit adaptable to the rifle and of a 5.56 cartridge with a plastic bullet said "balplast".

This system is at the last stage of its development and should be proposed for evaluation to the official services by the end of 1981.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SURVIVING THE PITFALLS AND TROLL BRIDGES

IN STATE-OF-THE-ART CBI DEVELOPMENT

Dr. Robin Halley, Member of the Technical Staff

Ms. Mary Hicklin, Member of the Technical Staff

Logicon, Inc.

Most computer-based instructional (CBI) system development is done using proven technologies in proven ways.  Sophisticated development models are available for determining software (e.g., top-down design) and courseware (ISD) decisions and structures in these systems.  For state-of-the-art (SOA) CBI system development, however, there are additional problems peculiar to that form which require specific considerations and solutions.  This paper is designed to define the specific characteristics of this type of development and to discuss some of the problems, considerations, and solutions involved in SOA training system research and development.  These include personnel concerns, such as work environment characteristics and the type of people best suited to it; management concerns, such as the style of management required; communications concerns, such as the required interaction between different staff disciplines; and the different technical approaches required for this specific form of development.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE SENSOR IMAGE SIMULATOR

Dr. Marshall B. Faintich, Supervisory Cartographer

Mr. Paul C. Figura, Cartographer

Aerospace Cartography Department Techniques Office

Defense Mapping Agency Aerospace Center

Mr. Edward W. Quinn, Project Engineer

Guidance Systems Engineering Department

Goodyear Aerospace Corporation

The primary objective of the digital sensor simulation investigations being conducted at the Defense Mapping Agency (DMA) is to establish an editing and analysis capability for the digital culture and terrain data bases.  For purposes of quality control and data base applicability investigations, DMA has developed the Sensor Image Simulator (SIS), a very high speed data base edit station and static scene simulator that allows for interactive query and manipulation of individual features in the data base displays and/or simulated sensor scenes to determine the corresponding data base elements responsible for the simulated features.  The SIS was installed at DMA in 1981, and is designed to play a key role in determining the applicability of prototype data bases for use in advanced various digital data bases prior to new data insertion the master cartographic data base files.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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PART TASK TRAINERS: AN EFFECTIVE MEANS TO MEET TRAINING REQUIREMNTS

Robert E. Coward

John P. Hayden, Wing Commander, RAAF

David W. Lewis

Aeronautical Systems Division

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

With the development of increasingly complex weapon systems comes the need to train personnel to operate these systems, which now require an increasing array of aircrew skills.  This paper focused attention on the need for development of Part Task Trainers (PTT) which enable aircrews to acquire these skills in a timely and cost-effective manner.  It presents a multidiscipline view of PTTs, as perceived by an Engineering Psychologist, a Fighter Pilot, and a Design Engineer.  It briefly reviews the record of PTT development, focusing on the importance of front-end analysis of training requirements as the basis for considering and selecting training approaches that may effectively be met by PTTs.  Target areas for PTT applications are discussed and proposals are offered for the development of some unique PTT concepts including the potential for increased use of generic and specialized PTTs.  Potential solutions, cost savings benefits, and improved training expectations are discussed.

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ADVANCED GROUND MAPPING RADAR SYSTEMS

A SIMULATION CHALLENGE FOR THE 80's

John D. Stengel, Jr.

Aeronautical Systems Division

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

The role of the airborne ground mapping radar has been dramatically changing over the last several years due to great technological strides in the science of radar design.  Great improvements have been made in both the accuracy and resolution of radar systems primarily due to the influence of high speed digital signal processing and the development of synthetic aperature radar design.  As a result of the many improvements to both radar system performance and flexibility, the role played by radar systems is also expanding.  As advanced radar become part of aircraft avionics systems, the requirement for high fidelity training systems immediately follows.  Changes to existing digital radar landmass (DRLMS) specifications will therefore be required.  In order to meet the training requirements for advanced high resolution systems both enhanced revisions of current DRLMS systems and alternative technologies may be required.

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AN EVALUATION OF AN EXTREMELY LOW COST CELESTIAL NAVIGATION TRAINER OR "HOW LOW CAN WE GO"

Dr. E. Russell Pennington and Major Marshall L. Christenson

4235 Strategic Training Squadron

Mr. K. Ronald Laughery, Jr.

Calspan Corp.

This paper will present the results of a study which was conducted on the B-52/KC-135 Celestial Training Device (CTD).  The CTD is really nothing more than a moderately equipped microcomputer with special software which was developed in-house by the Strategic Air Command.  Total cost of the system is less than $5,000.  The CTD is used by B-52 and KC-135 navigators to maintain proficiency in celestial navigation skills.  In the study to be reported, twelve measures of navigator celestial navigation performance were examined before and after the CTD training.  Findings indicated that even with a 30% reduction in in-flight celestial navigation training, performance on several key variables showed significant improvement after the CTD was delivered.  No variables showed a decline in performance.  In summary, the findings supported the effectiveness of the CTD beyond the experimenter's initial expectations.

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NEW SIGNAL PROCESSING INTEGRATED CIRCUIT REPRESENTS TECHNOLOGICAL BREAKTHROUGHS FOR REDUCING TRAINER COSTS

Dr. F.O. Simons, Jr., UCF

Mr. G.B. Browder, NTEC

Mr. S.K. Butrimas, NTEC

New integrated circuit signal processing devices introduced by several manufacturers are usually considered to be for specialized applications.  However, it will be shown that these devices are "ideally" suited for the real-time simulation of whole classes of dynamic subsystems.  Furthermore, these devices could be used to replace analog components and/or hardware which are subject to aging, drifting and other factors that result in maintenance problems.  Since practically all training devices involve placing a trainee in a realistic dynamic environment, these devices could impact the training device industry much like the GP digital computer.  The technological techniques required to utilize these new signal processing chips will be presented.  Finally, a survey of training devices that could be improved or reduced in cost by using these new devices will be presented

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C-5A/C-141B AERIAL REFUELING SIMULATOR TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS — CONCLUSIONS FROM PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE

Thomas E. Sitterley, Ph.D.

The Boeing Company

Since 1976, more than 400 USAF/MAC pilots have started their aerial refueling training in a multipurpose engineering development simulator at Boeing.  The initial simulator capability provided B-52 flight characteristics, a generalized transport cockpit, and a 45 degree v x 60 degree h FOV projected image of a K-707 Tanker.  The training program was improved through the use of the simulator from the very beginning.  Higher student flying performance was achieved with enhanced safety.  Within six months, flying hours for training were reduced fifteen percent.  Numerous simulator modifications have been made over the past several years, including improved flight characteristics, visual scene fidelity, and training features.  This opportunity to train operational pilots in an environment of evolving simulator configurations has afforded a new understanding of the cost/benefit of different levels of simulation sophistication.  Practical experience conclusions concerning the training effectiveness of a broad range of simulation features are discussed.

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COMPETITIVE CONTRACTING OF NON-PERSONAL SUPPORT SERVICES FOR FLIGHT SIMULATORS

Mr. Bruce A. Dembroski, Staff Analyst

Dr. Jacques S. Gansler, Vice President

Economic and Management Sciences Division

The Analytic Sciences Corporation (TASC)

This paper describes a useful management tool for helping program managers determine the cost-effectiveness of competing maintenance, engineering support, and other types of service contracts.  The underlying analytical framework is based upon cost improvement (learning) curve theory and incorporates the effects of competition on this process.  Supporting data are discussed.  The original research was performed by the authors at The Analytic Sciences Corporation (TASC) for the Air Force Human Resource Laboratory's (AFHRL) Advanced Simulator for Pilot Training (ASPT), Williams AFB, but is applicable to other simulator maintenance and support contracts where the work is of a repetitive, technical, and somewhat complex nature.

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COST-EFFECTIVENESS OF MAINTENANCE SIMULATORS FOR MILITARY TRAINING

Jesse Orlansky and Joseph String

Institute For Defense Analyses

The cost-effectiveness of maintenance simulators is compared to that of actual equipment trainers for training military maintenance technicians.  Maintenance simulators are as effective as actual equipment trainers when measured by student achievement at school; there is no difference in the job performance of students trained either way, according to supervisors' ratings (based on one study).  The acquisition cost of maintenance simulators is less than that of actual equipment trainers; they cost less than 60 percent as much if development costs are included and less than 20 percent as much if only unit fabrication costs are considered.  Acquisition and use of a maintenance simulator over a 15-year period would cost 38 percent as much as an actual equipment trainer (according to one life-cycle cost comparison).  Since maintenance simulators and actual equipment trainers are equally effective and since maintenance simulators cost less, it is concluded that maintenance simulators are more cost-effective than actual equipment trainers.  This finding is qualified because it comes from a limited number of comparisons, because effectiveness is based primarily on school achievement rather than on-the-job performance and because it is based primarily on acquisition rather than on life-cycle costs.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.  Order it from I/ITSEC's

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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COMPETITIVE PROTOTYPING DURING FULL SCALE DEVELOPMENT

William R. Stansberry

Deputy Product Manager

Armor Training Devices

Competitive prototyping during full-scale development is an innovative concept and has been exercised in various Army programs such as the Division Air Defense System (DIVADS) and Conduct of Fire Trainers (COFT) for tanks and fighting vehicle systems.  This technique is expected to be particularly effective when combined with hands-off, "skunk works" type management by the Government.  If success is, in fact, achieved, this concept should be considered for use in other projects involving large capital investments.

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IMPROVING PROGRAM START-UPS

Allie L. Waldron

Program Manager

AAI Corporation

The current modus operandi for the initiation of large simulator programs is "throttles to the firewall" on the day of contract award.  The contractor's program management team doesn't have time to effectively plan the program due to an immediate and continuous barrage of customer visibility data items and reviews.  This inability to develop accurate and workable plans impacts program costs and schedules by means of false starts and premature commitment of resources.  Likewise the government program office incurs unneeded travel and workload commitments during the initial stages of their organizing and planning effort.  This problem is caused by an attempt to achieve the earliest possible Ready for Training date through rapid start-up and close monitoring of progress.  The solution lies in a joint Government/Contractor front end planning effort which allows the contractor time to plan and also provides the government with sufficient visibility during the start-up period.

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TRAINING DEVICE ACQUISITION MANAGEMENT MODEL (TDAMM)

Eugene J. McGinnis/Hoyt M. Hammer, Jr.

Assistant Vice President, Science Application, Inc.

ILS Manager and System Analyst

In October 1980 PM TRADE developed a Training Device Acquisition Management Model (TDAMM) which outlines the specific events that must be accomplished in the development and production of training devices.  This paper will explain how the DoD Acquisition Model was tailored to accommodate training devices to include the responsibilities of the Developer, the Users and the role of major commands in the acquisition cycle.  The advantages of using the model will be mentioned along with the elimination of events which are not applicable and/or are not necessary in the development of training devices; the benefits to the User by reducing development time and minimizing costs.  Moreover, an explanation will be included to demonstrate its use in assisting the Project Directors in accomplishing their key events in a methodical manner, and tailoring new developments to the model with an examination of the resultant acquisition strategy.

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POST DEPLOYMENT SOFTWARE SUPPORT

Allen T. Irwin

Technical Director, Science Applications, Inc.

As computer based training devices proliferate, the need to maintain the software associated with the devices will cease to be an isolated need and will become a general requirement.  Based on experience with tactical systems, it can be estimated that the maintenance of the software associated with simulator over the life of the device will cost at least as much as the original acquisition cost of the software.  In this paper the procedures and requirements for software maintenance are analyzed.  The many associated trade-offs are examined.  Based on the requirements of post deployment support the impact on the acquisition process is examined.  Recommendations are made as to how the acquisition or development phase can best support post deployment support activities for software such that system utility can be maximized and life cycle costs minimized.

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MILITARY PERSONNEL SHORTAGES THROUGH THE YEAR 2000 —

ENOUGH TALK!  LET'S DO SOMETHING!!!

P.D. Maher

Hughes Aircraft Company

The paper summarizes the implications of the shrinking U.S. person-power base in the 80's and 90's, including the competition for these resources by the government, military, and industry sectors.  Probably the most practical solutions lie in designing as many O&M personnel out of the weapon systems as practical; and increasing the productivity of those remaining personnel via improved training-programs.  Four key joint DoD and industry actions can facilitate these solutions: a) increase first term productivity; b) improve career selection; c) emphasize transfer of training studies; and d) reduce personnel requirements based on credible personnel subsystem life cycle cost modeling.  The technology exists.

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DMSC PROGRAM MANAGEMENT EDUCATION

Karen Lam-Colyar

Professor, Systems Acquisition Management

George R. McAleer, Jr.

Associate Dean, Systems Acquisition Education

Defense Systems Management College

The Defense Systems Management College (DSMC) was chartered in 1971 by then Deputy Secretary of Defense David Packard to be "the academy of management for the Department and for all four services."  DSMC has become a high priority school for a high priority mission: defense systems acquisition management.  It is the only institution that provides DOD military and civilians and defense industry students with a concentrated 20-week Program Management Course (PMC).  A key feature of the PMC is that students learn not only the fundamentals of the functional disciplines — business management, technical management, organizational management, and acquisition policy — but they also participate actively in the integration of these disciplines through management case-study simulations.  This paper will describe the key features of the Program Management Course and some of the initiatives DSMC is undertaking to insure its program meets the need for trained acquisition managers throughout the 1980's.

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TRAINING ASPECTS OF FIELDING A MAJOR WEAPON SYSTEM —

THE UH-60A BLACK HAWK

Cornelius F. McGillicuddy, Jr.

Colonel, Infantry

TRADOC System Manager-Utility Helicopters

United States Army Aviation Center

The Sirkorsky UH-60A Black Hawk is the United States Army's newest Utility Helicopter.  The Black Hawk was designed and developed to replace the UH-1H Iroquois for assault, air cavalry, and aeromedical evacuation missions (See Figure 1).  The UH-60A carries the Infantry squad of 11 men and their equipment as a basic load.  Particular emphasis during development was devoted to reducing vulnerability, improving crashworthiness and maintainability.  An essential aspect to fielding of any weapon system is insuring that all aspects of training on the new system have been considered.  The Black Hawk was issued to operational units in May 1979 and achieved Initial Operational Capability on 4 November of that year.  At that time, all the resident schools were open and functioning and most parts of the "training package" had been completed.  Training is, of course, a never ending process and so there is still much to be done with the UH-60A, especially in the areas of flight simulation, continuation training, providing training materials for units in the field and updating the various training devices and literature presently in use.

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TARGETS FOR THE EIGHTIES

Martin C. Fisher

LTC, US Army

The proof of combat readiness has been, and remains, the demonstrated ability of a tactical unit to move, shoot and communicate.  Modern technology is providing the Army with weapon systems that have stabilized firing platforms (so as to shoot on the move) and the capability to engage target day or night in all weather conditions.  Crews of these modern weapon systems should train on ranges that challenge them to identify and decisively engage the dominant threat vehicle from a multiple array.  Proof of crew proficiency is a hit on the crucial target by the correct threat defeating munition.  Training, however, will not be enhanced until the U.S. Army replaces current nondescript two dimensional plywood targets, immobile U.S. tank hulks and anti-aircraft targets that are incapable of providing realism and threat vehicle identification with targets that provide realistic size, shape and thermal characteristics.

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CONTRACTOR DEVELOPED TRAINING PACKAGES

ARE THEY ADEQUATE?

Mr. Dennis S. Duke

Education Specialist

Mr. Ralph D. Lee

Training Specialist

Naval Training Equipment Center

Currently, the Department of Defense is procuring the most sophisticated weapons systems in the history of this country.  Unfortunately, this is resulting in a rather serious problem in that current technological developments are vastly outpacing educational systems approaches.  Studies reveal that a wide gap is becoming evident between the skills possessed by the high school graduates and their ability to deal with complex weapons systems.  From this, it can be deduced that increased emphasis must be placed upon the design and development of educational and training methodologies for these systems.  Innovative and motivating training data, which includes everything from simple handbooks to complicated scenarios, must be provided by the contractors concurrently with the piece of equipment.  In addition, this data must meet the needs of the target audience in the military today.

Ideally, these materials are to be designed in compliance with the Instructional Systems Development (ISD) model and must meet specifications required by Data Item Descriptions (DIDs) which vary from contract to contract.  In addition, whenever possible these materials should be performance-based and criterion referenced.

Unfortunately, past experience has shown that many initial deliverable items which are being produced under contract to the government are less than adequate training tools and do not meet the basic requirements of the DIDs or the ISD model.  There exists many possible reasons for this inadequacy ranging from poorly written specifications, and thus different interpretations, to a lack of expertise in educational foundations and technical writing.  From a review of various training packages delivered by several contractors, one can conclude that although contractor personnel who develop training material possess a great deal of technical expertise and subject matter knowledge, many do not apply the fundamental skills of education theory and technical writing.  This results in poorly written training deliverables and ineffective communication concerning educational requirements.

This paper will highlight and investigate the problems that the authors have experienced in the area of evaluation and acceptance of technical weapons systems training material.  It will also offer suggestions as to what government contractors, as well as the government, may do in order to produce and deliver a better quality product in a much more cost-effective and expeditious manner.

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TRAINING THE FIELD ARTILLERY CANNON SYSTEM

Arthur S. Shrader

Field Artillery units are preparing for combat in a training environment that is often characterized as hostile.  One of the factors contributing to this difficult training environment is the availability of training resources needed to achieve and maintain a high state of combat readiness.  These resources include personnel, budget, time, fuel, repair parts and a suitable location to conduct realistic training.

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SIMULATION IN THE CANADIAN FORCES

Commodore Gordon L. Edwards

Director General Military Plans and Operations

National Defense Headquarters

The Canadian Armed Forces stress the use of simulation to both increase effectiveness and realism, and reduce costs associated with military training.  An integrated approach to the use of simulation across all three Services ensures that the maximum benefit is derived from new technology.

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THE NATIONAL TRAINING CENTER

A TOTAL EXPERIENCE TRAINING CENTER

Richard C. Dickson, Senior Staff Scientist

Science Applications, Inc.

National Training Center Project Office

Now more than ever the U.S. Army must be prepared to survive and win in battle.  This paper discusses this necessity and how the Army is meeting this need by the development of the National Training Center.  An overview is presented on the training, evaluation, and control concepts of the National Training Center and how these concepts have been implemented by the NTC Instrumentation System.

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PIERSIDE COMBAT SYSTEMS TRAINING WITH THE 20B4

Lawrence J. Ryttter, Robert. E. Jones, Bruce E. Packham

Program Managers and Project Engineer

AAI Corporation

Pierside combat systems training is a way to supplement the shore based training facilities and the at-sea exercised which are so necessary to keep a combat team at a high level of proficiency.  This paper presents how pierside training is being accomplished with the use of the Device 20B4, Mobile Combat systems Trainer.  The 20B4 provides the capability for conducting individual operator and team training on the crew's ownship through stimulation of the installed operational equipment.  The user can develop, modify, expand, and replay training exercises quickly through a combination of real-time and off-line software routines.  The system presents a total electronic warfare environment to a wide range of sensors with a cost effective adaptability to the sensors and threats.  The mobility of the 20B4 enables the system to be moved wherever the ships are located to achieve improved fleet readiness through realistic training and checkout.

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FIRING BATTERY TRAINER

Mr. Christopher Savinell, Jr.

Design Engineer

AAI Corporation

A fundamental problem in the training of artillery crews is the cost of ammunition, fuel and range facilities used in live fire training.  Current dry fire training is slow and monotonous because error sources can only be detected by stopping the exercise after each weapon laying and visually inspecting the various sighting and ammunition preparation functions.  Clearly, there is a need for a training device which provides for a real-time assessment of weapon laying and ammo preparation errors and which is compatible with current live and dry fire training techniques.  This paper describes the AAI Firing Battery Trainer, a device capable of training each crew member of a firing battery in the weapon-laying and ammo preparation operations.

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EFFICIENT, ACCURATE WEAPON SCORING AGAINST MOBILE THREATS IN THE REAL-TIME SIMULATED COMBAT ENVIRONMENT

Captain Raymond L. Sheen

Aerospace Engineer

Air Force Human Resources Laboratory

With the advent of real-time interactive combat simulation on the Advanced Simulator for Pilot Training (ASPT), a requirement for determining weapon effectiveness against moving threats was established.  Traditional methods either required an excessive amount of computer memory or were restricted to low fidelity approximations.  An innovative approach to this problem was developed for ASPT.  An iterative approach utilizing both an aerodynamic model, based upon the weapon ballistics, and the threat position time history serves as a framework for this method.  An exact determination of weapon impact or miss can be made through the use of kinetics and calculus.  This method allows real-time interactive scenarios that include evasive maneuvers and ECM tactics, yet requires very little computer memory and execution time.  This capability is essential for effective and realistic combat simulation.

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THE M58A1 TRAINING AID, PERSONAL DECONTAMINATION KIT

Mr. James M. Szachta

Project Engineer

U.S. Army ARRADCOM

The M258A1 Kit is a personal decontamination system which provides to the individual soldier the capability of decontaminating skin areas exposed to chemical agents.  The M258A1 Kit is specifically designed for training troops in the use of the M258A1 Kit.  The original design of the kits contained short-comings and deficiencies: (1) difficulty in the preparation of the chemicals for use; (2) lack of a facial decontamination capability; (3) availability of only one complete decontamination per kit; (4) unreasonable amount of training required for proficiency.  Studies indicated that these deficiencies could be overcome by repackaging the chemicals into a towelette configuration hermetically sealed in a laminated plastic-foil packet.  A product improvement effort was initiated and the product improved kit had the following benefits: (1) safer, easier, and faster to use; (2) operational equivalence to the original kit plus partial facial decon and the capability to decontaminate personal equipment; (3) three complete decontamination systems per kit; (4) reduced costs.

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