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ROLE OF THE JOINT LOGISTICS COMMANDERS

JOINT TECHNICAL COORDINATING GROUP

ON SIMULATORS AND TRAINING DEVICES (JTCG-STD)

Lieutenant Colonel George R. Winters, II, USAF

Headquarters Air Force Systems Command

Doctor Ronald Hofer

Project Manager for Training Devices, U.S. Army

John Schreiber

Naval Air Systems Command

Willard D. Haugen

Ogden Air Logistics Center, Air Force Logistics Command

The Joint Logistics Commanders (JLC) are composed of the commanders of the US Army Material Readiness and Development Command, Air Force Logistics Command, and Air Force Systems Command as well as the Chief of Naval Material.  The JLC meet regularly with the Deputy Secretary of Defense.  Their purpose is to resolve common concerns and, where possible, to achieve efficiencies by combining efforts.  The day-to-day activities of the JLC are carried out by joint panels and groups.

One such group is the Joint Technical Coordinating Group on Simulators and Training Devices (JTCG-STD).  Its purpose, as stated in its charter from the JLC, is to identify opportunities to coordinate or consolidate programs in research and development, acquisition, and operation and support of training devices and to implement plans to reduce the cost and/or increase the effectiveness of military simulators and training devices.

That is a large order.  To accomplish it requires breaking it into manageable tasks.  Each year the JTCG-STD will review proposals for efforts that have high payoffs to two or more services.  The best of these will be chosen to be presented to the JLC as candidates for JLC sponsorship.  JLC sponsored tasks will be managed by a single command with assistance from the others.

The first three tasks chosen for JLC sponsorship are to develop (1) a standard Defense Mapping Agency database transformation program, (2) a library of standard electronic warfare threat databases, and (3) standard training device software acquisition management procedures.  The efforts will commence in FY 84 and FY 85.  Future initiatives for JLC sponsorship are solicited, and the method for submitting them to the JTCG-STD is outlined.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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GETTING USER REQUIREMENTS INTO THE

DEVELOPMENT-TO-DELIVERY LOOP

Frederic W. Snyder

Boeing Military Airplane Company

Many who coordinate with military users of training systems are aware that some trainers fail to satisfy important user requirements.  Conscientious people working in the requirement-to-delivery loop many never intentionally neglect or distort end-user needs.  However, such oversight or misunderstanding does occur within the operations of complex military, government, and industry organizations.  The character of formal and informal information flows within and between these organizations as they relate to identification, establishment and communication of requirements hold the key to improved procedures.  What is recommended is consideration for increased emphasis on the collection and use of unfiltered need statements of lower echelon users during the system development-to-delivery process.  This envisioned emphasis would also include information feed-back loops to the end-user culminating in a user orientation manual covering the intended purpose of the trainer, a brief history of the system development, and training, logistics support, and maintenance philosophies.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ENHANCING THE COMPUTER GENERATED ILLUSION

Neal L. Mayer and Michael A. Cosman

Evans & Sutherland Computer Corporation

The usefulness of the image produced by a CIG system is not well characterized by just the number of edges or surfaces displayed, but is a strong function of the effectiveness with which the scene details provide visual cues.  This paper presents some examples of what can be achieved using hardware capabilities and modeling techniques to enhance the ability of the CIG to present useful scene detail.

Previous CIG systems changed scene details when their image size was small enough so as not to be distracting to the observer.  Recently introduced system capabilities allow scene details to evolve in a more continuous, smooth, and independent manner.  By using these capabilities, details need not be included in the scene until they are of visual importance.  A hierarchical management structure is utilized to provide efficient database culling and level of detail control.  This enables databases with thousands of square miles, many levels of detail, and thousands of surfaces per square mile to be processed efficiently by the image generator.  Such databases, rich in two- and three-dimensional textural features, can be efficiently produced by using automated generation procedures that require a minimum of modeler effort.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SIMPLIFIED SCENE MODELING USING CURVED

SURFACES AND TEXTURING

Dr. Geoffrey Y. Gardner, Staff Scientist

Bob Gelman, Software Engineer

Research and Development Center

Grumman Aerospace Corporation

Constructing a scene database for current computer image generation systems is a costly and time-consuming task.  Thousands of edges must be defined by positioning the end points, or vertices, of each edge.  In addition, edges bounding a common surface or face must be linked in a list.  Data for each face must include information of a normal vector, and data for faces representing curved objects must include information for normal interpolation to simulate smooth shading across the object.  This paper describes a more efficient scene model that is easier to construct and yet produces a more faithful representation of the real world.  Scene geometry is modeled by quadric surfaces bounded by planes.  Scene detail is modeled by a mathematical texturing function, which modulates surface shading intensity and translucence.  The paper describes how the new model simplifies modeling terrain, cultural features, moving targets, and special effects.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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EXPLODING TECHNIQUES FOR CIG OBJECTS*

John Booker**, Michael Collery, Charles Csuri and David Zeltzer

Computer Graphics Research Group

The Ohio State University

This paper will present programming techniques and mathematical algorithms for producing animated sequences of exploding objects such as building and ship targets.  The visual effect has obvious extension for application in simulation of combat conditions.  Potential applications include simulation of weapons effects on real-time CIG visual systems.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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*Supported by Navy contract N61339-8-OC-0008

**Naval Training Equipment Center N-74, Orlando, Florida

CSI–A NEW WAY TO REALISTIC VISUAL SIMULATION

Dr. Robert Stickel

Honeywell GmbH Maintal/Germany

A new fully digital visual simulation principle (computer synthesized imagery CSI) is described that uses digitized image components as terrain, target, sight reticle pattern, and shell tracer.  By means of a computer controlled composition unit a synthesis of the components is carried out that leads to a realistic image of the battlefield.  Outlook is given for further upgrades of the moderate cost principle as well as hints for possible applications.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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GROUND FORCES TRAINING DEVICES AND TECHNIQUES–

WARSAW PACT COUNTRIES

Helen S. Harrington

United States Army Foreign Science and Technology Center

This paper reviews recently developed training devices and techniques used by the Warsaw Pact countries (WRC) to improve the combat readiness and effectiveness of their ground forces.  Most of these devices are relatively simple, straightforward, and tailored to the tactical doctrine of the Warsaw Pact forces; however, Soviet literature has recently mentioned the use of laser simulation equipment as a training device for gunnery training.  The use of mockups and of special simulation equipment and techniques is emphasized, particularly in tank gunnery, chemical-biological-radiological, and air-mobile-troop training.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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MACE/MICRO-DISC–A MICROCOMPUTER-VIDEODISC BATTLE SIMULATION SYSTEM

Dr. Lawrence T. Brekka

Manager, Training Systems

The BDM Corporation

Louis H. Charity

Assistant Vice President, Tactical Systems

The BDM Corporation

A new, effective, and low-cost battalion (BN)-level battle simulation system, the MACE/Micro-Disc System, has been developed under the sponsorship of the US Army Combined Arms Training Development Activity (CATRADA) at Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas.  The MACE simulation is an improved version of the Army’s Computer Assisted Map Maneuver Simulation I (CAMMS-I), modified to operate on a low cost personal microcomputer-videodisc (Micro-Disc) system.  Map boards are replaced with military maps stored on a videodisc and displayed on color monitors.  Unit location, status and action are shown in a graphical map overlay generated by the microcomputers.  Operators/analysts can examine the simulated battle situation by scrolling the map using a joystick.  The overlay is keyed to map coordinates and scrolls with it.  In addition, the operator can zoom to focus on a selected area.  The areas displayed can range from 4 to 40 km on a side.  The Micro-Disc System employs distributed processing supported by multiple personal microcomputers and videodisc players sharing a common hard disk mass storage unit.  This distributed processing architecture and local area networking permits graceful degradation in the event of failure of one of the microcomputers; an exercise can continue to function with other microcomputers in the system performing the functions of the disabled microcomputer.  Local area networking also permits easy expansion of the system for more complex simulations.  Operational tests of the system by the 9^th Infantry Division at Ft. Lewis, Washington have produced results exceeding expectations.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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OVERVIEW OF AN ONBOARD OPERATIONAL TRAINING DEVICE

Joseph Ricci, Jr.

Submarine Signal Division, Raytheon Company

In order to optimize the capability of today’s ASW equipment, an operator must be proficient in both the technical and operational aspects of system employment.  Providing adequate training to personnel, however, is straining present resources.  An effective onboard ASW training and readiness assessment capability that uses available shipboard personnel and equipment is one way of meeting future training needs.  This paper provides an overview of an onboard training device that is now installed aboard SSBN submarines.  The various issues and lessons learned during system definition, development and fleet evaluation will be discussed, and the system approach and implementation will be described.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THERMAL SIGNATURE TARGETS FOR GUNNERY TRAINING

Dr. Robert T. Dybas

Project Director

PM-TRADE

The United States Army has achieved a significant advantage over the Warsaw Pact forces in the area of tank gunnery under conditions of darkness, smoke, fog, and rain.  This advantage has been gained through the development of the tank thermal sight.  The ambient temperature, under virtually all environmental conditions, including smoke and darkness.  Since the Soviets are particularly adept at fighting under cover of smoke, the ability of U.S. gunners to acquire a high skill level in the use of the thermal sight is imperative to allow rapid acquisition and identification of enemy vehicles and personnel.

Gunnery training under adverse conditions of darkness, smoke, fog, and rain are now being conducted with the aid of a thermal signature target developed through PM-TRADE.  The background leading to the development of a Thermal Signature Target as well as a detailed description of a modular, full-scale tank Thermal target system is presented.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE VIEW FROM THE OTHER END OF THE MICROSCOPE

OR

I’D RATHER BE FLYING

Lieutenant Colonel Stephen R. Olsen

Deputy Chief, Support Systems Division

Air Force Test and Evaluation Center

Kirkland Air Force Base

For years we have looked at the pilot, and (in our infinite wisdom), have decided among ourselves that the more a simulator looks, feels and smells like an aircraft the more capable a training device it will be.  Granted, we have made great leaps forward in computer, visual and motion system technology, and convinced ourselves and many others of the great future of aircrew training devices.  However, somewhere along the way to selling ourselves and the rest of the world, we forgot to convince the pilot.  This paper takes a figurative walk through the last 20 years in the simulator world.  It looks “back through the microscope” from the pilot’s point of view.  The accusation is that (despite our good intentions) we have l) overestimated the simulator’s capabilities; 2) failed to plan adequately for its use; 3) overemphasized fidelity in the place of training capability; and 4) overcomplicated these devises by trying to incorporate too many “whistles and bells.”  In doing so we have developed pilots who aren’t fighting to “fly” simulators.  The basic recommendation is that we as developers, buyers, and managers of aircrew training programs might better serve the pilot’s and our needs if we did a better job looking at the simulator as part of a total training program rather than as an end in itself.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE USER’S ROLE IN MAJOR TRAINING SYSTEM ACQUISITIONS

AS PERCEIVED BY THE DEVELOPER

George C. Barcus

Education Specialist

Naval Training Equipment Center

The purpose of this paper is to delineate the various responsibilities and interrelationships of the agencies involved in the acquisition of a major training system.  As the title suggests, this paper will emphasize the role of the user as perceived by the material developer.  Discussed within the paper will be these interrelationships as they exist with a major Army training system acquisition.  The participants will be identified, the four phases of the acquisition process will be presented and a discussion of the role of the user in this process will be highlighted.  Also covered will be the user’s role in the development of Front-End Analysis (FEA) materials and Task and Skills Analysis (TASA) documentation.  In addition, a common vocabulary will be included to establish a basis of understanding and suggestions will be offered on problems which need heightened interest and tracking during the design, development and acquisition processes.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SAVE OUR SIMULATORS (SOS)

A DISTRESS CALL FROM AN OPERATIONAL USER

Commander Kevin M. Smith, USNR

COMFITAEWWINGPAC Staff

NAS Miramar

This paper discusses some of the problems experienced by operational users in their efforts to obtain maximum training benefit from Advanced Flight Simulators.  The major shortcomings of simulation training identified here are not the result of state-of-the-art technology limitations.  In fact, many of the training difficulties encountered by simulator users today may have been avoided if greater attention had been given to defining Mission and Task Requirements during simulator design.  This suggested emphasis on Mission indicates that a change of mind-set is needed that focuses on explicit operational requirements as well as the more conventional technical approach.  After analysis of typical simulator training problems, it is concluded that simulation training could benefit substantially through greater consideration to front-end analysis during simulator design, and by providing training personnel with well designed instructional programs that includes an objective Performance Measurement System.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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IDENTIFYING NECESSARY GOALS AND OBJECTIVES FOR TRAINING SYSTEMS–A NEEDS ASSESSMENT APPROACH

Charles A. Beagles

Analysis and Design Division

Naval Training Equipment Center

Dee H. Andrews

Human Factors Laboratory

Naval Training Equipment Center

This paper introduces a candidate needs assessment model that has unique potential for identifying military training needs.  During the training planning process, planners frequently and inadvertently confuse training strategies (means) with training results (ends).  One reason for this confusion is the inherent difficulty in accurately specifying military training needs.  The complex nature of military training needs is explored and the potential benefit of the Organizational Elements Model as a planning tool is presented.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE COST-EFFECTIVENESS OF MILITARY TRAINING

Jesse Orlansky and Joseph String

Institute for Defense Analyses

Captain Paul R. Chatelier, USN

Office of the Secretary of Defense

The use of flight simulators, computer-based instruction and maintenance training simulators for training is evaluated on the basis of their effectiveness and cost.  Flight simulators are cost-effective, compared to the use of aircraft, for training; so are maintenance training simulators compared to actual equipment trainers.  Computer-based instruction is as effective as conventional instruction; comparable cost data are not yet available, so one cannot say whether it is also cost-effective.  These three methods of training are not more effective than the methods to which they were compared, except for small improvements in a few cases.  It is possible they could be made more effective if cost savings were not a major goal, but this remains to be determined.  The goal of analyses of training should be an ability to perform trade-offs of the effectiveness and costs of new methods of training, but no such trade-offs have yet been made.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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RAM AND SUPPORT CONSIDERATIONS IN ARMY TRAINING DEVICE DEVELOPMENT

Phillip E. Sprinkle

Chief, Product Assurance and Test Branch

United States Army, PM TRADE

Keith H. Gardner

Product Assurance Test Engineer

United States Army, PM TRADE

Francis King

Manager, Support Engineering

Science Applications, Inc.

Although reliability, availability and maintainability (RAM) and system support policies for Army equipment in general are fairly well defined in such documents as AR 700-127 and AR 702-3 or various MIL STD’s, there is little that recognizes unique RAM and support considerations that apply to training systems.  The authors identify some of these considerations, which, though largely unique to training systems, are generic to most training systems.  They then discuss the impact of these considerations, with emphasis on how RAM specification and growth and support management differ from that of the combat systems around whose needs AR 702-3 and the MIL STD’s are principally modeled.  The authors develop specific conclusions as to policy and practice distinctions from the combat systems model that should be made in training systems development programs.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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LOW COST AIRCREW TRAINING SYSTEMS

Arthur S. Blaiwes, Ph.D.

Naval Training Equipment Center

Two prototype low-cost systems have been developed for aircrew training.  These systems provide instruction in cockpit procedures and various flight tasks at approximately one quarter the cost of conventional training approaches.  Savings are estimated to be $1.5 million for one of the low-cost systems, a cockpit procedures trainer for the SH-3H aircraft; $3.2 million savings are estimated for the other low-cost system, a part task trainer for the EA-3B aircraft.  This report discusses the cost-saving approaches and the acceptability and cost effectiveness associated with these two developments.  Efforts to translate the low-cost approaches to several “follow-on” production systems are discussed.  Research and development plans for further improving low-cost training technologies also are described.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TACTICAL GROUND ATTACK; ON THE TRANSFER OF TRAINING FROM FLIGHT SIMULATOR TO OPERATIONAL RED FLAG RANGE EXERCISE

Ronald Hughes, Rebecca Brooks, Douglas Graham, Ray Sheen, and Tom Dickens

Operations Training Division

Air Force Human Resources Laboratory

Williams Air Force Base

A-10 pilots who rehearsed surface attack skills under high threat conditions in a flight simulator survived a significantly higher proportion of total RED FLAG missions than did pilots who did not receive the simulator training.  These data support the notion that simulator training may have a significant influence upon aircrew survivability in high-density ground threat environments.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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EVALUATION OF THE ARMY MAINTENANCE TRAINING AND EVALUATION SIMULATION SYSTEMS (AMTESS)

Robert A. Evans, Ph.D. and Angelo Mirabella, Ph.D., Research Psychologists

US Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

AMTESS is the Army’s attempt to develop an operational model and framework for acquiring modularized, generic simulation systems for maintenance training.  More broadly, the AMTESS program is designed to lead toward a proven, systematized, institutionalized approach to task analysis, training requirement analysis, and fidelity analysis in support of training device acquisition.  It is also designed to produce a model hardware configuration, which includes a common two-dimensional display subsystem and a unique three-dimensional hardware subsystem.  Two prototype versions of the hardware model which vary along a number of significant dimensions (e.g., passive vs. interactive use of video) are currently being evaluated for their transfer of training effectiveness at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland.  Transfer of training is being assessed on operational equipment using specially modified versions of current performance tests, versions designed to provide a rich, detailed data based.  The database will support assessments of overall prototype effectiveness as well as preliminary assessments of the effectiveness of specific prototype features.  The results of these efforts will support initial implementation of AMTESS and at the same time will contribute towards a longer-range objective of developing an operational model of device acquisition.  In this paper, the AMTESS prototypes will be described, along with plans and procedures for their evaluation.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ARI’s RESEARCH PROGRAM TO DETERMINE TRAINING

SIMULATOR CHARACTERISTICS

Robert T. Hays, Ph.D., Research Psychologist

US Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

The Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (ABI) is developing a database on the relationship between training simulator characteristics – in particular fidelity and training effectiveness.  In order to guide and organize the collection of empirical data for the database, a two-factor definition of simulator fidelity was chosen.  The definition was limited to physical and functional similarity to the actual equipment.  Several research efforts, using this definition, are currently being conducted or have just reached completion.  This paper presents the results, to date, of completed research efforts, the anticipated results of ongoing efforts, and plans for future efforts.  The goal of these efforts is to produce a database, which may serve as the foundation for the development of systematic guidance to support the specification of training device characteristics.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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IMPLEMENTATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES ON MAINTENANCE TRAINERS

Larry Rude, Chief Engineer

Honeywell Inc.

SMSgt. William Lippke

Research and Development Engineering Technician

F-16 System Program Office, Wright Patterson Air Force Base

Automated instruction aids on a training device can significantly enhance the effectiveness of the device.  However, the requirements for these aids (Instructional Features) must be consistent with the intended use of the trainer.  If they are not consistent, the system implemented may be either more complex than required, or totally inadequate.  This paper describes the development of Instructional Features where this inconsistency did exist.  In this case the general processing requirements for student monitoring, student feedback, instructor reports and instructor controls were established.  However, the specific in-classroom use of each was not.  When the specific requirements were established, they were significantly less than the general processing requirements implied.  The system design did meet both the general and specific requirements.  However, a simpler approach would have satisfied the actually used Instructional Features.  This clearly shows the need to consider the specific classroom use of Instructional Features not just the general processing requirements.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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                AUTOMATED PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT

AN OVERVIEW AND ASSESSMENT

Joseph L. Dickman

Sperry Systems Management

This paper presents a case for greater utilization of automated performance measurement (APM) in flight simulators.  The paper mentions the beginnings of APM, and describes in some detail the current variations, such as checkrides, automissions, parameter recording, procedure monitoring, and others.  It discusses the attitude toward APM of different users, with particular reference to each of the identified variations.  Finally, it presents conclusions designed to improve users’ understanding of APM and increase appreciation of how it can assist instructors.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TACTICAL TRAINING METHODLOGIES FOR GROUND FORCES COMMAND CENTER AND THEIR IMPLEMENTATION

Arie Leider

Head, Trainers and Simulators Department

Elbit Computers Ltd.

This paper deals with four methodologies for the tactical training of commanding officers and their staff officers at the regimental and division levels.  It is also possible to extend the training methodologies to the corps level.

Three models for the system structure are discussed, models with which it is possible to implement the training methodologies.  Training methodologies include:

1)       Field training while using real command centers or their replicas.

2)       Two training methods which include usage of rooms representing command centers.

3)       Interaction of the training staff with a computer-based system which includes only tactical and data displays.

Among the described models are:

Model A:  A model based on preplanned master programs, and integrated with a bank of master events.

Model B:  Controlled dynamic battle model, unequivocal (i.e., no “haze” of battle). This model includes more freedom on the part of the training management in exercise execution, especially at the stage of battle conduct.

Model C:  Controlled dynamic battle model, with statistical “modulations”.  This model is more complex, and allows the introduction of more realism regarding the manner in which data is received from the field.  It is more useful in two-sided exercises.

Important factors that influence the implementation and selection of the models are the purpose of the training device, problematical subjects, type of the specific exercises, the device staff and their level.  For example, if use of the system is to be made only for training within the divisional framework, or if training is done in a larger framework, are the exercises mostly one-sided wherein exercise management plays the role of the enemy, or are they two-sided?

This paper analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the models according to a number of parameters specifying the training requirements.  In addition, a description for possible implementation of the models is discussed to specifically describe the realization for Models A and B.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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USE OF WORD PROCESSING IN DATA DEVELOPMENT AND REVIEW

Richard W. Woolsey, Acquisition Director

Naval Training Equipment Center

Frederick F. Beck, Training Systems Engineering Manager

Honeywell Inc.

With the widespread availability of word processing within businesses, the government and the homes of many Engineers, it has become increasingly apparent that this tool could be used effectively to reduce the high costs of contractual data preparation and review while simultaneously improving the quality of this data.  This paper addresses the use of word processing on an NTEC program.  The primary objective is to reduce the total cost and elapsed time of the preparation-through-acceptance (PTA) cycle of the contractual documents.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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BASELINED SOFTWARE CONFIGURATION MANAGEMENT–

AN AUTOMATED APPROACH

  Mark M. Hargrove

Software Support Facility Branch

(Code N-401)

Naval Training Equipment Center

Software intensive training equipment has become the normalcy for current and foreseeable future training equipment procurements.  Software support for these software intensive devices is an ever-increasing burden, which must be undertaken by the most efficient managers possible.  Aid for modification software support has been addressed by software development tools that facilitate modifications, testing and baseline configuration management of these software intense devices.  This paper addresses the phase of software support, configuration management, which is often neglected or given too little priority until the day of reckoning arrives; the software configuration loss or error.  A tightly controlled software configuration of a software intensive device is perhaps as important as the configured software itself.  Software configuration control is addressed in this paper as a crucial element of the life-cycle support effort.  A configuration control methodology which maintains visibility and complete software modification audit capabilities is discussed.  An automation of this methodology is presented which affords complete and accurate control for modification processing of a baseline software configuration.  The entire automated process extends from the receipt of a modified software component to the installation and tracking of a newly configured and tested software release.  Additionally, the capabilities for multiple device software configuration tracking with a centralized procedure and support environment is explained based on actual procedures currently in use at the NTEC Software Support Facility (SSF) which is located at the NTEC Annex at Herndon, Orlando, Florida.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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USING SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT FACILITIES TO IMPROVE SOFTWARE QUALITY

S. J. Trencansky, D. W. Meehl and H. C. Romine

The Singer Company, Link Flight Simulation Division

A major problem exists in the development of current state-of-the-art weapons system trainers in the quality of the software provided.  Since the software for a given trainer is typically generated on the deliverable computer system for the trainer a wide variance in the tools available to support the design and development of the software exists from project to project.

The specification requirement of a high order language (FORTRAN) has led to the evolution of software development facilities at various simulator manufacturers.  While these have immediate impact in reducing the ongoing programs, their most significant impact is that the software delivered using them is significantly improved.

The paper explains what was experienced when the SDF concept was applied to some current contracts.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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360 DEGREES VISUAL TARGET SIMULATION FOR OUTDOOR FIELD TRAINING

Sean Amour, Program Manager

Brunswick Corporation

Joseph A. LaRussa, VP Advanced Engineering

Farrand Optical Co., Inc.

A dynamic target simulation system design is described which uses the real world as background scene.  An instructor driven threat scenario is projected on a beamsplitter combiner.  A collimating lens system makes the target appear as part of the real world viewed through the beamsplitter.  High-resolution target signatures are obtained by shrinking 525 raster lines down to a minimum area.  A 360-degree visual hemisphere is provided by synchronization of gunner’s line of sight and location of the simulated target in space.  The gunner’s line of sight is fed to the microcomputer control via an electromagnetic sensor.  An occultation system is provided for the target to disappear as it moves behind trees or mountains.  Scoring capability is also provided, and events may be stored and played back for training/review at a later date.  Since the system is portable and relatively inexpensive, it will readily lend itself as a visual target simulator for outdoor field training in antiarmor (e.g., DRAGON and TOW) and air defense weapons (E.G., STINGER and CHAPARRAL).

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE TREND TOWARDS AREA OF INTEREST IN VISUAL SIMULATION TECHNOLOGY

Dr. A. Michael Spooner, Head

Advanced Simulation Concepts Laboratory

Naval Training Equipment Center

The challenge of providing a cost and training effective wide field of view, high detail density visual environment to the trainee in a flight simulator is being answered by developments in both the generation and display of visual imagery.  To overcome the inefficiency and cost of filling the large field of view using multiple television projectors giving butted images, various techniques are being developed for concentrating high image detail in an area of interest (AOI) which is usually of high resolution and set within a larger field of view of low resolution.  This paper reviews the advantages and disadvantages of the various AOI techniques including an AOI that is tracked with a target, tracked with head attitude, and eye tracked.  Particular reference is made to recent Navy, Air Force and Army developments.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE TECHNICAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE TACTICAL COMBAT TRAINER DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

James D. Basinger and John M. Wilson

Aeronautical Systems Division

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

Robert A. Fisher, Singer Company

Link Division

Project 2360, the Tactical Combat Trainer (TCT), was an Air Force Engineering Development Program to develop two prototype Weapon System Trainers (WST) for training A-10, F-15, and F-16 pilots for combat.  Each prototype was to consist of two visual simulation systems integrated with two previously manufactured Operation Flight Trainers (OFT) to form single WST.  The two separate cockpit stations would permit two pilots to “fly” mutual support missions or as opponents in air-to-air combat.  The WST was designed to provide full mission training for air-to-air and air-to-surface combat tasks.  The TCT prototypes were being developed under contract by the General Electric Company and the Singer Company for a “fly off” to select a production contractor.  Approximately two years into the program, these contracts were terminated due to USAF budget problems.  Before termination, however, important studies and developments were completed in the visual simulation area by each contractor.  Both Singer and GE proposed an Area-of-Interest (AOI) visual system and used Computer Image Generation (CIG).  The General Electric approach was based upon a head-slaved AOI infinity image display.  The Singer-Link approach was based upon an eye-slaved AOI projected on a dome.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DATABASE GENERATION SYSTEM FOR COMPUTER GENERATED IMAGES AND DIGITAL RADAR LANDMASS SIMULATION SYSTEMS

Lt. Col. Manfred Haas

Diether Elflein and Peter Gueldenpfennig

This paper deals with a semi-automatic, interactive system to generate databases from Digital Landmass System (DLMS) Data, for Computer Generated/Image Visual Systems (CGIVS) and for Digital Radar Landmass Simulation (DRLMS) Systems.

Terrain information and certain culture features can be gained from DLMS data automatically for CGIVS and DLRMS databases.  Additional information is prepared by interactive methods, including the use of model library for CGI databases developed by batch procedures.  Databases can also be developed solely by batch procedures.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ANALYSIS OF FIDELITY REQUIREMENTS FOR SIMULATED ELECTRONIC MAINTENANCE TRAINING EQUIPMENT

Dr. L. Bruce McDonald

Grace P. Waldrop

McDonald & Associates, Inc.

Dr. Richard Reynolds

Human Factors Laboratory

Naval Training Equipment Center

Maintenance training simulators have proven to afford equal or superior training at a lower life cycle cost than actual equipment, trainers when teaching troubleshooting based on front panel indications, failure symptoms and some in-drawer visual indicators.  The purpose of the study was to determine the effects of two-dimensional and three-dimensional fidelity of simulation and three levels of reduced accessibility to test points during training, on student trouble-shooting performance while locating faults at the component level.  A total of 186 students were observed and tested in the ET Splice modules of a Navy Basic Electricity and Electronics course.  Conclusions are drawn about the relative training effectiveness of simulated and actual boards and recommendations are made in selecting active test points on simulated printed circuit boars.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE INTEGRATION OF VISEODISC, CAI, AND 3D SIMULATION FOR SKILLS TRAINING

James R. Stonge, Instructional Systems Engineer

Grumman Aerospace Corporation

Training in maintenance skills has become increasingly more important as the cost of replacement parts and expenditures for maintenance personnel have risen.  More effective and efficient skills training has been identified as a means to limit costs through fewer false repairs, shorter down time, and decreased number s of personnel required for maintenance.  Advocates have championed various systems and devices for this training, to include in different forms: actual equipment, flat panel simulators, three-dimensional simulators, videodisc, and computer assisted instruction.  This paper discussed the integration of interactive videodisc; computer generated images, and three-dimensional simulation in a total system concept for maintenance skills training.  Different types of maintenance skills are identified, along with the methods and techniques for training those skills.  Implementation of the methods and techniques in an integrated system is presented, to include the means for providing modeling, drill and techniques in an integrated system is presented, to include the means for providing modeling, drill and practice, cueing and prompting, feedback, and evaluation.  Two different systems are identified, rationale for the differences is provided, and the advantages each ahs in intended use is specified.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A COMPUTER-BASED JOB-AID FOR MAINTAINING COMPLEX MILITARY HARDWARE

David Stone, David Mudrick, and Lois Wilson

Hazeltine Corporation

The task of maintaining complex military hardware in the field has become a major problem facing all the military services.  Contributing to this problem are the mass of highly technical and instructionally inadequate manuals and the low reading ability and inexperience of many military technicians.  Solutions have been attempted in several areas, mostly at high cost and with little success.  One promising solution appears to be the use of computer-based job-aids for the technician in the field.  One such system is NOMAD (Navy On-board Maintenance Aiding Device), a prototype computer-based job-aid developed by Hazeltine Corporation’s TICCIT division and U.S. Navy personnel for shipboard maintenance of the Navy’s MK-86 fire-control system.  NOMAD has proved very successful in its initial tryout.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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LESSONS LEARNED IN THE APPLICATION OF SIMULATION TO

JET ENGINE MAINTENANCE TRAINING

T. J. Stillings and J. D. Riley

Honeywell Training & Control Systems Operation

M. T. Wagner, MSGT, USAF

Hill Air Force Base

Technical Training and the isolation and diagnosis of jet engine malfunctions has traditionally been accomplished using operational engine hardware, which has limited malfunction training.  Simulated aircraft maintenance training (SAMT) devices are being increasingly employed by the military to achieve more efficient and controlled instruction in maintenance procedures.  The F-16 engine diagnostic SAMT is comprised of simulated aircraft cockpit and test equipment control panels, an instructor station, and a computer simulation of the Pratt & Whitney F-100 engine.  The math model, which consists of a database of engine variables, with transients provided by simple algorithms, was found to provide completely realistic engine performance for maintenance training.  Through the model, students can practice trimming procedures, and diagnosis of a variety of engine component failures.  Valuable lessons were learned in regards to sources of data for database and algorithm development, database fidelity, and approaches to malfunction model development.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE FEASIBILITY OF EMPLOYING AN IN-COCKPIT DEVICE TO PROVIDE MOTION CUES TO THE PILOT OF A FLIGHT SIMULATOR

Frank M. Cardullo

State University of New York

Steve K. Butrimas

Naval Training Equipment Center

A study was undertaken to investigate the feasibility of providing motion simulation with an in-cockpit device rather than an external motion platform.  The conventional wisdom has deemed that it would not be feasible to provide the necessary stimulation of the vestibular apparatus because of insufficient excursion inherent in an in-cockpit device.  This paper addresses that issue in light of recent research that begins to clarify this interrelationship between the visual and vestibular systems in the perception of motion.  A novel approach is suggested which relies heavily on the coordination of the visual and vestibular systems.  In addition, experimental protocols are suggested by which the approach can be verified.  This study was originally performed for helicopter simulators but the technique is applicable to fighters as well and perhaps even to transport aircraft.

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PROTOTYPE SPECIFICATIONS TO SUPPORT HIGH RESOLUTION-SENSOR SIMULATORS

Ronald J. Pierce

Defense Mapping Agency Aerospace Center

The Defense Mapping Agency is developing a follow on Prototype Product Specification for Digital Data to support High-Resolution data requirements in the DOD.  The computer hardware technology is growing faster than the software technology to enable simulators to portray realism.  Both these technologies and the DOD requirements are growing much faster than DMA’s ability to produce the digital products required for the multiple applications.  The Prototype specification is an effort to narrow the gap of these technologies. 

This paper will discuss the development of the High-Resolution data Specifications; define and compare parameters of the current and Prototype data; describe the geographical area of coverage; and, discuss user evaluation and validation of the data content.

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SIMULATION METHODS FOR HIGH RESOLUTION ANALYSIS SONARS

J.A.H. Shaw and T.J. Hunter

Ferranti Computer Systems Ltd.

Training simulators for modern analysis sonar and sonobuoy processing equipment demand high accuracy target generators for maximum training value.  The essential requirement is for high frequency stability and resolution and a wide range of frequencies, whether these be representing discrete signals or forming modulating envelopes.  This requirement is due to the high resolution of such sonars where any instability or steps in the generated signals show on the analyzed signal and can confuse trainees.  A “Passive Acoustic Target” module has been developed which satisfies the above requirement.  The paper describes the features and the method of realization of the modules to satisfy the requirement.

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RANGE-DEPENDENT OCEAN ACOUSTIC TRANSMISSION LOSS CALCULATIONS IN A REAL-TIME FRAMEWORK

John F. Miller, Senior Systems Engineer

Link Simulation Systems Division of The Singer Company

Most anti-submarine warfare (ASW) trainers for either airborne or seaborne platforms require the simulation of ocean acoustic transmission loss to model the submarine signals received by sonobuoys or towed/hull arrays.  Current trainer software usually employs transmission loss calculations based on acoustic theories, which assume the ocean environment to be range-independent.  That is, these theories assume that such variables as water depth and the sound speed profile (ssp) do not change along the path of acoustic transmission.  Although such ocean modeling is not realistic, the final calculations have often been acceptable due to their high predictability.

With operational fleet equipment gaining in sophistication, the ocean acoustic software, which stimulates this equipment, must be refined.  The introduction of range-dependent transmission loss calculations is one of the most important refinements.  However, the associated theoretical problems are complex, and their solutions are difficult to implement practically, especially in simulators that require real-time software.

This paper discusses some of the complications that range-dependent ocean acoustic modeling introduces and uses a prototype model, the Multiple-Profile Configuration (MPC) Ocean Model, developed by the Link Simulation System Division of the Singer Company, to present specific methods of resolving these complications.

The MPC Ocean Model includes both off-line and on-line modules.  The former pre-calculates those databases that depend only on the gaming area to be used, and the latter calculates, in real-time, the transmission loss of specific range-dependent acoustic paths.  The on-line module includes such features as selective ray tracing for deep ocean calculations, normal-mode calculations for shallow ocean areas and simulation of seamount shadowing.  All are used within the framework of range-dependent sound speed, water depth, and bottom type.  This model is presently incorporated into a P3-C Orion, Weapon System Trainer.

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THE INTEGRATION OF MODELS USED FOR TRAINING EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS DERIVATION–THE INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT, RESEARCH DESIGN, AND SYSTEMS ENGINEERING PROCESSES

Annette L. Gnagy

Boeing Military Airplane Company

Presently, no set of algorithms has been developed which assesses all variables involved in deriving training device requirements.  While the Instructional Systems Development (ISD) process provides useful information for deriving requirements for those aspects of the trainer which are specific to aircraft configuration, it provides insufficient information for deriving “best method” of simulation and instructional feature requirements.  The Systems Engineering Process, on the other hand, is a generic guide and does not consider training variables.  If these processes are used concurrently, two separate databases–one training-related, one engineering-related–will evolve without any seeming correlation.  By adding research design, the effect of the training device design upon training effectiveness can be assessed.  By collecting the needed data based upon individual feature characteristics, rather than implementing a single process or set of algorithms to derive all feature requirements, the training equipment contractor can develop equipment maximizing training and cost-effectiveness.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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APPLICATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUES TO TEAM TRAINING

Dr. Frederick M. Ball

Principal Analyst/Group Manager

Analysis & Technology, Inc.

Current instructional systems development (ISD) techniques are not well equipped to identify and effectively provide for team training requirements.  While much research aimed at extending the ISD model to team training development is in progress, a systematic approach to meet near-term team training development needs is necessary.  This paper provides an overview of an approach we have formulated and used successfully to this end.  The approach is based on a functional analysis of the system goals/objectives, which the team performance in question supports.  The results are then represented systematically in a process model designed to capture the dynamic relationships between system conditions, and categorical team performances.  The model is used to develop scenario-based exercise guides, similar to instructor guides for classroom use, but designed to provide instructor guidance regarding training device employment in the administration of effective team training.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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COLLECTIVE FRONT-END ANALYSIS–A MISSION-BASED APPROACH

Bryan E. Brett

Senior Staff Scientist

Applied Science Associates, Inc.

Collective front-end analysis is the process by which the critical missions and collective tasks of a battalion are specified.  Collective tasks are units of work requiring two or more people for their completion.  A mission-based approach is employed in CFEA.  The CFEA process begins with specification of a battalion mission, proceeds to specification of battalion element missions, and ends with delineation and description of collective tasks.  The mission-based approach to CFEA is advantageous because it helps ensure a thorough listing of a unit’s collective tasks and provides a means of relating task criticality directly to a unit mission.  In order to reduce the workload on the user and help organize the massive amounts of data involved; user job aids were prepared.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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UNDERSEA WARFARE TRAINING AND READINESS ASSESSMENT

SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS

Bradford A. Becken, Manager of Engineering

Submarine Signal Division, Raytheon Company

Manpower and resource constraints over the next decade will force a reexamination of Navy training methods.  One change that can be predicted is a shift in emphasis from maintenance to operational training as advancing technology leads to more maintenance-free systems with greatly enhanced functional capabilities.  To assist in training approach trade-off, a better definition of the overall training system is required as well as a statement of training system operational requirements by warfare area.  To illustrate, an operational requirement is suggested for undersea warfare and the conclusion is drawn that increased emphasis should be placed on organic, onboard approaches to training as substitutes for current shore-side training methods.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ONBOARD TRAINING PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT–LESSONS LEARNED

David A. Scheiwe, DirectorSubmarine and Air Programs

General Physics Corporation

Since 1973, General Physics Corporation has been developing operational training program materials for use on board surface ships, submarines, and aircraft of the United State Navy.  These programs have been oriented toward providing an individual ship or squadron the capability to increase its operational performance in a particular warfare area through a series of scenario-based exercises, utilizing the unit’s own inherent training assets and capabilities.  These programs have been evolutionary and as the programs have matured, many problems have arisen which have complicated program organization, development, Fleet implementation, and overall use of the materials.  These problems include: confusion and lack of understanding of the nature of onboard training; lack of documentation for combat systems; conflicting or non-existence operational guidance; limitations of imbedded training modes and systems; inability to keep pace with system upgrades and modifications; difficulties in implementing programs and materials; and difficulties in sustaining interest and use in Fleet units.  Each of these problems has been encountered and dealt with, with varying degrees of success.  These “lessons learned” and other recommendations are presented for the consideration of others embarking on development of onboard training efforts.  Navy policy toward onboard training and funding are discussed and recommendations made.  Finally a list of thumbrules for onboard training program and material developers is presented.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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USER GUIDELINES FOR DECK OFFICER TRAINING SYSTEMS

Dr. T. J. Hammell and J. W. Gynther

Eclectech Associates, Incorporated

J. J. Puglisi

Computer Aided Operations Research Facility

U.S. Maritime Administration

The ship bridge/shiphandling simulator, with a large visual scene, is a relatively new development for the training of deck officers.  The U.S. Coast Guard and U.S. Maritime Administration have jointly sponsored the Training and Licensing Project to investigate the role of the ship bridge/shiphandling simulator in the training and licensing of deck officers.  A major product stemming from this multi-year research is a set of guidelines for the development of deck officer training systems.  The guidelines address the simulator/training device, the training program, and the instructor.  The guidelines are intended for use by operational organizations to assist in determining the adequacy of available simulator-based training programs to fit their specific needs, and to assist in specifying training systems for procurement.  The guidelines have a generic structure to address all levels of deck officer training.  The specific content of the guidelines was initially developed to address masters-level training.  The initial direct application of the guidelines, however, was for the design of a simulator for Maritime Academy cadet training.  Each of these is briefly discussed.

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CAI/CMI: HOW MUCH IS ENOUGH

Philip J. Fisch, Program Manager

Cubic Corporation

Larry H. Nowell, Project Director

MATHETICS, INC.

Computer Aided Instruction and Computer Managed Instruction (CAI/CMI) provide training systems with a wide assortment of capabilities.  These capabilities range from simple recording a student’s progress to eliminating the need for a full time instructor.  This paper explains the methodology used to determine the amount of CAI/CMI necessary to support the needs of the user.  It also discusses the management of the interaction and coordination of the CAI/CMI design with other trainer design elements.  The NTDS Laboratory Trainer–Device 20F17 is referred to as a quantitative example of managing CAI/CMI development.  In the development of Device 20F17, the courseware developer’s involvement allowed for the early definition of the amount of CAI/CMI needed and the degree of automation required.  This timely input in the proposal phase influenced the hardware and software design to accommodate the CAI/CMI needs, thus minimizing the cost of including these features.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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COMPUTER PROGRAM DOCUMENTATION–WHAT IS OVERKILL?

Karen B. Bausman, Computer Resources Systems Engineer

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

Millions of government dollars are being spent on documentation of the computer program systems of Aircrew Training Devices every year under the premise of life cycle support.  As the costs of Aircrew Training Devices increase, it becomes imperative that a complete evaluation be done to decrease documentation costs.  This paper discusses the following components of the documentation issue.

1)             What documentation is necessary for development and acquisition tracking?  Do we use it?

2)             What documentation is necessary for three major manning levels during support?

3)             How much is “blue suit” maintenance costing as part of ATD?

4)             Commercial Practices Documentation – is it any good?

5)             Will computerization save us?

6)             Where can dollars be shaved?

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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APPLICATION OF MICROCOMPUTERS TO THE SIMULATOR “LINKAGE” PROBLEM

Steve Seidensticker

Logicon, Inc.

Tactical and Training Systems Division

Part of every modern cockpit simulator is an interface between the analog world of the cockpit and the digital world of the central simulation computer(s).  This has traditionally been a complex system of analog/digital conversion circuitry commonly called the “linkage”.

This linkage is expensive to build and requires modification to both the hardware and central computer software whenever changes are made to the cockpit instruments and controls.  It also imposes a significant processing load on the simulation computer in that much polling of input and formatting of data are required.  This paper describes a new approach that solves the problem by replacing the linkage with a microcomputer attached to each major instrument/control and small groups of minor instruments/controls.  These instrument/control computers (ICC) functionally become part of the instrument/control and assume all simulation of that device that is independent of other activity.  The ICCs pass data to the central computer and receive data from it only as necessary.

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EVALUATION OF COMPUTER CONFIGURATIONS FOR SIMULATION

Leonard D. Healy and Gerald A. Wyndle

Naval Training Equipment Center

Bruce Baker

Servos and Simulation, Incorporated

This paper provides an evaluation of computer configurations that might be applied to a single large simulator or a complex of simulators.  The analysis indicates that minicomputers or the recently introduced super minicomputers offer the best approach to implementation of most simulators.  The very large computer designed for high throughput in a multiprogramming environment is not cost effective for the simulator application, and the yet unsolved problems in partitioning the simulator computations for use in a distributed microprocessor network outweigh the saving in hardware cost.  More important than the results of this study is the method of analysis developed for evaluation of computer configurations in simulator systems.  The procedure presented can be used to address other configurations and different values of such variables as reliability, mean time to repair and cost.  The method is recommended for use in evaluating computer implementation for specific simulator procurements.

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ASSESSMENT OF SIMULATOR VISUAL CUEING EFFECTIVENESS BY PSYCHOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES

Joe De Maio and Rebecca Brooks

Growing emphasis on simulation of low altitude and air-to-air tactical scenarios has greatly increased the requirement for simulator visual systems capable of providing the pilot high-fidelity out-of-the-cockpit cues.  Evaluation of visual system performance through simulator flying studies has been the primary measure of system quality.  However, such studies can be costly and time consuming, and often they provide equivocal results.  The present study investigated the use of psychophysical measurement methodology to provide a quick, low-cost evaluation of the altitude cues provided by five visual system displays.

Thirty Air Force pilots made estimates of the altitude above ground level (AGL) shown in slides of visual system displays varying in object density and object detail.  Slides showed a 90 degree field-of-view scene taken in the F-16 cockpit of the Advanced Simulator for Pilot Training.  Eight altitudes (range 50-400 ft AGL) were presented for each visual scene condition.  A random sequence of 40 slides (8 altitudes x 5 scenes) was presented three times.  Power functions relating perceived to actual altitude were determined.  Reliable differences were found between the displays, which accorded well with differences found in a simulator flying study using the same display environments.  Results are discussed in terms of display features and the measurement methodology.

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METHODOLOGY TO ASSESS IN-FLIGHT PERFORMANCE FOR AIR-TO-AIR COMBAT TRAINING

Anthony P. Ciavarelli, Jr.

Cubic Defense Systems

The Navy’s Tactical Aircrew Combat Training System (TACTS) provides the instrumentation necessary to record in-flight performance of aircrews during air-to-air combat training.  Data recorded on TACTS has been an important source of information for the development of objective flight performance criteria.  This paper discusses research related to the development and application of in-flight measures of air combat performance. Procedures for systematic development of aircrew performance measures are identified and discussed.  A generic methodology is proposed which will eventually lead to a prescriptive model for performance measurement system development.  Some of the many applications of objective flight performance criteria include training progress evaluation, training methodology and effectiveness studies, and learning acquisition and transfer studies.

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EFFECTIVENESS EVALUATION FOR AIR COMBAT TRAINING

James McGuinness, Ph.D. and John H. Bouwman

Person-System Integration

Joseph A. Puig

Naval Training Equipment Center

This paper addresses methods developed for evaluating factors involved in Air Combat Maneuvering (ACM) training.  In the course of selecting and applying evaluation techniques, a unique situation for a transfer-of-training study was presented: a newly installed ACM simulator co-located with an ACM range.  A common, objective performance measurement system was developed for the Air Combat Maneuvering Simulator (ACMS), designated Device 2E6, and the Tactical Aircrew Combat Training System (TACTS) range.  The TACTS range was planned as the setting for studying transfer from the simulator to an operational situation.

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SIMULATION AND TRAINING FOR AIRCRAFT CARRIER LANDINGS

Daniel P. Westra, Staff Scientist

Canyon Research Group, Inc.

The Visual Technology Research Simulator (VTRS) at the Naval Training Equipment Center was used to study the effects of six factors on carrier-landing training.  An in-simulator transfer design was chosen, in which students were trained under various conditions, and then tested under a standard condition that represented maximum realism.  The experimental design permitted a relatively large number of variables to be studied, using a relatively small number of student subjects.  The subjects were pilots who had no prior carrier-landing experience: 16 recent graduates of Air Force T-38 training, and 16 highly experienced Navy P-3 pilots.  Factors investigated were field-of-view, scene detail, platform motion, descent-rate cueing and training task (straight-in approaches vs. Circling approaches).  Turbulence was included as a factor and pilot type (Navy P-3 vs. Air Force T-38) was also included as a factor to control this source of subject variability.  After training under a certain factor-level combination, students were tested on the day, wide field-of-view, circling task with motion and without descent-rate cueing.  Results showed that the simulator and training factors generally produced either small differences or no differences at all in transfer effectiveness.  There were some advantages of the wide field-of-view and high-detail conditions, but these effects were small and/or short-lived, generally disappearing after a few transfer trials.  Training with straight-in approaches resulted in transfer performance that was equal to or better than that produced by training with circling approaches.  There were no motion or descent-rate cueing effects on the transfer task.

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A MODEL FOR DETERMINING COST AND TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS TRADEOFFS FOR TRAINING EQUIPMENT

Dr. Ruth A. Wienclaw

Honeywell Inc.

Colonel Frank E. Hines

Office of the Secretary of Defense

This paper reports the status of Phase I of an ongoing project to develop a macro model describing the decisions involved in developing training equipment.  The purpose of the model is to assist managers in making such decisions by providing information concerning the tradeoffs between cost and training effectiveness caused by different configurations and choices of equipment.  After the development of a preliminary model, field research was conducted to determine the feasibility of testing such a model and to collect information to expand the preliminary version into a more pragmatic tool.

Results of the fieldwork led to several conclusions.  First, many of the types of data needed to validate such a model are available, hence making such a project feasible.  Second, an examination of the available data led to an expansion of the preliminary model to include training value of the various trainer characteristics.  Third, much work is needed to develop longitudinal databases of job performance before sound predictions can be made concerning the impact of trainer characteristics on technical performance after graduation.

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TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS EVALUATION OF DEVICE A/F37A-T59

Captain James Kotora, USAF, Pilot Program Manager

Captain William Siebert, USAF, Navigator Program Manager

34^th Tactical Airlift Training Group

Little Rock Air Force Base

The 34^th Tactical Airlift Training Group (TATG) at Little Rock AFB provides initial and tactical mission qualification training to C-130 crewmembers.  One of the new features of the newly delivered simulators is the inclusion of Stationkeeping Equipment (SKE).  A complex set of procedures for proper utilization of SKE during formation airdrops forms a large portion of the tactical mission qualification-training course.  The Training Programs Branch of the 34 TATG conducted a study to explore the application of the IFS to pilot and navigator training.  The study was conducted using four test classes.  After a standard academic course, classes of pilots and navigators were divided into test and control groups.  The test groups were trained using a pre-designed simulator syllabus and their performance was measured in the aircraft.  The control groups received their training only in the aircraft before completing the same performance measurement.  The study results in terms of subjective and objective data showed that the IFS could reasonably support a training effectiveness ratio of approximately 0.5.  The best training strategy appears to be an integration of IFS missions among flying missions and ground training rather than in one block.  We recommend inclusion of the IFS in mission qualification training.  We also recommend a re-evaluation of the mechanics of the proficiency advancement concept.

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THE INSTRUCTOR/OPERATOR STATION–DESIGN FOR THE USER

William T. Harris

Head, Aviation/Electronic Warfare Analysis and Design Branch

Naval Training Equipment Center

and

Dr. William M. Hinton, President

Walter M. Komanski, Vice-President

Spectrum of America

The Instructor/Operator Station (IOS) of a simulator is the focus of user control of training Exercises.  Design of the IOS is, therefore, crucial if the user is to carry out his training roles and responsibilities efficiently.  Unfortunately, IOS designs have often been poorly human engineered and have been based on insufficient training and human factors data.  This paper (1) assesses IOS designs for current-generation Operational Flight Trainers (OFT) and Weapon Systems Trainers (WST), (2) identifies strengths and weaknesses, (3) develops an approach to improved IOS design, and (4) develops alternative IOS configurations.  The alternatives are comparable in training capability.  They differ in their primary methods of control–fixed-function console-mounted electronic touch pads versus variable-function CRT touch panels.  The primary conclusion of the paper focuses on the importance of systematic application of training data with the resultant potential for improvement in IOS design and operations.

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NEEDED–A STATE OF THE ART INTEGRATED LOGISTIC SUPPORT ACQUISITION STRATEGY

Thomas E. Gwise

Assistant Project Director

Helicopter Training Systems

Naval Training Equipment Center

and

Maurice Winsor

Logistics Element Manager

Training Acquisition Branch

Naval Training Equipment Center

If logistics concepts are to maintain pace with the constantly changing hardware and software spheres, innovative state of the art logistics acquisition strategies must be conceived, defined, and implemented.  Logistic acquisition concepts in the past have served well those devices for whose support they were designed.  They cannot, however, meet the challenges occasioned by rising costs, the increasing demand for more reliable life cycle support, and ever more sophisticated training device systems.  These challenges, as well as others, can best be met by developing a best value, performance based, functionally oriented logistics acquisition strategy.  Such an evolution will focus attention on the product, not the process, of the logistics support acquisition effort.  In turn, this shift in focus will require both Government and contractor to relinquish certain traditional roles and to assume some unfamiliar responsibilities.  The authors recognize that such an approach will cause some degree of discomfort to both Government and contractor personnel.  However, they submit that just as technology has advanced from the vacuum tube to the integrated circuit, so must logistics advance from emphasis on the acquisition process to concentration on acquiring logistics products which will provide reliable life cycle support to training device systems.

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SOME ANALYTICAL THOUGHTS ON ONE ANSWER TO THE ARMED SERVICES TRAINING MANPOWER CRUNCH–TRAINING BY CONTRACTORS

Dr. Jack Ballard

Martin Marietta

Numerous studies and discussion sessions have focused on the military personnel shortages extending through the year 2000.  The manpower problem promises to be acute, according to demographers, as government, industry, and the military compete for a share of the shrinking pool of young work-age personnel.  Military personnel and training planners face an increasingly difficult dilemma on how to stretch their manpower to meet pressing combat unit requirements and, at the same time, to deal with greater training loads brought about by new weapons systems and high personnel turnover.  The Services, particularly the Army, believe they need to reduce the number of personnel committed to the training function in order to free skilled and experienced key NCOs and officers for field duty.

This paper offers analysis suggesting one answer to this serious training manpower problem–more training performed by contractors.  Training by contractors is certainly not new but it has been largely utilized in the past for limited, highly specialized, often one-time, training efforts associated with the introduction of new weapon systems.  A broader-scaled contractor training effort might offer better training continuity, more professional staffing, ways to meet capital investment costs involving new sophisticated computer-based training equipment, and yet produce a quality trained technician in a cost effective and expeditious manner.  A pertinent, limited case study provides illumination in this area.  The paper also addresses the disadvantages and problems, such as inflated costs, associated with a contractor-developed and run training program and suggest contractor responsibilities in this regard.  The anticipated manpower crisis demands a search for solutions.  An increased training role for contractors might ease the armed services manpower crunch while reducing the expected industrial competition for some of the same manpower resources.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE PROCUREMENT COMMUNICATION GAME

Mona J. Crissey, Ed.D.

Program Management Analyst, Sr.

Northrop Services, Inc.

Stella K. Sherman

Education Specialist

Naval Training Equipment Center

Effective communications between Government and Industry, so necessary for a successful procurement effort, have often been missing in the past.  This has resulted in cost overruns, unrealistic approaches and expectations, missed schedules, and finally unusable and inadequate deliverables.  In this, the Age of Atari, the training community has used the game approach to successfully train personnel in many areas.  This paper uses that same approach to reach both Government and Industry in an effort to remedy the communication situation.  The game is based on some of the milestones, which occur during procurement.  The rules are the policies and guidelines, which both players must consider to progress toward the game’s end.  Both Government and Industry win through the exchange of information, increased communication, and team effort.  In conclusion, it was found that effective communications are an essential key to success in the game.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A DSMC SIMULATION–DECISION EXERCISES

George R. McAleer, Jr.

Director, Acquisition Management Laboratory

Defense Systems Management College

In order to create a realistic learning environment for future acquisition managers at the Defense Systems Management College, a series of 20 case studies and 3 decision exercises have been developed to provide a scenario as close as possible to the real world of weapons systems acquisition management.  A “womb-to-tomb” approach is taken: i.e., a mythical weapon system, System X, begins its life in mission-area analysis; has a gestation period culminating in a Justification for Major System New Start; then a development, production and deployment life; and finally is retired and disposed of.  The system acquisition life cycle is the background structure on which the story line for these cases is maintained.  The Decision Exercises utilize the same story line as the cases; they provide the student an opportunity to make systems acquisition decision, then live with the consequences of these decisions.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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REDFLAG SIMULATION–DEVELOPMENT OF AN INTERACTIVE,

HIGH THREAT COMBAT ENVIRONMENT

Clarence W. Stephens, Computer Specialist

Thomas M. Dickens, Singer Company

Patricia A. Widder, Computer Specialist

Capt. Raymond L. Sheen, Aerospace Engineer

Air Force Human Resources Laboratory

Williams Air Force Base

Flight simulators are being used to an ever-greater degree to train combat related skills.  Thew Air Force Human Resources Laboratory (AFHRL) has been tasked with determining the effectiveness of simulator training and providing guidance as to how to train for combat in a simulator.  In order to provide these answers, high fidelity, realistic combat simulation must be accomplished.  Using the Advanced Simulator for Pilot Training (ASPT), techniques have been developed for the generation of realistic combat environment scenarios.  These techniques were u8sed to develop an environment that closely models the Tonopah range at Nellis AFB, Nevada, a range that is often used for REDFLAG exercises.  Advanced database modeling techniques were used to create the geographical features, cultural features, and provide low-level cues utilizing the maximum capability of the ASPT image generating system.  The environment had numerous threats including surface-to-air missiles and anti-aircraft artillery.  The pilot could interact with this environment in the same manner that he would interact with a real combat environment.  Through the use of Radar Homing and Warning System (RHAWS) and the visual environment, the pilot could determine the location of potential threats and targets.  The pilot could attack and destroy any target or threat within the environment and he could be “killed” by any threat.  The environment simulation techniques that have been developed are very flexible and therefore the REDFLAG simulation can be quickly adapted to provide new scenarios.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TRIAD – AN APPROACH TO EMBEDDED SIMULATION

Peter Cross, Director Advanced Applications

Andy Olson, Product Manager, Triad

Rediffusion Simulation, Inc.

Embedded simulation embraces the concept of using the real vehicle, artificially stimulated in a controlled manner, for the purpose of training operators in the use of the vehicle equipment.  All the advantages of a controlled training environment, safety, malfunction training, etc. associated with dedicated simulation apply, together with greatly reduced capital costs and added operational flexibility.  The paper describes TRIAD, a prototype simulation complex developed for helicopter pilot training that incorporates embedded simulation principles.  TRIAD comprises three major components; a computer/linkage/peripheral complex, an out-the-window CIG visual display system and a Bell 206 Helicopter, each integrated together to demonstrate the feasibility of embedded simulation for pilot training while maintaining certification on the aircraft configuration.  The total system is described and includes the certification on the aircraft configuration.  The total system is described and includes the technical approach; an assessment of achieved performance, cost summary and suitability for training applications.  A description of the aircraft modifications is presented detailing how they are achieved without compromising aircraft performance, reliability, or availability.  The problems solved and lessons learned during this program are discussed together with an outline of future goals aimed at complete system simulation with minimum aircraft hardware adaptation.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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F-16 & A-10A OFT SIMULATORS

FLIGHT SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT & TEST

K. L. Johnson and M.P. Bogumill

This paper discusses flight systems development and test issues of the Air Force’s F-16 and A-10 Operational Flight Trainers (OFT) for flight controls, performance, and stability and control.  Brief descriptions of the aircraft, simulators and their hardware, and flight systems software are presented.  The basic design database is described; simulator test techniques are presented; and some of the more interesting flight system simulation test problems and their resolutions are discussed.  Probably the more basic reason for many of the A-10 OFT flight systems initial problems relates to the minimal involvement of user pilots during data development and flight system logic design operation.  Conversely, the success of initial government flight systems testing of the F-16 OFT was aided by early user pilot involvement in system design and operation.  This paper also contends that the greatest amount of transfer of training (simulator to aircraft) for flight systems operation and performance is obtained with a design philosophy, which replicates cockpit features, visual cues, and the performance of the actual aircraft.  The paper concludes with suggested future methods to improve simulation performance and test efficiency.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE MILITARY AIRLIFT COMMAND AIRCREW TRAINING DEVICES PROGRAM

Major John J. Orler

Major Joe T. Burch

Headquarters Military Airlift Command

Scott Air Force Base

This paper discusses the Military Airlift Command’s (MAC’s) current and future aircrew training programs.  Emphasis is placed on the aircrew training program structure, the use of simulation, and the benefits derived from simulations.  This paper’s purpose to provide a brief history of MAC simulation and discuss the command’s training philosophy.  Current programs and their problems are outlined with a brief look at MAC’s future plans.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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VTXTS–A COOPERATIVE EFFORT BETWEEN THE USER

THE CHIEF OF NAVAL AIR TRAINING, AND THE

CONTRACTOR, MCDONNELL DOUGLAS CORPORATION

Jerome J. Schuck

Douglas Aircraft Company

Eldon W. Riley

CNET Code N4A

Chief of Naval Education and Training

William D. Jones, USN

CNATRA Code N221

Chief of Naval Air Training

VTXTS is the totally integrated training system designed to satisfy the U.S. Navy’s Undergraduate Jet Flight Training requirements for the 1990s and beyond.  The acquisition of the VTXTS to replace the current Intermediate and Advanced Strike Flight Training programs of the Naval Air Training Command will climax several years of intense effort on the part of the Naval Air Systems Commands, McDonnell Douglas Corporation and the ultimate user, the Naval Air Training Command.  VTXTS is one of the first major defense acquisitions wherein the entire training system is being designed, developed and produced by a single contractor.  This process is affording the Navy the opportunity to explore innovative ideas and advances in technology in all areas of the training system.

In this paper we will demonstrate how the operational and instructional inputs by the Chief of Naval Education and Training (CNET) and its major functional command, the Chief of Naval Air Training (CNATRA), have been and will continue to be significant factors in ensuring that VTXTS will be responsive to the needs of the Navy for a state-of-the-art jet training system through the next twenty years.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TRAINING DEVICE SUPPORT CONCEPTS FOR THE FUTURE–

A PROBLEM SOLVING APPROACH TO COST REDUCTION

Robert E. LeVan

Robert A. Cross

Harry E. Roscoe

Integrated Logistic Support (ILS)

Sperry Systems Management

This paper addresses training device logistics support problems encountered by both the customer and the contractor.  It describes specific support area problems, and secondary problems created by implementing short term solutions.  Many of the problems were initially caused by a rapidly changing technology, and an environment beyond the control of the concerned parties.  As the paper traces through attempted solutions, it endeavors to extrapolate post and present efforts into a projected support concept for the future.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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NBC TRAINING REQUIREMENTS FOR THE INTEGRATED BATTLEFIELD

Gary E. Harvey

Training Aids Project Officer

United States Army Chemical School

The United States had paid little attention to nuclear warfare, biological warfare, and chemical warfare in the last decade.  Meanwhile, the Soviet Union initiated an expansion of its chemical warfare program, which has continued to grow at a greater rate than any aspect of their military force.  Soviet policy closely follows the words of Marshal Zhukov who said in 1956, “Future wars will not be won with nuclear weapons and massed air power alone.  Biological and chemical weapons will be used to augment conventional and atomic warfare.”  The Soviets and their surrogates have used lethal agents in Afghanistan, Laos and Kampuchea.  It is clear the Soviets have the capability and willingness to fight in a biological and chemical environment.  Soviet training programs integrate chemical weapons systems with conventional and nuclear operations.  Since conducting training in one or any combination of these three special environments is not possible, United States preparedness to fight on a chemically, biologically, or nuclear contaminated battlefield requires the development of special training equi0pment, devices and procedures which simulate these conditions as realistically as possible.  To accomplish its mission, the US Army must train in peacetime, as it will fight in war.  This paper summarizes the needs of the US Army’s requirements for training equipment and simulation to train in an NBC environment.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF FLIGHT SIMULATOR VISUAL SYSTEMS

B. L. Welch

CAE Electronics Ltd.

Some of the findings of AGARD FMP WG10 are discussed.  Image detail and resolution are two characteristics of visual simulation systems, which seem to be significant in determining pilot performance in a simulator.  MTFA has been found to be a reliable metric for predicting target acquisition performance; however, present measurement techniques are not suitable for moving imagery.  Reliable techniques for the measurement of both image detail and resolution need to be developed.  Apparent motion as opposed to real motion is also discussed.  Neither the effect of visual simulation characteristics on apparent motion nor the effect of apparent motion on pilot performance are well understood and require further research.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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FILTERING SIMULATED VISUAL SCENES–

SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL EFFECTS

W. Marvin Bunker

General Electric Company

In computer image generation (CIG) “spatial filtering” refers to the combining of tonal information from scene features inside and in the vicinity of a pixel to form the video for that pixel.  Several investigators have recently proposed improved filters, validating their choices with pictures of sensitive test scenes.  It can readily be shown that filters, which produce the best static scenes, generate serious artifacts when applied to dynamic field-rate update CIG.  The investigations in the literature have not explored this topic.  When some necessary conditions imposed by the temporal effects of interlace-scan systems are applied to the algorithms, the differences between simple filters and the more complex filters become quite minor, even on the status test scenes.  On CIG training scenes, designed to simulate the real world, the differences in results of a variety of filters become imperceptible.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TEXTURE IN A LOW COST VISUAL SYSTEM

Philip T. Skolmoski

Evans & Sutherland Computer Corporation

and

Michael Fortin

Rediffusion Simulation, Inc.

This paper describes the basic applications of texture in a low cost visual system.  Texturing, as applied in this paper, is defined as the modulation of the intensity of a color on a surface.  This gives a more natural appearance to the surface at a relatively low cost to the system.  The use of texture to produce realistic movement, to create spacial effects, and to give the viewer a realistic feeling of perspective greatly improves the training capabilities of visual simulation systems.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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COMPUTER GENERATED/SYNTHESIZED IMAGERY (CGSI)

Carl P. Graf

Senior Principal Research Scientist

Honeywell Inc.

Dorothy M. Baldwin

Physicist, Advanced Simulation Concepts Division

Naval Training Equipment Center

Feasibility has been demonstrated for a hybrid simulation approach, which merges two technologies, Computer Generated Imagery (CGI), and Computer Synthesized Imagery (CSI), to form Computer Generated Synthesized Imagery (CGSI).  This approach holds promise as a cost-effective, attainable method of providing real-time, high detail imagery for visual and/or other sensors, such as FLIR.  A videotape for a nap-of-the-earth flight was generated, demonstrating the fidelity and mobility that can be achieved using this CGSI hybrid approach.  A description of the approach will be provided along with selected video frames.  Critical features which were demonstrated include: merging of the two technologies, vertical movement for target acquisition and landing, horizontal movement towards and away from objects, dynamic occulting of 3-D objects, dynamic smoke and dust, and color visual and IR imagery.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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