DODGING THE TREES AND BUSES: CURRENT NOE SIMULATION

B. James Voorhies

Michael A. Cosman

Evans and Sutherland Computer Corporation

 

Many previous rotorcraft nap-of-earth visual simulators were designed by the "seat of the pants" method: infant technologies mated with "best guess" estimates of what a visual simulation scene should contain.  Experience with the successes and weaknesses of these earlier systems (many still in valuable active use) provided the right questions, and recent empirical quantitative studies have offered first and second generation answers.  Unfortunately, the technology's solutions have too often been, "This is as good as we can do, and so we'll prove it's good enough."  It is now possible to approach the problem from the researcher point of view.  Maturing hardware and emerging software technologies have made possible the design of a system that provides the content demanded by the research, not just to marginal but to desirable levels of performance.

 

The nap-of-earth visual simulation project had as a practical objective tailoring a visual database designed for rotorcraft to the requirements of a comprehensive research study.  The projected performance envelope was designed to be nap-of-earth and contour flying from five feet up and from hover to 100 knots.  Empirical issues to be addressed in the implementation included: mix of 2D and 3D cueing, and total cue densities to provide optimum visual flow; elimination or minimization of detail in the aircraft performance envelope; and scene reality versus training value.  Other perceived deficiencies of some earlier systems that are addressed by this system are multiple, properly occulting, dynamic ground and air threats, and special weapons effects (cannon, rockets, FLIR, etc.)  In addition, consideration was given in the structuring of the database to provide maximum flexibility as new research and experience dictate modifications.  What has evolved is a good example of visual flight simulation specifically designed for the Nap-of-earth regime.

 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SELECTIVE SCENE MANAGEMENT IN FLIGHT

SIMULATOR VISUAL SYSTEMS

Jack W. Newhard

Staff Scientist

The Singer Co., Link Flight Simulation Division

 

Michael R. Nicol

Visual System Engineer

U.S. Air Force Systems Command

Aeronautical Systems Division

Wright-Patterson AFB

 

A variety of mission-dependent tasks are practiced in military flight simulators.  A flexible way of meeting the diverse scene-content requirements employs a composite database from which the appropriate feature models are displayed (and the less appropriate models may be excluded).  Importance codes in the feature data are the basis for feature discrimination by the real time scene management software.  This software monitors image generator loads, computes demand-variables based upon their deviations with respect to specified limits, and computes several control variables as functions of the maximum demand-variable.  These control variables regulate the flow of feature data to or within the image generator.  "Closed-loop" l9oad optimization is thereby effected.  Imagery and performance data from four example test flights (over the same path) contrast unmanaged, unselectively managed, and selectively managed image generation for two tasks.  A given database can be reoptimized by replacing importance code assignments.  The prospects appear favorable for user tuning of real time databases to tailor them for particular training tasks.

 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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BUILDING DIGITAL IMAGE GENERATOR OBJECTS WITH

MULTIPLE TEXTURED PLANES

Pi-Yun Cheng, Senior Staff Engineer

Schlumberger/Benson

 

Nicholas Szabo, Director

Research and Development

Link Flight Simulation Division, The Singer Company

 

New capabilities are being introduced into digital image generators that permit the use of photographically derived images to increase the detail and realism of training scenarios.  The new methods have evolved from techniques for applying pseudo-random texture to surfaces, and permit not only photo images, but also variations in the translucency of surfaces.  These methods permit the construction of natural objects with irregular silhouettes, like trees.  Nonetheless, the patterns are each essentially two-dimensional.  To construct objects that look more three-dimensional, patterns can be projected on multiple intersecting planes, thereby forming representations of trees and bushes that provide more realistic three-dimensional cueing than simple single-plane projections.  Problems of data collection and illumination are discussed, and examples are presented to illustrate the techniques.

 

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AN INTRODUCTION TO ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN TRAINING SYSTEMS

Marguerite Moreno

Member of the Technical Staff

VERAC, Incorporated

 

Artificial Intelligence (AI) researchers are developing techniques with which to study/simulate intelligent behavior, e.g., understanding language, problem solving and learning.  Application of these techniques to the are of computer-based training technology appears promising.

 

For example, in the tactical training environment instructors are often overwhelmed by the complexity of configuring realistic threat scenarios, while simultaneously monitoring and reacting to trainees' actions.  Applying AI production system (rule-based) technology to build computerbased intelligent adversaries could considerable improve the tactical training situation.

 

Other potential AI applications in the training area include:

 

1)          developing detailed realistic expert models, i.e., enemy tactics;

 

2)          using the explanatory capabilities of an AI system that embodies "instructor" knowledge to tutor a trainee,

 

3)          incorporating AI concepts in computer assisted instruction, and

 

4)          Configuring generic training systems using a rule-based expert system similar to existing successful systems.

 

However, because AI is in its developmental stage, its techniques are still experimental.  As such, the feasibility/applicability of some techniques have not been clearly determined.  This paper examines these technologies and assesses the realistic potential and limitations of AI in the training environment.

 

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AN EXPERT SYSTEM AS A REPLACEMENT FOR A TEAM MEMBER

IN AN ASW SIMULATION

Donald L. Johnston

Member of the Technical Staff

Tactical and Training Systems Division

Logicon, Inc.

 

Richard W. Obermayer

Executive Scientist

Vreuls Research Corporation

 

In an investigation of Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques applied to automating instruction in an emergent, team environment, a computer model has been created to replace one of the players in an Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) simulation.  The simulation environment is that of a Combat Information Center but concentrates on the interactions of three team members: the operations coordinator (ASWOC), the aircraft controller (ASAC), and the fire control officer (ASWFCO).  The model is an expert system for the ASWFCO that runs in real time along with the simulation.  The ease of adding and modifying rules for the model has shown the power of prototyping that is possible using an AI expert system approach.  Replacing a human by a model enables training efficiency by reducing the need for manpower in training simulations.  Developing a player model is a necessary first step toward automating performance measurement and instruction in an emergent environment.

 

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TRIO–AN EXPERT SYSTEM FOR AIR INTERCEPT TRAINING

W. Feurzeig and W. L. Ash

BBN Labs

 

G. Ricard

NTEC

 

TRIO is an expert system for training F-14 interceptor radar operators in the basic tactics of high-speed air intercepts.  It introduces artificial intelligence methods into real-time training.  The TRIO task environment supports simulations of airborne raiders, interceptor and target aircraft, and weapons models.  It provides dynamic displays of heading, bearing, and displacement vectors, radar screens, flight instruments, intercept parameters, missile envelopes and interceptor/target aircraft ground racks.  It incorporates real-time speech recognition and synthesis subsystems including highly advanced capabilities for recognition of naturally articulated extended utterances.  TRIO supports three instructional modes: pre-flight demonstrations, in-flight monitoring and guidance, and post-flight debriefing.  The instruction employs an articulate expert to demonstrate and explain intercept tactics, a set of daemons for real-time performance monitoring, and a knowledge-based performance analysis program to detect and diagnose student errors.  TRIO is currently implemented on a personal LISP machine, the BBN Jericho computer.

 

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A LIFE-CYCLE COST STRUCTURE FOR DEFENSE TRAINING PROGRAMS

Mark I. Knapp and Jesse Orlansky

Institute for Defense Analyses

 

The subject of this paper is a cost-element structure (CES) that identifies, defines and structures a list of cost elements that is intended to describe fully the life-cycle cost of any formal program, course, or device for individual training of military personnel.  It was developed to satisfy a widely recognized need for consistent and credible evaluation of cost in cost-effectiveness analyses of alternative methods of training.  The cost-element structure is based upon authoritative and widely used cost guides promulgated by the Services and the Office of the Secretary of Defense, and many potential users contributed to its development.  Accordingly, the general use of a comprehensive CES such as this offers the following advantages.  It should (1) ensure that all elements of life-cycle costs are accounted for, (2) reveal gaps in essential data, (3) permit making credible and equitable comparisons among training alternatives, (4) identify "cost drivers" for trade-off analysis or cost reduction, (5) enable resource specialists to focus on elements of interest, while observing the impact of those resources in a total-program context, (6) disclose significant variables for the development of cost-estimating relationships and, (7) improve communication and understanding among officials at various levels in the Services and the Office of the Secretary of Defense whose decisions affect the conduct of military training.

 

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CONTRACTOR OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF SIMULATORS

Johnnie A. Butler and Maurice Winsor

Simulator Operation and Maintenance Analysts

Naval Training Equipment Center

 

In its continued effort to streamline and make its operations more efficient and cost effective, the Navy investigated various methods of obtaining operation and maintenance support for simulation equipment.  After extensive research, the concept of contractor support was formalized into an active program titled Contractor Operation and Maintenance of Simulators (COMS).  This new initiative was implemented in October 1982.  This paper takes a constructive look at the short history of COMS to assess effectiveness and explore the following areas:  (1) the training device support program under the Navy's organic support posture, (2) immediate changes which resulted from the initial implementation of the COMS program and related problems encountered, and (3) areas for future study.  The paper predicts future changes in procurement strategies and concepts that will reshape the training device support concept for years to come.

 

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MEASURING CONTRACTOR PERFORMANCE UNDER THE NAVY PROGRAM FOR CONTRACTOR OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF SIMULATORS

Gordon Steven Dow

Simulator Operation and Maintenance Analyst

Naval Training Equipment Center

 

The Navy Contractor Operation and Maintenance of Simulators (COMS) program, which replaces the disestablished TRADEVMAN rating, began in October 1982.  The Contractor Performance Factor (CPF) has been formulated as a quantitative measure of performance to help government personnel monitor COMS contracts.  The CPF is measured against a pre-established baseline requirement.  Three types of CPF being employed by the Naval Training Equipment Center have been applied to major training systems, multi-station training systems, and miscellaneous portable training equipment.  The CPF is reported on each training system by the contractor, via the Contracting Officer's Technical Representative (COTR), to the procuring activity.  The CPF feedback is used by management to make budgeting, contracting, and planning decisions.

 

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EVALUATION OF AN EYE-SLAVED AREA-OF-INTEREST

DISPLAY FOR TACTICAL COMBAT SIMULATION

J. A. Turner

Senior Staff Engineer

The Singer Company–Link Flight Simulation Division

 

A dome-projection real-image system based on an eye-slaved area-of-interest (AOI) concept has been under development for some time at the Link Flight Simulation Division of the Singer Company as a solution to the tactical visual simulation problem.  The Link approach effectively provides high resolution over a wide field of view.  The display development program at Link has progressed as the system integration phase and initial proof-of-concept testing.  Link has begun a series of formal, human-in-the-loop evaluations to obtain subjective and quantitative data pertaining to the eye-slaved AOI concept.  Three evaluations have been conducted to date, examining AOI acceptability/usability, sensitivity to AOI size, and sensitivity to AOI throughput (delay).  The tactical visual requirements, the system concept, and the three evaluations are discussed in this paper.

 

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F-15 LIMITED FIELD OF VIEW VISUAL SYSTEM TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS EVALUATION

Lt. Col. Maston E. O'Neal and Mr. James E. Brown

Deputy Chief of Staff Aircrew Training Devices

USAF Tactical Air Warfare Center

Eglin Air Force Base

 

The USAF Tactical Air Warfare Center conducted a 3-month evaluation of a limited field-of-view (LFOV) visual system installed on an operational F-15 flight simulator.  The evaluation was conducted at Goodyear Aerospace Corporation, Akron, Ohio.  Purpose of the evaluation was to evaluate to what extent transition, air-to-air, and air-to-surface maneuvers can be trained in the simulator by use of a 60-degree vertical by 160-degree horizontal LFOV visual system.  The evaluation used a total of 48 F-15, F-16, and A-10 instructor pilots.  Half of the pilots were from replacement training units; the other half were from operational units.  The F-16 and A-10 pilots were included in the evaluation to obtain data concerning potential application to their respective weapon system trainers.  The evaluation team assessed the visual system to be capable of substantially enhancing day/night training for F-15, F-16, and A-10 aircraft in both replacement training units (RTU) and Operational Environments.

 

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DEFENSE MAPPING AGENCY (DMA) POLICY FOR DIGITAL MAPPING, CHARTING AND GEODESY (MC&G) SUPPORT OF ADVANCED SYSTEMS

Barry D. Shelkin

DMA Hydrographic/Topographic Center

 

The rapid expansion of requirements for digital MC&G products to support advanced weapon systems has required DMA to reevaluate its digital data policy.  The Agency is being called upon to produce a variety of digital products, which are vital to the successful employment of a wide range of weapon systems and training devices.  In the next few years the DMA level of effort will grow to encompass such diverse applications as advanced guidance systems, avionics support, situation displays for C3I and sensor strike, automated hydrographic navigation and digital flight information.  In order to meet these requirements DMA must offer flexible, efficient and effective digital MC&G products.  This presentation spells out DMA's objectives in the digital MC&G area and details specific methodology for reaching those objectives.  The basis of this policy is the standardization and concurrent enhancement of the Digital Landmass System (DLMS) database.  DMA's efforts to upgrade the capability, coverage, applicability and access of digital data are spelled out.  For the long-tem, DMA's goal is to develop multiple-use data files through a prototype product evaluation program with active user participation.

 

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TRAINING TECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS PROGRAM

Lt. Col. Dickie A. Harris, HQ USAF/MPPTS

Mark S. Englebretson, Capt., USAF, HQ ATC/TTTD TTAP PMO, Randolph AFB

Dr. James M. Young, GM-13, USAF, HQ ATC/TTTD, Randolph AFB

 

TTAP was developed from Air Staff and ATC concerns that there is no mechanism for taking validated research and off-the-shelf technology and putting it to practical use in our training environment.  TTAP provides the money and management support to bridge this gap through a well-defined program for application of research and new technology.  In addition, it performs an information function to tell trainers what is available and tells researchers what training issues need further research.

 

A TTAP Program Management Office has been established under the supervision of the Technical Director for Training Systems Development Directorate, DCS Technical Training.  The focus for project planning and execution is kept on the end users.  Funding is provided through Program Element 84772, Training Development.  The program objectives are:  (1) identify training technology innovations from government, business, and education; (2) prioritize potential applications according to ATC needs; (3) improve communication between researchers and users; (4) conduct applications studies and evaluate technology; and (5) transfer successful efforts to operational status.

 

In FY 83, 16 projects were approved and funded (22 in FY 84) including work in such areas as: the Advanced Training System; interactive videodisc; CMI; CBI; modeling; student information management and a network for instructional technology dissemination.  There are currently over 50 projects in various stages of development and the program is continuing to grow.  Projects are currently focused in the six technical training centers, but we are getting initiatives from Flying Training, other major commands and other services.  The administration of the program is centered on the Technology Applications officers at each center.  Governing regulations including ATCR 80-1, ATCR 27-1, and ATCR 23-1.  Documentation includes a one-page project summary, a detailed project plan, a memorandum of agreement (MOA), and a final report.

 

TTAP gives commanders a "fly before you buy" look at how new technology will affect the way they train.  From a TTAP study, the user has hard data to support their funding, acquisition, personnel or equipment needs and priorities.

 

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A NEW APPROACH FOR IMPROVED TRAINING DEVICE MANAGEMENT, DEVELOPMENT, AND LIFE CYCLE SUPPORT

USING DEFENSE DATA NETWORK

Wm. Gene Russell, Lead System Engineer and Barbara J. Pemberton, Computer Scientist

Naval Training Equipment Center

 

A new and innovative approach for improved training device management, development, and life cycle support has become feasible with the advent of the Defense Data Network (DDN).  This approach utilizes the DDN and training device computer hardware/software to provide rapid information retrieval among Government and contractor facilities at different geographic locations.  Implementation of this concept provides improved management/technical information availability for training device development and support.  Improved visibility of technical progress will result in increased productivity of both Government and contractor personnel.  Reduced trainer development risks, maintainment of contract schedule, and resultant cost reductions are expected.

 

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AIRCREW TRAINING A FAMILY OF TRAINING DEVICES

Lieutenant Colonel Jon K. Foster, Chief

Training Systems Division, Tactical Air Command, Langley Air Force Base

 

Recent statement of Air Force aircrew simulator policy reaffirmed that Aircrew Training Devices (ATDs) are an integral part of aircrew training programs.  The Tactical Air Forces (TAF) have adopted a concept for a family of ATDs to support aircrew-training needs.  The family of ATDs includes Cockpit Familiarization Trainers (CFTs), Egress Procedures Trainers (EPTs), Part Task Trainers (PTTs), Cockpit Procedures Trainers (CPTs), Operational Flight Trainers (OFTs), and Weapons Systems Trainers (WSTs).  The training available from this family of ATDs varies from simple repetition of tasks required for safe aircraft operation to full mission rehearsal in a simulated combat environment.  Safety -of-flight training is a core requirement for any aircraft-training program, while practice of warfighting skills enhances survival in combat.  A family of ATDs allows specialization of training devices to satisfy safety-of-flight and warfighting simulation requirements.  This paper discusses how the family of ATDs concept evolved, defines the type and capability of each type of ATD, comments on acquisition strategy, and discusses user acceptance issues important to integration of ATDs into training programs.  Although this paper is limited in content to aircrew training, the family of ATD concept has broad application to any training program that uses training devices to simulate actual equipment employed in a real environment.

 

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MISSION ANALYSIS–THE MISSING LINK IN OPERATIONAL TRAINING SYSTEM DESIGN

CDR Kevin M. Smith, USNR

CDR G. W. Hull, USN

COMFITAEWWINGPAC Staff

and

Mr. Russel H. Irvine

Naval Training Equipment Center

 

Because tactical missions are becoming increasingly complex, designing instructional systems to competently address complex mission based training needs is emerging as a significant problem.  The need, for instance, to conduct a comprehensive, formal analysis of mission related training requirements as a prerequisite to actual system design is self-evident yet, as indicated in a recent GAO Report (GAO/FPCD-83-4) this is rarely accomplished.  Furthermore, in this and similar treatments on the subject (Olson, 1982; Smith, 1982; Beagles, 1982) a clear imperative emerges to formalize the process and conduct a professional examination of user needs first, then provide training systems that - and this is important - analytically correlate to these explicit user needs.  Responding to this critique, a methodology, presented in this concept paper, has been developed and represents a structured, systematic approach for the formal analysis, definition, and prioritization of mission based training requirements, providing in the process an operationally focused analytical framework for the design and development of operational training systems that will satisfy significant user needs.  Briefly, this methodology: l) Structures the mission and defines and exercises significant threat impacted scenarios; 2) establishes boundary conditions, if necessary, to provide specific focus for the in-depth analysis to follow; 3) specifies operator tasks germane to the application; 4) defines task characteristics where task loading and task complexity are examined, quantified and combined to form a task difficulty rating; 5) then combining task difficulty with mission importance (a collateral analysis that quantifies relative importance of mission segments), critical mission area statements are developed along with a fully supportable, prioritized set of mission tasks and concomitant training requirements.

 

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SOME FUTURE PROSPECTS FOR SIMULATOR USERS

Edward M. Boothe, Manager

National Simulator Program

Federal Aviation Administration

 

The FAA Advanced Simulator Plan, directed primarily to the air carrier industry, has been a stimulus to the advancement of simulator technology and has resulted in significant benefit to simulator users.  General aviation simulation, however, is expected to be the growth area.  General aviation users, primarily corporate, are being offered the benefits of advanced simulation through new training centers which are concentrating on simulators capable of nearly all FAA airman certification credits.  Also, the FAA is reevaluating the use of simulators and training devices for possible expanded airman certification credit.  Helicopter simulator users currently get no credit since FAA procedures are not yet available for qualification of helicopter simulators.  Helicopter simulator qualification guidance when completed will allow significant airman certification productivity from helicopter simulators.

 

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VISUAL SYSTEM OF THE F/A-18 WEAPONS TACTICS TRAINER

Dr. Eric C. Haseltine

Hughes Aircraft Company

 

Limitations in wide-angle image generation and display technology historically have prevented dome simulators from portraying all of the visual cues required to train Air Combat Maneuvers (ACM).  Dome simulators typically displayed trainee aircraft attitude but could not display other cues, such as altitude, position, translational velocity and vertical velocity, needed to prevent inadvertent collisions with the terrain.  This paper will describe advanced Computer Image Generation (CIG) and wide angle projection techniques used in Device 2E7, the F/A-18 Weapons Tactics Trainer, to overcome these limitations.

 

The approach to be described achieves an unrestricted 360-degree field-of-view CIG scene that provides all of the sky/earth and target cues needed for ACM training.  This approach features high-speed calligraphic image generators incorporating dome image predistortion algorithms to produce solid color sky/earth scenes and a CT-5 CIG to generate realistic air targets.  The device 2E7 visual simulation also includes surface targets, and permits training in a wide range of air-to-ground weapons tasks in addition to the basic ACM capability.  Moreover, the visual system may be upgraded in a straightforward manner to achieve greater air-to-ground and air-to-air capabilities, in order to support fully the broad mission of the F/A-18.

 

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CELL TEXTURE–ITS IMPACT ON COMPUTER IMAGE GENERATION

Marvin Bunker

Richard Economy

General Electric Company

 

James Harvey

Eagle Technology

 

Since their inception many years ago, all practical computer image generators have been based on producing a representation of the scene being simulated by approximating all scene features with "faces" (polygon bounded planar segments).  The lack of visual fidelity in all early systems has led to continuing effort to reduce the cost per face so a greater number of faces, more closely approximating the simulated scene, could be used.

 

Recent developments, which allow patterns to be successfully overlaid on faces, promise to radically change the nature of the business.  The patterns may be derived from digitized photographs, random numbers with the desired statistical characteristics, mathematical functions or from direct input by the modeler.  This provides very high scene fidelity at relatively low face counts.  The user now has a choice.  He can use the increased scene fidelity with conventional face capabilities to address visual cueing tasks never before successfully achieved, such as nap-of-the-earth helicopter flight.  Other requirements may best be met with low-face-count (and hence low-cost) systems along with the new photographic quality capability to provide more realistic cues than current high-cost systems.

 

This paper describes the performance of General Electric's current application of this technology (known as "cell texture") in its new COMPU-SCENE IV image generator product series.

 

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AN EMULATION METHODOLOGY FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS FOR TRAINING

Roy Latham

Scientific Staff

The Singer Company, Link Flight Simulation Division

 

The traditional method of developing electronic systems, especially complex low-production systems, has been to do a careful design and then build and refine a hardware prototype.  But beyond a certain level of complexity, a level which, for example, digital generators for flight simulation have clearly passed, this method of hardware refinement is not practical, and a development methodology that leads to a much greater level of design certainty should be adopted.  The method proposed comprises high level language software emulation of algorithms, gate level verification of logic designs, a staged system build up that couples emulation with real hardware, and a comprehensive system of diagnostics.  The diagnostic system supports both hardware design verification and system maintenance.

 

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LSI ADVANCES IN TRAINER TECHNOLOGY

Thomas Bachman

AAI Corporation

 

With the capabilities of EW systems and the densities of the EW environment multiplying, the need for large numbers of signal simulators in trainers becomes evident.  This puts increasing pressure on the simulator contractors and the procuring agencies to trade off the increased costs of signal densities and realistic training missions.  The solution to this problem is increased use of Very Largo Scale Integration (VLSI) to produce the basic building blocks needed to create simulated signals.

 

The number of new VLSI products available to the design engineer today is widely varying and is increasing at an exponential rate.  The selection of a VLSI product will dictate the integration capabilities of the design engineer.  This paper will describe the process of reducing a board level product to one quarter of its previous space and power requirements.

 

The selection of a VLSI contractor will dictate the success or failure of the VLSI effort.  The claims by various manufacturers can be misleading to the design engineer who normally uses commercial integrated circuits.  Once a VLSI contractor is selected the design engineer must construct a breadboard to be used in verification of the computer simulations and also the initial prototype IC's.  The simulation tools used by the VLSI contractor and the design engineer aid in the design of the IC and also the probability of the final product working successfully.

 

The future of VLSI technology in Simulation and Training is virtually untapped and is limited only by the vision of the design engineer.  A brief look into where the VLSI manufacturers are heading and how Simulator contractors may capitalize on these trends will be examined.

 

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A PROPOSED NEW SMOKE GENERATOR APPROACH

FOR TRAINING SYSTEMS

Edmund Swiatosz

Naval Training Equipment Center

 

A new approach for generating artificial smoke is proposed by the Naval Training Equipment Center (NAVTRAEQUIPCEN) for consideration for the Navy's shorebased and shipboard firefighting training facilities.  This approach avoids the limitations of currently available low capacity electrical smoke generators and high capacity hot gas systems.  The status and progress of a heat generating electrical resistance-tube approach is presented with particular emphasis given to heat transfer analysis as a design tool.  Hence it is possible to match more closely the thermal efficiency of the device with the high rates of heat transfer normally associated with boiling heat transfer.  The highly responsive thermal system is also utilized in conjunction with the resistance-tube as a sensing element for a temperature control bridge circuit.  The result is a variable and high capacity electric smoke generator, which until now has not been made available.  Also, proposed configurations of various plug-in and battery operated devices are presented.

 

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TOWARD THE IMPROVEMENT OF TRAINING SYSTEM ACQUISITION

THE COMPATIBILITY OF THE BEST VALUE

ACQUISITION STRATEGY WITH FRONT-END ANALYSIS

Richard Glennon

NAVTRAEQUIPCEN

 

Cheval Fagan

Eagle Technology, Inc.

 

Front-End Analysis to support the Acquisition of Training Systems has progressively gained advocates over the past several years.  Coincident with this phenomenon has been the evolving realization that the acquisition process could be improved by greater emphasis on technical competition and contract award based on Best Value.  The genesis of the Best Value Acquisition Strategy is the 1972 Report by the Commission on Government Procurement, which was followed by Design-to-Cost Concept(s), OMB Circular A-109, various DoD Directive and more recently E.O. 12352.

 

The Best Value Acquisition Strategy encompasses the concept that competition is enhanced when systems are specified in terms of "what" rather than "how."  Specification of "what" forces the attention of the specification writer away from the training device configuration and toward the user's training situation/problem.  Thus, Front-End Analysis must be conducted to provide data for the performance specification.

 

This paper illustrates that the Best Value Acquisition Strategy provides a forcing function for Front-End Analysis and that the merging of the Best Value Acquisition Strategy with Front End Analysis results in economical acquisition of effective training systems.  The advantages of this approach will e illustrated with references to acquisition of the LVT 7A1 Driver Training System and the Light Armored Vehicle (LAV) Training System.

 

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MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS IN COMPUTER EVALUATION

Jeffrey Pulcini

Perkin-Elmar Corporation

 

Quality and programmer productivity are more than the latest buzzwords.  The customer demands quality and productivity is essential in competitive procurements.  To that extent, the selection of the computer system should be a management issue as well as a technical issue.

 

This paper is directed towards managers who have previously limited their role as the decision maker in the world of computer selection and now see the need to take control of a business area that is a significant cost driver.

 

There are two major areas of interest in evaluating a computational system.  These major areas are:

 

1)       Evaluation of computer performance

2)       Program development environments.

 

Within each area of discussion, the results of research and management guidelines will be presented as applicable.

 

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PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS FOR FLIGHT SIMULATOR PROCUREMENT CONTRACTING

James W. Dees, Ph.D.

New Systems Training and Simulator Acquisition Division

Directorate of Training and Doctrine

US Army Aviation Center

 

Contracting for flight simulators has some unique problems and opportunities.  Because the flight simulator design must lag the design of the aircraft, scheduling flight simulator production to coincide with the initial aircraft production is very difficult.  At the same time, the government's sophistication in training effectiveness and reliability measurement offers an opportunity to greatly increase the responsiveness of industry by allowing industry a greater role in program definition.  This would be achieved by shifting the standard of contract compliance from hardware specifications to performance specifications.

 

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DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF USER-FRIENDLY

INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS

K.S.L. Setty, Robert Epps, and Ed Meara

The Singer Company, Link Flight Simulation Division

 

This paper presents a methodology developed through research, trade studies, and past experience for generating a specification of a "user-friendly" instructional system, taking proper account of specific training objectives, the training syllabus, crew tasks, and aircraft configuration.  Instructor control/display requirements are established for each element of each training exercise.  The control/display data are then converted into task-oriented formats that fit the overall schematic of the instructional system, task-oriented display and control being the basis of user-friendly instructional system development.  At any given time during a training mission, the instructor is confronted only with the data and control options that are pertinent for that particular phase of the training exercise.  Factors such as human engineering, decision-making, and workload of the instructor enter into the analysis.

 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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IOS HARDWARE USAGE AND TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS–

THE BEST APPROACH

Catherine Meyn, Computer Scientist

Tactical and Training Systems Division

Logicon, Inc.

 

Appropriate selection of hardware can simplify simulator operation as well as increase training effectiveness.  Generally, flight simulation groups are aware of this and plan accordingly.  Too often, however, hardware is selected without a complete front-end evaluation of the functional requirements of the application.  The effective use of hardware in the development of an instructor/operator station (IOS) is just as important as its selection.  This fact is often overlooked, partly due to the lack of money applied to this area and partly to an assumption that requirements from one simulator to another remain the same.

 

Most flight simulators are built as if the simulator and the IOS have the same requirements.  That is, the entire system is built around the concept of tight cycle times, generally ranging from 20-50 milliseconds (ms.).  Furthermore, the IOS will tend to resemble a cockpit in the sense that numerous repeater gauges are used.  For simulator realism, these concepts are very important.  However, an IOS has very different requirements from the flight simulator.  The IOS does not require tight cycle times, nor does it require real-time operation, except for certain monitoring capabilities.  The IOS should be an instructor support workstation.  It should not be used merely to control the simulation, but should enhance the training task, relieve the instructor of tasks unrelated to the training function, and collect data that is necessary in evaluating student progress.  An IOS requires instructor-oriented control, flexibility, and meaningful output.

 

Typical IOSs consist of function keyboards, CRTs, repeater gauges, and occasionally hardcopy.  More modern systems include high-resolution color graphics and digitized speech hardware.  While these trends are encouraging, the effective use of this hardware still lags behind current training requirements, causing a reduction in the training benefits which state-of-the-art hardware can provide.

 

This paper considers several types of IOS hardware devices in terms of their potential to support the training task.  It also discusses optimal ways to use this hardware to provide the appropriate instructor support while maximizing training effectiveness.

 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A NEW APPROACH TO AUTHORING COMPUTER-BASED TRAINING MATERIALS

Michael W. Allen, Ph.D.

Director, Research and Development

Artificial Intelligence

Control Data Corporation

 

Training materials are costly and difficult to develop because the process is highly creative (requiring exceptional talent), highly technical (requiring considerable knowledge and experience), and tedious (requiring time for development and refinement).  Unfortunately, most of our current tools seem to exacerbate the problem by challenging users to become expert in their use and by supporting an out-of-date notion about the linearity of the courseware design and development process.  This paper discusses a tool, which demonstrates the feasibility of dramatically improving authoring productivity and the quality of courseware products produced.  Essential aspects of the tool include: 1) editors which address one basic component of courseware at a time, 2) functions which connect components together after they have been defined, and 3) facilitation of successive changes to courseware components as a supported (actually favored) design strategy.

 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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BLENDING REALISM INTO A PROCEDURAL TRAINER

David G. Herr

Honeywell, T&CSO

 

A procedural trainer has many advantages in maintenance training.  Such a device provides low-cost training in checkout and troubleshooting procedures by monitoring the student and providing feedback for errors.  A higher-cost, fully modeled simulation, however, provides better transfer of training to real life situations because of increased realism.  A blend between these two extremes may provide the best of both.  A very successful blend has been achieved in the F-15 Aircraft Maintenance Trainer, in which models are overlaid on a procedural architecture.  This approach combines the monitoring of student performance and the realistic simulation provided by models.

 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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MAINTENANCE TRAINING–THE FREE-PLAY APPROACH

Hans W. Windmueller, Acquisition Director

Naval Training Equipment Center

 

In 1983, a New Generation Maintenance Trainer became operational at three Naval training sites.  These devices effectively simulate the operations and functional internal circuits of the MK-15 Phalanx Close-In Weapon System.  Additionally, they provide full simulation of six primary current sophisticated types of test equipment.  The simulation software program employed a modeling approach.  In so doing, software models were created for the systems, subsystems and circuits of the Phalanx, as well as each type of test equipment.  This approach has allowed the full-unconstrained utilization of the device in performing maintenance operations, procedures, diagnoses and analyses in a totally "free-play" environment.  As a result of its method of operation, the device allows not only maintenance training on some 480 insertable Phalanx systems malfunctions while using only Phalanx Operational Manuals, but also training on general purpose test equipment.

 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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AN INNOVATIVE APPROACH TO MAINTENANCE AIDING

Steve G. Kukla and Michael R. Morris

Westinghouse Electric Corporation

Technical Data and Training Systems

 

To meet the challenges facing the maintenance technician in the 1980's and 1990's, a new and highly effective tool has been developed -- Interactive Videodisc (IAVD) Maintenance Aids!  The following paper presents Westinghouse's experience with IAVD Maintenance Aiding concepts.  It addresses such topics as: 1) the capabilities of maintenance aiding; 2) design criteria for maintenance aids; 3) the Westinghouse Information Delivery System (WIDS); 4) typical applications for IAVD Maintenance Aiding Systems; 5) problems encountered in developing IAVD Maintenance Aids; and 6) a brief look at future developments.  This type of information should be of interest to individuals involved with military/industrial training, and in particular to those interested in videodisc-based applications.

 

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CONSIDERATIONS IN USING COLOR-CODED DISPLAYS AT

INSTRUCTOR STATIONS OF SIMULATORS

Anthony C. Beardsley, Ph.D. and T. P. McBrien

Sperry Electronic Systems

 

The state-of-the-art of using color-coded video displays in modern day simulators necessitates looking at the human factor elements and the efficiency of whether the use of color is necessary at the instructor operator station.  This paper covers some fundamental aspects of the physiology of color vision and the human factor considerations that need to be addressed in the design of video displays.  Experiences encountered by Sperry in its design of CRT displays have led to a preliminary color convention.  Finally, a list of recommendations and suggestions are provided as a guide in the design of color-coded displays.

 

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THE APPLICATION OF ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY

TO SURFACE WARFARE TRAINING

Kent E. Williams, Ph.D.

Ship Analytics, Incorporated

 

Richard E. Reynolds, Ph.D.

Human Factors Laboratory

Naval Training Equipment Center

 

The Human Factors Laboratory of the Naval Training Equipment Center is developing a demonstration/research surface warfare training simulation system for combat officers.  The system integrates and expands the automated instructional software features developed for the Submarine Advanced Reactive Tactical Training System (SMARTTS) with portions of the tactical modeling originally developed for the Naval Tactical Game (NAVTAG) in a real time simulation environment.  The objectives of the Surface Warfare Advanced Training Technology (SWATT) Research and Development Facility are twofold:  (1) to demonstrate the feasibility of applying advanced training techniques and software/hardware technology to surface warfare trainers and (2) to evaluate as well as to enhance tactical team/individual decisionmaking performance against multiple threats.  This paper briefly discusses the evolution of SWATT, its characteristics, and the relationship of its technological features to improvements in tactical decisionmaking training.  Key research issues employing SWATT are also discussed.

 

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USE OF FLIGHT TEST RESULTS TO IMPROVE THE FLIGHT SIMULATION FIDELITY OF THE LAMPS MK III HELICOPTER OPERATIONAL FLIGHT TRAINER

Michael R. Hazen

Senior Staff Systems Engineer

The Singer Company, Link Flight Simulation Division

 

This paper discusses the procedure used to improve the flight simulation fidelity of the LAMPS MK III Operational Flight Trainer.  Early involvement of customer and airframe manufacturer personnel and their continued support throughout the simulator development program had a significant influence on the flight fidelity of the delivered training device.  Automated performance evaluation and sensitivity analysis tools were developed to identify and isolate simulator flight performance problems.  These tools and the techniques used to modify simulator flight performance characteristics to agree more closely with aircraft flight test results are described in this paper, along with examples of typical performance improvements.

 

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THE ON-BOARD GUNNERY SIMULATOR (OBGS)–

A SMALL SIMULATOR WITH HIGH PERFORMANCE

A. Kada, Ingenieur des Etudes et Techniques d'Armement

Ministry of Defense/SEFT

 

M. Perrin, Project Manager, Army Programs

Thomson-SCF Division Simulators

 

The French Army has ordered a large quantity of On-Board Gunnery Simulators (OBGS) for the intensive training of gunners on small caliber cannon at their regiments.  Small and versatile, the OBGS can be fitted to a large number of armored vehicles and anti-aircraft guns.  The simulator generates a simplified synthetic image in the gunsight reproducing a variety of air and ground target attack scenarios including the tracers appropriate to the weapon simulated.  It has the salient advantage of providing training on the real weapon without wear on the equipment or expenditure of ammunition.  The instructor operates near the weapon used by the simulator.  He can continuously monitor the target and aiming data and the firing results and can call upon a range of progressively graded training aids.  A built in test facility gives immediate and precise diagnosis of all failures, which can be repaired rapidly on-site.  Delivery of the first series of 50 OBGS commenced at the beginning of 1984.

 

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USER REPROGRAMMABILITY IN EW TRAINERS

Rollin L. Olson

Senior Engineering Analyst

AAI Corporation

 

There is a general trend toward user reprogrammability in EW equipment, as exemplified by the ARL-74 Radar Warning Receive and ALQ-165 ASPJ jammer.  EW trainers are likewise moving toward greater reprogrammability by the user.  EW trainers have large databases for simulated threats and ownship equipment.  Reprogramming enables the user to keep the trainer current with updated threat data and with modified versions of EW equipment employed in the trainer.  EW trainers are reprogrammed by changing input data.  Data can be performance parameters or control data that trigger various functions in the trainer software.  Off-line data editors ease the task of changing data.  A number of problems remain in the generation and use of reprogramming facilities.  The first is the definition of user requirements.  Second, the user must collect and digest data to make updates.  Finally, the user must contend with configuration control problems if each user site can reprogram the trainers separately.

 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIAL FUNCTION TRAINERS

FOR ELECTRONIC COMBAT SKILLS

Scott D. Butzke and Scott A. Mankey

University of Dayton Research Institute

Williams Air Force Base

 

The Air Force Human Resources Laboratory (AFHRL), in conjunction with the University of Dayton Research Institute (UDRI), has developed the Special Function Trainer (SFT) to meet today's changing training requirements.  An SFT is a microcomputer-based training package designed to be used by a student or instructor to acquire new skills or improve existing ones.  Two prototype SFTs have been developed: The Radar Warning Receiver (RWR) SFT, and the Threat Recognition Trainer (TRT) SFT.  The RWR SFT provides complete instruction on the use of the RWR, including interactive text and malfunction analysis.  The TRT SFT provides generic threat training, including simulated hostile environments and graphical/textual threat briefings for virtually all anti-aircraft threats.

 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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STATE-OF-THE-ART COMPUTER TOOLS FOR PERFORMING A TRAINING REQUIREMENTS ANALYSIS–A CASE STUDY

Robert H. Schaefer

Senior Instructional Design Engineer

Grumman Aerospace Corporation

 

A reason often cited for not performing a front end Training Requirements Analysis (TRA) is that it is too expensive.  The opponents often point to the labor-intensive efforts required to sort, organize, collate and format the thousands of data items into the final report.  The continuing maturation of computer technology, particularly database management and word processing systems, offers technological levers that can significantly reduce the number of man hours needed to perform a TRA. 

 

This paper presents two state-of-the-art-computerized techniques used as part of a recently conducted TRA.  These techniques proved to be a viable solution to the problem of processing and managing the large quantity of data in a timely and efficient manner.  The paper discusses how word processing and database management can be used cooperatively to achieve:

 

1)       Rapid creation and validation of the learning objective database, and

2)       Organization and structuring of the database into formats which meet current Military Standard requirements.

 

The paper describes, within the context of accepted Instructional Systems Development (ISD) practices, the specific functions which benefit most from automation, as well as the steps necessary to achieve that benefit.  A specific system configuration, including both word processor and database management, is presented, along with a discussion of actual qualitative and quantitative results obtained.

 

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COMPUTER AIDED AUTHORING OF PROCEDURAL TRAINING DOCUMENTS

Richard Braby, J. Peter Kincaid, and Paul G. Scott

Training Analysis and Evaluation Group

Naval Training Equipment Center

 

This paper describes the design and computer production of highly illustrated training materials to teach complex operating procedures.  Procedure training is the most common type of military training and is widely perceived as needing improvement.  The training materials described in this paper, and the computer routines used to create them, have been successfully field-tested in teaching selected operating procedures of the SH-3D/H aircraft. A typical page is highly illustrated and follows a strict format, including an overview of the equipment, and pictorial close-ups for action and response.  Narrative description is kept to a minimum.  Computer routines can control vocabulary by checking each word against carefully developed lists (including technical words, abbreviations and nomenclature).  In addition to the book, the procedural training package includes a detailed line drawing or photograph of the equipment's control panel (paper mock-up); students continually refer to the paper mock-up during their learning.  Formats and word lists are now incorporated into draft specifications for the Naval Technical Information Presentation Program, an automated process to produce technical information for new Navy systems.

 

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AN INSTRUCTIONAL INTERACTIVE MAINTENANCE TRAINING SYSTEM FOR U. S. ROLAND MAINTENANCE INSTITUTIONAL TRAINER–

APPLIED CBT IN 2D-3D DEVICES

John M. Jensen

Boeing Aerospace

 

Charles Perilli

United States Army, Fort Bliss

 

The U.S. Army ROLAND Missile Defense System required a maintenance training system for electrical, hydraulic and test equipment tasks which would reduce training time, reduce the need for operational equipment and sustain skill and proficiency.  This paper describes the training system development approach for design, an innovative software/hardware technology, and an intelligent courseware implementation process.  Within a 14-month schedule and budget constraints MICOM contracted to develop a low cost state-of-the-art training system designed to "best commercial practices" that would meet the Army requirement.  Using ISD principles of TRADOC Pamphlet 350-30, a front-end analysis determined the training tasks and a task/media analysis determined the training approach and device requirements.  A functional specification was prepared to define the training task list, device characteristics, and engineering discipline.

 

A HP 1000 computer hosts the trainer executive control system software and courseware database.  The training device integrates high-resolution graphics, computer synthesized sounds and voice, a video disk system with text overlay, and 3D displays and controls for system monitor and mode selection.  Student records are maintained by the executive software.  The system is courseware driven and is easily programmed for training scenarios or changed by subject matter experts without the need for software programming skills.

 

The training system was installed at Ft. Bliss, Texas, in October 1983, and is currently being used to train personnel of the New Mexico National Guard.  Results to this point show that the system provides exceptionally effective training.  Skills learned on the trainer are readily transferable to the system hardware.  A much more favorable student to instructor ratio is achieved than is possible when training on system hardware.  An additional benefit derived provides students with excellent training in the use of technical manuals associated with the ROLAND Air Defense System.

 

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ATTACKING TRAINER COST FOR UNDERGRADUATE

JET PILOT TRAINING PROGRAM

Walter S. Chambers and James J. Riley

NAVTRAEQUIPCEN

 

The Navy T-45 Trainer System (T45-TS) will expand the role of Visual Flight Rule (VFR) training in simulators to increase cost effectiveness of the overall Student Naval Aviator (SNA) program.  While today's simulator visual technology can support training beyond field take off and landing to include introductions to carrier landing, weapon delivery, formation flight and low level navigation, it must be achieved with lower life cycle cost trainers than those supporting fleet aircraft.  Lower cost technologies must be examined by reductions in the trainer's capabilities from proven training effective approaches must validated through training evaluation.  If achieving trainer cost goals leads to loss of training effectiveness, the low cost trainer may be the most costly to the training program.  The Navy is applying in-house as well as contractor resources in a research and evaluation program to meet this goal of defining an affordable training effective T-45 simulator visual system.  Specific training tasks such as weapon delivery, carrier landing and formation flight normally requiring higher cost simulator implementations are being investigated in a series of training transfer experiments.  The high cost equipment factors of display field of view size and type of scene content (i.e., dusk versus day) for SNA training are the principal research issues.  The findings from current training experiments and planned evaluations to provide inputs to complete the guidelines are presented.

 

Carrier landing training of some 90 SNA's under simulator conditions of day or night, wide or narrow angle displays, and part or whole task training are compared with non-simulator trained pilots by evaluating their subsequent field carrier landing and carrier landing performance in the T2C aircraft.  Thirty degree dive bomb training of SNA's will be evaluated under simulator conditions of day or dusk and alternate field of view arrangements and evaluated by their subsequent TA4J aircraft performance of this task.

 

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THE AIR COMBAT SIMULATOR (ACS)–A REAL TACTICAL TRAINING TOOL

M. Picard, Military Aircraft Project Manager

Thomson-CSF Division Simulators

 

The training requirements and the project schedule for the ACS (Ai Combat Simulator) will be presented first.  Then, after a brief description of the technical principles and components used in the simulator, will follow a more detailed presentation of the equipment, emphasizing the system features: high realism, versatility, variety of operational conditions, powerful and easy-to-use instructor's facilities, maintainability, flexibility for future modifications.  Finally, last point to be presented will consist of comments about the visual environment generation system: general organization, horizon projector, target projector, computer-generated imagery and missile projector.  The simulator described herein is to be delivered to the French Air Force in the last few days of 1984.

 

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ASW SIMULATION–PAST/PRESENT/FUTURE

Dr. Leonard D. Healy and William J. Curran

Naval Training Equipment Center

 

Realism in presentation of visual and aural displays is the key to effective antisubmarine warfare (ASW) training.  Early ASW trainers were forced to make compromises in realism and to make extensive use of operational equipment to provide adequate training.  The generation of ASW trainers currently being procured offers vast improvement in display realism by making use of the explosive growth in computer technology and high-resolution graphics systems.  Future trainers promise tabletop, part-task trainers to provide instruction at the unit level and operator and team tactics trainers with the realism of the operational equipment without the associated cost.  The high cost of operational equipment makes the use of stimulation prohibitively expensive for large tactical team trainers.  Team tactics trainers are using simulation of the sonar displays on commercial graphics systems.  Commercial graphics systems are also being used in the development of low-cost tabletop trainers.  Research is contributing to future trainers that will close the gap between the simulator and the stimulation of operational equipment, with lookalike consoles that will provide both the appearance and the features of the operational equipment.  This paper not only describes the development of ASW trainers from the earliest concepts, but also presents current research leading to significant advances in the realism of simulated ASW displays.

 

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COMMERCIAL SIMULATOR ACQUISTION

A THREE-WAY GUIDE

Arthur B. Doty, Director of Engineering, Deputy for Simulators

Harold Kottmann, Deputy Director of Engineering, Deputy for Simulators

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

 

This paper explores a comparison of the Air Force flight simulator acquisition process, program structure and the commercial counterpart.  The data is developed from the standpoint of a user (airline), the simulator developer and the airframe company.  In addition, the impact of the regulatory environment is explored.  This four-way analysis was compartmented into management, engineering, test, and logistic considerations, and the overall cost implications.  This approach provides complete insight into the commercial process and allows a precise focus on how the Air Force can adapt and utilize commercial practices to advantage in military acquisition.  A strong point is made on the support the transport airframe companies provide to training simulators in the form of transportable software, data, data validation and airframe parts.  The economies available to the airlines through single sites for all the simulators and allied advantages in high quality personnel for maintenance and support are developed in some detail.  The paper concludes with discussion of some immediate implementation steps the Air Force is taking to obtain some benefits from commercial practice.  In addition, there will be discussion of some more fundamental long-term technical and management actions, which will be instituted to take more complete advantage of adaptation of the commercial process.

 

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C-5 AIRCREW TRAINING SYSTEM

Major Ronald N. Tucker, Chief, MAC C-5 ATS TEAM

Altus Air Force Base

and

Captain Robert G. Speer, C-5 ATS Deputy Program Manager

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

 

This paper discusses the problems and successes of the joint Military Airlift Command and Aeronautical Systems Division team in the C-5 Aircrew Training System (ATS) acquisition.  Areas of discussion include: definition of user requirements, lessons learned in communication and staffing, writing of a system specification, statement of work and instructions to offerors, description of the modified commercial approach being used, and contract structure and restrictions.  Definition of user requirements was handled by Military Airlift Command.  The acquisition process was initiated in July 1`983.  MAC's requirement is for an efficient and manageable training program, which spans the entire spectrum of ground, based training for C-5 aircrew members, as pilots, flight engineers and loadmasters.  The system is to be completely designed, built and implemented by a single prime contractor, and provides the required training at three sites.  Communication of MAC's needs and staffing of those documents required in the acquisition presented a time problem.  To facilitate this process during the early stages, subject matter experts/training managers were assigned to assist the ASD team.  As the team produced the drafts of the system specification and statement of work, modifications to this arrangement were made to incorporate headquarters personnel to speed up user approval process.  Final writing and update to the RFP following industry comments to the draft were accomplished jointly by HQ MAC personnel working directly with the ASD team.

 

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REUSABLE SOFTWARE–TOWARD RECONFIGURABLE TRAINER SYSTEMS

Dr. Leonard D. Healy and Dr. Kenneth E. Wagner

Naval Training Equipment Center

 

As the degree of sophistication of military equipment has increased, there has been a corresponding increase in the complexity of trainers, not only for the equipment, but also for the inter and intra service environments in which such military equipment will be used.  The most explosive area has been computer software.  Trainers and training systems have become a software-intense product.  However, for a number of reasons, the perception of training systems users and training systems manufacturers alike is that each new training requirement is unique to such an extent that the required software must be newly developed each time.  What are the causes of that perception, and is that perception accurate?  Could software modules, which perform specific functions, be transportable among several training system families?  Will the training system manufacturer who first proposes reusable software be in a position of favor for successive training system contracts?  This paper not only addresses these questions, but also speculates on some in-roads, which are being made in transportable training system software, and examines the opportunities, which this approach presents.  One of the most significant of these is making training systems themselves able to be configured in multiple ways.

 

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MODULAR MICROCOMPUTERS FOR TRAINERS

Edward M. Holler

Naval Training Equipment Center

 

There is a critical need for standard lower cost computer systems in Navy trainers.  The proliferation of computer hardware and software has kept procurement, maintenance, update, and training costs high on most Navy systems.  Microcomputer and computer graphics technology offers an exceptional opportunity to improve the capabilities and reduce the costs of trainers requiring computer systems.  However, the benefits of this technology cannot be fully realized unless the proliferation problem is solved.  This paper discusses an approach to microcomputer design and development that will take full advantage of microcomputer technology and reduce the computer proliferation problem.  The basis premise is as follows: a standard general purpose microcomputer architecture combined with high level language application software can substantially reduce costs of all new trainers.  The navy is currently examining microcomputer architectures and development approaches that can be optimized for a wide range of trainer applications.  Applications include flight simulators, Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) trainers, and warfare operations trainers, etc.  This paper reports on a research project at the Naval Training Equipment Center (NAVTRAEQUIPCEN) which is currently investigating the use of microcomputer technology in Navy training systems.  The following topics will be discussed:

 

1)             microcomputer architecture;

2)             control of multiple microcomputers;

3)             software development facility and approach;

4)             test and evaluation plan; and

5)             conclusions.

 

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IMPLEMENTATION OF A DISTRIBUTED BUS ARCHITECTURE ON A TRAINER SYSTEM

Brian D. Crouch and Robert A. Severino

Hughes Aircraft Company

Ground Systems Group

 

Trainers with a centralized architecture have inherent limitations on expandability, reconfigurability and ease of integration.  The motivation for this project stems from the inability of the centralized architecture to address the complexity of individual, subteam, and team communication requirements for future trainers.  With recent advances in commercial implementations of local area network technologies, trainer systems can be designed to overcome these limitations and offer other advantages.  This paper discloses the research, selection, integration and demonstration of distributed bus architecture for trainer systems.  First in the paper, an analysis of top-level trainer system requirements is given from which specific bus performance characteristics are derived.  An in-depth discussion of the network selection process includes an explanation of the network selection criteria along with the specific characteristics of several comparable local area networks.  Next, a description is given of the implementation of a commercial fiber optic ETHERNET network.  The upper layers of network protocol software are presented.  This bus system was demonstrated as a validation of research findings.  Data throughput rates, derived from both theoretical predictions and laboratory measurements, is disclosed for typical trainer configurations.  A performance model written in BASIC, which allows predictions of the bus performance based upon user input of trainer configuration, is described and will be distributed to interested parties.

 

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SELECTING A PROCESSING SYSTEM FOR A SONAR TRAINER

M. H. Stephenson, Jr. and C. Baker

Honeywell, Inc.

and

E. B. Smith

Naval Training Equipment Center

 

In order to meet ever-expanding training requirements, the size and complexity of the trainers/simulators being procured in training systems are continually growing.  This implies that for "real-time" trainers/simulators the number of computations per second (or computational throughput) is also increasing.  This paper defines four techniques used to increase computational throughput, these are:

 

1)          Use a faster, more powerful, general-purpose computer as the single major computational unit of the trainer.

 

2)          Spread the computational requirements over several general-purpose computers using distributed processing techniques.

 

3)          Spread the computational requirements over several computers using "federated" processing techniques.

 

4)          Use unique design special purpose computational units.

 

A given trainer/simulator may, of course, use a combination of these four techniques, but generally one will predominate.

 

The major advantages and disadvantages of each technique are given.  Next the requirements for a representative sonar trainer are detailed, and an evaluation of trainer requirements versus trainer architectural type characteristics performed.  In this particular example, a preliminary evaluation eliminated a single large computer and multiple special purpose processor concepts as the primary system architectural type, and then a more detailed evaluation of distributed and federated types is conducted.

 

For this example, and for the time frame of the analysis, a federated processing system is judged to be the most cost-effective.

 

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AN/SLQ-32 STIMULATION USING A COMPUTER STIMULATION TRAINER ARCHITECTURE

L. M. Chaikin

AAI Corporation

 

The capacity and complexity of today's operational equipment require intensive training to realize full system's capabilities.  To meet that training need by stimulation of the device at the RF or video level could require hardware that exceeds the operational equipment in size and complexity.  It is therefore necessary to explore alternative simulation architectures.  One such possibility is to interface the simulation at the operations device computer.  Since much of the functionality of current operational equipment resides in the algorithms programmed into the device computer, high fidelity of simulation can be achieved by interfacing at this point, since thes4e algorithms are fully stimulated.  In addition the simulation will be stable if there are upgrades to the operational program.  The simulators may even be used to test the response of the changed algorithms to complex environments.  This is less expensive than using full RF or video stimulation, and the resulting simulator is packaged more tightly.  Therefore, this kind of simulation closely approaches the organic training concept.

 

To illustrate these points, the SLQ-32 simulation developed as part of the Perry Class Pierside Combat Systems Team Trainer, Device 20B5, will be used.  Not only the strengths, but also some of the pitfalls of interfacing a simulator to the device computer will be discussed.  Methods of solution and tradeoff requirements are covered which result from such causes as real-time constraints imposed by the operational program, simultaneous control of the simulation by the host and device computers, and simulation validation.  The results demonstrate that with proper design consideration a flexible, high fidelity simulation can be achieved by the use of this interface point.

 

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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE–EXPERT SYSTEM (M-16A1 RIFLE)

Albert H. Marshall

Gary Bond, Bon Shaw, Edward Purvis, Randy Fields

Naval Training Equipment Center

 

Admiral Piper

United States Army, Project Manager, Training Devices

 

A program of research to develop an Artificial Intelligence (AI) Research Test Bed has been jointly initiated by the Army Project Manager for Training Devices, the Army Human Engineering Laboratory, and the Naval Training Equipment Center's Research Department.  The objectives of the program are twofold.  First, it is desired to explore how to design intelligent computer assisted instruction systems to perform teaching roles now performed by humans.  Second, through systematic experimental studies, it is desired to acquire the basic knowledge needed to design cost efficient training systems for future line-of-sight direct fire weapon systems.  Presently, the test bed's design includes an experimental M-16A1 rifle marksmanship prototype training device and an AI training computer.  The training device comprises a terrain model board; a demilitarized M-16A1 rifle instrumented to measure the shooters aiming point, sight adjustment, and trigger control; a physiological measurement subsystem; and a microcomputer system.  The training computer will be a LISP machine interfaced to the simulation microcomputer.  An expert system will reside on the training computer to provide surrogate instructor functionality for the test.  This paper describes the test bed with emphasis on those components nearing completion and soon to be made available for experimental use.  The physiological measurement subsystem and AI training computer are currently in the design phase, and are described in functional terms only.

 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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MODELING COMPUTERIZED DEVICES IN MAINTENANCE TRAINERS

Randy Saunders, Principal Software Engineer

Honeywell Inc.

Training and Control Systems Operations

 

Widespread use of microprocessors in military systems brings new challenges to the development of maintenance trainers. Modeling of analog phenomena requires accurate translation of continuous physical equations into computer form.  Modeling the computerized devices requires significantly different skills than would be required to handle purely analog devices.  An effective approach to integrating the digital and analog system models is presented here, and the benefits to maintenance training are illustrated.

 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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AUTOMATIC PRODUCTION OF MIL-STD-1644 DOCUMENTATION

Robin David Spital

AAI Corporation

 

In order to streamline the development of trainer software, to improve the quality of software documentation required by MIL-STD-1644, and to reduce the labor required to produce that documentation, an automated documentation system has been developed.  It revolves around a centralized store of information, which is fleshed out by special software into deliverable MIL-STD-1644 documentation.  The same system writes FORTRAN specification statements for all software modules, thereby guaranteeing error-free module interfaces.  It also permits interactive use of a central dictionary of program symbols throughout the course of trainer software development.  The system, examined by the paper in detail, has been proved extremely effective by experience with its use on the Perry Class Pierside Combat System Team Trainer (Device 10B5).

 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ESTIMATING CURRICULA DEVELOPMENT COSTS–

A MODEL BASED UPON THE COMPLEXITY OF THE LEARNING TASKS

Dee H. Andrews and Charles A. Beagles

Naval Training Equipment Center

 

In every curriculum development effort, whether it is done in-house or under contract, it is necessary to estimate the funds, which will be required for completion of the effort.  Too often, this cost estimation is calculated using nonsystematic methods.  Usually, the estimator's individual intuition and past experience are the only bases for this crucial work.  The final curriculum often suffers when poor initial cost estimation leads to either deficient resources for the development effort or wasted funds because of over-estimation.  This paper details a method for systematically estimating curriculum development costs.  The proposed method breaks the projected development effort down into the tasks called for by the Instructional Systems Development (ISD) model (i.e., objective development, instructional sequencing, etc.).  The work effort required to perform these ISD tasks is then examined in light of the total length of the course and the projected hourly costs for development time.  Using this method, a curriculum cost estimate is developed which is based upon the learning complexity of the tasks to be trained.  The tasks to be trained can be divided into five categories (Gagne, 1979): verbal information, intellectual skills, motor skills, attitudes, and cognitive strategies.

 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE F/A-18 INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM–

A MILITARY USER MANAGEMENT VIEWPOINT

LCDR Christian R. Rondestvedt, USN

Instructional System Development Officer

Strike Fighter Squadron One Two Five

Naval Air Station, Lenmoore

 

This paper describes the VFA-125 Instructional System Development (ISD) Officer's management viewpoint of the F/A-18 (ISD) program from Fleet Introduction Team activation to the present.  This description will show the impact of ISD on the current F/A-18 Fleet Replacement Squadron's remarkable safety record of over 25,000 accident-free flight hours.  The contractor/military interface is examined along with the simulator/media mix that resulted for both aircrew training and the Fleet Replacement Aviation Maintenance Personnel Program (FRAMP).  The Fleet Replacement Squadron ISD organization is explained to illustrate military involvement in all aspects of the ISD process.  Finally, by describing the process of Training Model Manager (TMM) charter development, the potential for including ISD concepts in the design phase of new weapons systems is considered.

 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE TEAM APPROACH TO AVIATION MAINTENANCE TRAINING IN SUPPORT OF HIGH PERFORMANCE WEAPONS SYSTEMS IN THE EIGHTIES

Dr. Gary F. Goddard

VFA – 125, NAS Lemoore

 

The aviation maintenance technicians in today's United States Navy and Marine Corps squadrons are highly motivated young men and women that bring unique demands to the training environments supporting them.  The state of the art weapons systems emerging throughout the services would have been considered as fantasy or "Buck Rogers" until just a few years ago.  As a result, the senior military managers can no longer rely on the ingenuity of the chief or sarge to provide the training necessary to support the military requirements for trained personnel.  The young men and women are being tasked with maintaining highly sophisticated aircraft under the arduous conditions found afloat and in other adverse situations that can be found in the military environment.  The F/A-18 Hornet aircraft, the LAMPS Mark III helicopter and the AV-8B Harrier are highly technical aircraft that have created exceptionally challenging maintenance training requirements.  The thrust of this paper is designed to address those challenges and will use actual training strategies employed in the introduction of the F/A-18 Hornet aircraft.  Major issues to be addressed include: maintenance training in a high tech environment, Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) applications for the maintenance technician, cost benefits in the utilization of contractor support in FRAMP, and success of Instructional Systems Development strategies in the FRAMP.

 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SOFTWARE QUALITY ASSURANCE FOR AIRCREW TRAINING DEVICES

Thomas F. Ehrhorn, CMSgt, USAF

Lawrence E. Eamigh, MSgt, USAF

Detachment 1, 4200^th Test and Evaluation Squadron

Castle Air Force Base

 

Aircrew training devices have evolved from relatively simple analog devices to extremely complex multi-station digital simulators.  Software maintenance of these new devices requires an effective quality assurance (QA) program–one that is active from the start of a project through its completion–to insure that changes are done correctly and efficiently.  Quality control, which concerns itself only with final results rather than methods, is inadequate.  Under the quality assurance approach, each project is broken down into five phases, each ending with a quality assurance phase review.  In each phase the quality assurance technician contributes a great deal to the final success of the project while still insuring that standards are met.  This approach, and only this approach, can insure future supportability and training effectiveness.

 

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EFFECTIVENESS OF THE C-130 WEAPON SYSTEM TRAINER

FOR TACTICAL AIRCREW TRAINING

Robert T. Nullmeyer

Operations Training Division

Air Force Human Resources Laboratory

Williams Air Force Base

 

Marty R. Rockway

University of Dayton Research Institute

Williams Air Force Base

 

Transfer of training from the C-130 WST to the aircraft was assessed in a Follow-on Operational Test and Evaluation (FOT&E).  The study was accomplished in three phases corresponding to initial qualification (Phase I), mission qualification (Phase II) and continuation (Phase III) training.  In the first phase the nature of skill acquisition and the impact of WST training were addressed using student copilots who were learning approaches, landings, and engine-out go-arounds.  In the second phase, WST training effectiveness was assessed for lead and formation flight, maximum effort landings, and recoveries using mission qualification pilots.  In the third phase, effectiveness for engine-out take-offs and windmill taxi starts was assessed using mission ready pilots.  Training in the WST generally transferred positively to the aircraft as measured by proficiency ratings and by sorties to criterion.  Recommendations for modifying the WST curriculum were made based on these results as well as other observations made during the FOT&E.

 

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EXPERIENCE WITH THE TANK DRIVING SIMULATOR

FOR THE MBT LEOPARD 1

LTC Wolfgang Kruse, Dipl.-Ing

General Army Office (Heeresamt). West Germany

 

Since 1977, German Army tank drivers have been trained by using an integrated system of special training equipment, driving simulators and training tanks.  Due to legal demands, military necessities, and training processes a 10-days training program has been developed which seems to be optimum to time–and cost–effectiveness.  Training results and cost-effectiveness calculations, which are also made for different armored vehicles, and training concepts show the advantage of this system.  A comparison of aircraft-, tank- and car simulators with respect to cost and surrounding influences leads to difficulties in simulation of surrounding conditions.  Simulation of traffic is proposed to be a future research program to solve this problem.

 

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