|
Simulation
Systems and
Applications,
Inc. |
|
| Info Engineering | ||||
| Company Info | Press Releases | Simulation Resources | Tampa Bay Links | |
I/ITSEC 1985 – 7th I/ITSEC
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LOCK-STEP VS. FREE-PLAY MAINTENANCE
TRAINING DEVICES: DEFINITIONS AND ISSUES
FIELD RADAR
& COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS BENEFIT FROM SINGLE DESIGN/MULTIPLE USE O & M
TRAINERS
the impact
of artificial intelligence on maintenance training
NEW
TECHNOLOGY ENHANCEMENTS TO INSTRUCTOR OPERATOR STATIONS
DEVELOPMENT
OF AN INSTRUCTOR STATION DESIGN GUIDE
PERFORMANCE
MONITORING AND INTELLIGENT TRAINING
ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE APPLICATIONS FOR TRAINING SEEKING THE PRAGMATIC MIDDLE GROUND
USING AN
EXPERT SYSTEM FOR INTERACTIVE AND REMEDIAL TRAINING
AN EXPERT
SURROGATE INSTRUCTOR FOR ACQUISITION OF COGNITIVE AND MOTOR SKILLS IN RIFLE
MARKMANSHIP
METHODOLOGIES
FOR EXTRACTING KNOWLEDGE: BUILDING AN EXPERT SYSTEM FOR TRAINING SIMULATIORS
HIGH
FIDELITY EMITTER SCRIPTING – A SIMPLIFIED APPROACH
CORRELATION
OF SENSOR DATA BASES IN THE FULL-MISSION TRAINING SIMULATOR
VISUAL DATA
BASE DESIGN AND IG EMULATION: A GRAPHICAL
APPROACH
PROVIDING
HIGH PERFORMANCE VISUAL SIMULATION AT LOW COST
A VLSI-BASED
DIGITAL IMAGE GENERATOR
EXPLOITING
TEXTURE IN AN INTEGRATED TRAINING ENVIRONMENT
AN IDEAL
OPERATING SYSTEM FOR SIMULATORS
DEVELOPMENT
OF COMMON SOFTWARE FOR MILITARY TRAINER SYSTEMS
USE OF THE
ADA LANGUAGE SYSTEM IN CONFIGURATION CONTROL OF FORTRAN BASED SOFTWARE
DIGITAL
CONTROL LOADING AND MOTION THE FINAL WORD?
SIMULATING
GROWING THUNDERSTORM ECHOES FOR WEATHER RADAR TRAINING
ADVANCED
DYNAMIC SEATS: AN ALTERNATIVE TO PLATFORM MOTION?
REAL-TIME
SIMULATORS: DEALING WITH THEIR GROWING COMPLEXITY
DISTRIBUTED
PROCESSING FOR COMPLEX SIMULATORS
MODULAR,
FUNCTIONALLY-DISTRIBUTED,
MICROPROCESSOR-BASED SIMULATION: ONCE A CONCEPT - - NOW A FACT
AN EMBEDDED
IMAGE GENERATION SYSTEM FOR FIELD TRAINING
VISUAL
DISPLAY RESEARCH TOOL PERFORMANCE VS. DESIGN GOALS
GUARDFIST
THE GUARD UNIT ARMORY DEVICE, FULL CREW INTERACTIVE SIMULATION TRAINER
ON-BOARD
TRAINING IN ELECTRONIC COMBAT
THE SHUTTLE
MISSION SIMULATION–FROM DESIGN CONCEPTS TO AN OPERATIONAL TRAINING DEVICE
AUTOMATION
IN THE TRAINING ANALYSIS PROCESS
WATER
SURVIVAL TRAINING DEVICE TRAINING FOR ATTITUDE AS WELL AS SKILL
SICOMORE–A
NEW CONCEPT FOR NAVAL SIMULATORS
RISK ANALYSIS
IN MAJOR TRAINER ACQUISITION
THE COST
DATA BASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (CDBMS)
MANAGEMENT
OF THE SOFTWARE PROBLEM
A SOFTWARE
ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR FLIGHT SIMULATORS
CONFIGURATION
MANAGEMENT IN A SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT
AN
ALTERNATIVE TO ISD IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRAINING PACKAGES FOR THE LAVI FIGHTER
AIRCRAFT
THE
APPLICATION OF FRONT-END ANALYSIS TO THE ACQUISITION OF AIR FORCE TRAINING
SYSTEMS
OVERKILL OR
GOOD ENOUGH? A PRAGMATIC APPROACH TO DEFINE TRAINER REQUIREMENTS
F-16
SIMULATORS–WHAT HAVE WE LEARNED?
ADA FROM THE
VIEWPOINT OF SOFTWARE ADAPTABILITY AND MAINTAINABILITY
NEW COAST
GUARD SIMULATORS–OUR FOUR-YEAR EXPERIENCE
COMPUTER-BASED
INSTRUCTION: ARE YOU READY?
THE ARMY’S
INTEGRATED TRAINING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
A
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ISD PROCEDURAL MODELS
INSTRUCTIONAL
FEATURES AND THE USER
THE HUMAN
SIDE OF COMPUTER-BASED TRAINING
THE NEXT TRAINING
CHALLENGE FOR SIMULATION–TEAM TRAINING
TEAMWORK
FROM TEAM TRAINING–NEW DIRECTIONS
A
PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM FOR TRAINING SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
INTEGRATING
COURSEWARE & GRAPHICS: A TOTAL USER PACKAGE
USER-DIRECTED
TRAINER ARCHITECTURE
CONTRACTOR
SUPPORT, HOW CAN WE ENSURE TRAINING DEVICE AVAILABILITY?
USE OF THE
COMPUTER READABILITY EDITING SYSTEM
FAULT
INSERTION IMPROVES MAINTENANCE TRAINING
|
LOCK-STEP VS. FREE-PLAY MAINTENANCE TRAINING DEVICES: DEFINITIONS AND ISSUES Dee H. Andrews Human Factors Division Naval Training
Systems Center Hans W. Windmueller Maintenance Trainers
Branch Naval Training
Systems Center Increasing computer
capability together with greater understanding of the learning process has
resulted in improvements in the instructional capability of training
devices. This complexity has spawned
a great diversity in training device design approaches. Nowhere is this diversity more apparent
(and often less understood), than in the design if maintenance trainers. The military is currently procuring both
lock-step and free-play maintenance trainers at significant cost. Lock-step trainers lead the trainee
through prescribed maintenance training in a pre-determined, pre-programmed
fashion. Free-play trainers have no
prescribed maintenance path.
Trainees, therefore, are free to perform any set of procedures in any
sequence. The device simulates real
equipment in every way possible and will not automatically freeze when a
mistake is made. Unfortunately, the
purposes of the two device types are often confused. Decreased training effectiveness and
increased cost are commonly the result. This paper examines
differences between lock-step and free-play maintenance trainers and explores
appropriate uses of each. Major
issues which should be considered when determining how much free-play and/or
lock-step to design into a training device are discussed in the paper. These issues include the expertise of the
trainee; complexity of the tasks to be learned; the number and skill levels
of the instructors; the nature of the actual operational equipment; and the
cost of procurement. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website. FIELD RADAR & COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS BENEFIT FROM SINGLE DESIGN/MULTIPLE USE O & M TRAINERS David J. Harbour Ground Systems Group Hughes Aircraft
Company Training devices have
traditionally been dedicated to a single purpose: maintenance or
operator training of a specified system.
The success of the multipurpose field radar training devices delivered
to a major training site has proven that the users are no longer tied to
these limited concepts. Each training
device consists of six training positions which can be used simultaneously to
train any combination of: Radar Type 1 operators, Radar Type 1 maintenance,
Radar Type 2 operators, and Radar Type 2 maintenance. Unique design of a single software program
combined with the training exercises makes possible this multiple use, with a
resulting reduction of the trainer development costs of over 40%. The trainer availability has been in
excess of 99% and provides over 30,000 hours of student training
time/year. This design flexibility
also made it possible for the trainer to be used as an engineering tool when
operational changes were desired on the tactical hardware. Operational procedures were developed on
the trainer prior to specification development and implementation of changes
on the tactical hardware. This
greatly reduced the changes, which normally occur during prime system design. Additional multipurpose
trainers are being built for systems such as a field position locating
communication system, using the proven design concepts of the radar
trainers. While full operational
training is being conducted including simulation of complex test equipment at
one or more of these training can be conducted, at any or all of the
remaining training positions. A summary of the operation
and maintenance training features provided by these multiple use trainers
highlights the impressive potential of the single design for other training
applications. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website. the impact of artificial intelligence on maintenance training Charles E. Thomas
III Honeywell Systems
and Research Center and David J. Sykes Albert Scsigulinsky Honeywell Training
and Control Systems Operations The increasing complexity of
military systems, reduced quality and availability of personnel, and reduced
resources have made Weapons System Support and Readiness (WSSR) more and more
difficult to maintain. This paper
discusses surrounding issues and proposes a system concept for developing,
combining, and integrating advanced training, job performance aiding, and
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies in order to reduce the time and
cost of maintenance actions and their instruction. In particular, expert systems coupled with video disk and other
presentation and I/O technology will allow expert problem solving skills and
knowledge to be made available to relatively inexperienced technicians,
embodied in an integrated maintenance Job Performance Aiding/On-the-Job
Training (JPA/OJT) system. A key
component of the system will be an “explanation facility” through which the
underlying reasoning of the system can be imparted to the technician. The basic objective of the OJT component
is to build the conceptual knowledge of the technician rather than have
him/her simply execute instructions.
Since the expert system will handle the dual role of job performance
aid and intelligent tutor, it is anticipated that the separation between
maintenance actions and maintenance training will eventually become less
distinct. Consequently, maintenance-training
equipment as we know it today can be expected to be gradually superseded by
some form of “intelligent maintenance
assistant.” This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website. NEW TECHNOLOGY ENHANCEMENTS TO INSTRUCTOR OPERATOR STATIONS E. Scott Baudhuin,
Ph.D. Senior Staff-Human Factors and Training
Development The Singer Company,
Link Simulation Systems Division The complexity of Instructor
Operator Stations (IOS) and the lack of full utilization of IOS instructional
features were examined in two interrelated IR&D programs. A major objective in these studies was to
simplify instructor/operator tasks by using new technology enhancements and
display screen formats. Studies were
conducted to determine IOS functional requirements and to assess the
applicability of new technologies to these requirements. Interviews were conducted with simulator
users at two military installations and at nuclear power Company training
facility. IOS operations manuals and
supporting technical documentation were reviewed. A voice technology system was selected and laboratory
demonstrations developed using typical IOS functions and formats. Studies of touch screen technologies were
conducted and resistive membrane technology was selected as an additional
technology enhancement. Alternative
cursor control devices were reviewed and a mouse was selected as the
principal cursor controller. Methods
for accessing current tableaux were reviewed to determine whether new screen
designs might facilitate using new technology enhancements. The feasibility of using voice
recognition, touch-sensitive screens and the mouse as substitutes for typical
keyboard operations was demonstrated.
Findings also indicated a significant need for the redesign of IOS
display screens in order to exploit new technologies. New screen designs that would eliminate
information overload, use more graphics, and allow essay access to touch
selective features were recommended.
Traditional backup devices were maintained where a new technology
served as the primary MMI. Functional
descriptions for new technology enhanced military and commercial IOS were
developed as a result of the research. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website. DEVELOPMENT OF AN INSTRUCTOR STATION DESIGN GUIDE John P. Charles ICON, Incorporated Dee H. Andrews Naval Training
Systems Center Training device
effectiveness is largely dependent upon the characteristics of the instructional
subsystem. In most trainers, this
includes the instructor, the instructional software, and above all the
interfaces (both hardware and software) to the other training device
subsystems. The primary interface,
the trainer IOS, must be designed and supported so that the training
objectives, but also the user requirements.
Effective design can only be achieved through identification and
understanding of the characteristics of the user and the required training
and then by ensuring that these data are reflected in the design of the
station. The design task also
requires detailed monitoring of the design effort to ensure that the
necessary data are available and input to the design effort. The objective of the guide was, therefore,
to identify the tasks involved and the data required during the major
training device life cycle events which impact the characteristics of trainer
instructor/operator stations. The
guide focuses on “what” to do in design, not “how” to do it. A guide who focused on “how” it should be
done would soon be outdated since hardware and software technologies are
evolving so rapidly. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website. PERFORMANCE MONITORING AND INTELLIGENT TRAINING Matt Narotam, Ph.D.
and Donna Behnke Burtek This paper presents a
sophisticated approach to performance monitoring and Instructor/Operator
Station (IOS) software utilizing an intelligent system for controlling the
training scenario. This approach,
based on existing software, provides the capability for a high level of
student performance monitoring utilized successfully in complex maintenance
trainers. This paper also discusses
issues relating to performance monitoring and organization of lesson plans to
satisfy training requirements per student as identified by the system
software. The system will control
normal instructor functions including malfunctions, insertions and parameter
modification, and will provide both visual and aural cues where necessary to
aid in the clarification or augmentation of information presented to the
trainee. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE APPLICATIONS FOR TRAINING SEEKING THE PRAGMATIC
MIDDLE GROUND David E. Daniel Naval Training
Systems Center The projected capabilities
of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Expert Systems are particularly
applicable in the area of human decision-making including rule based reaction
and decision support systems. These
capabilities are intuitively attractive for warfare operations support as
well as for training in warfare operations and tactics. The classic definition of AI is all
encompassing, covering a broad spectrum of capabilities from simple
alternative selections, based on pre-established criteria, through real-time
models of human expert behavior. The
simplest capabilities have been around for some time. Yet, the upper limit, which could include
brilliant adversary models, is considered currently unachievable due to cost,
except perhaps, and in well bounded situations. This paper explores the current capabilities of AI, identifies
potential areas of application to military training systems and focuses on
those most promising pragmatic capabilities that are considered achievable,
affordable, and worthy of development for near term implementation. Each area identified for development
includes a fall back position and possess inherent utility thereby making the
task worthwhile even if the AI feature, per se, is slow in coming or is
perhaps less fruitful than anticipated.
This paper identifies a limited risk approach to development of AI
capabilities for insertion into military training systems. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. USING AN EXPERT SYSTEM FOR INTERACTIVE AND REMEDIAL TRAINING David J. Harbour Hughes Aircraft
Company Ground Systems Group In mid-1984, the first
advanced SHORAD (Short-Range Air Defense) Institutional Trainer became
operational. This trainer included
for the first time, some of the most advanced concepts ever offered in a
training device. One of these
concepts is an instructor expert system, devised to reduce the instructor’s
workload, which is normally high in a trainer of this complexity. The SHORAD Trainer consists of six two-man
crew training positions controlled from a dual-position instructor
station. Target aircraft are flown
against the crews being trained who are in turn evaluated on their
performance. The targets are
realistic; they take evasive measures based on actions taken by the crew being
trained such as radar lock-on, missile firing, and employment of various
electronic counter-measures. The
instructor expert system automatically controls each training situation,
adapting in real time the target behavior in response to every student action
at each student station. This instructor expert
system also includes evaluation and automatic remedial training, accomplished
by a real-time evaluation process that determines when the crew needs
help. Help is provided through voice
synthesized prompts, textual messages, or through assignment of remedial
training, such as slowing targets down when tracking accuracy appears to be a
problem. All of these are
accomplished automatically, based on the crews’ performance, requiring no
instructor activity. Records of all
activities are retained to analyze what tasks were difficult for a given
student as well as what tasks require additional training for all
personnel. Immediate benefits of this
instructor expert system are a consistently challenging training program
tailored to each student’s achievement, and a comprehensive monitoring of the
overall training program that frees the instructor for one-on-one contact
when a student needs personalized help. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. AN EXPERT SURROGATE INSTRUCTOR FOR ACQUISITION OF COGNITIVE AND MOTOR SKILLS IN RIFLE MARKMANSHIP Dr. Azad Madni and
Dr. Amos Freedy Perceptronics, Inc. Dr. Robert Ahlers Naval Training
Equipment Center This paper describes an
expert system based interactive “surrogate instructor” for use in acquisition
of perceptual training motor and cognitive skills related specifically to
rifle marksmanship tasks. The
objective of the surrogate instructor is to provide computer-based trainee
task intervention just as human instructor provides when “looking over the
shoulder” of the trainee. The
instructional function will be provided by an expert program that will
perform consistent diagnosis and individualized instruction while emulating
either a specific instructor or an ideal human instructor. The system architecture is based on a real
time blackboard model based on “cooperating expert paradigm”: These are (a)
The Task Expert Model which makes up the standards of performance; (b) The
Trainee model which tracks performance behavior and represents evolving
trainee knowledge and skill; (c) Instructional model, which performs
rule-based diagnosis of the trainee with respect to the expert model and
generates instructional feedback; (d) A Curriculum Library which contains the
instructional knowledge elements. The
knowledge representation formalism central to the development of the expert
model is the modified Petri Net (MPN).
This model provides the procedural skills representation for training
of psycho-motor skills. The (MPN)
representation performs a two-fold function: (1) it provides the mechanism
for robust representation of trainee behavior/performance for training
diagnosis and (2) provides the basis for comparing a descriptive trainee
behavior/performance model against an expert prescriptive performance
model. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. METHODOLOGIES FOR EXTRACTING KNOWLEDGE: BUILDING AN EXPERT SYSTEM
FOR TRAINING SIMULATIORS Arthur F. Griffin Hughes Aircraft
Company We are developing an expert
system to assess and diagnose student decision-making performance in trainers. Whereas assessment of many operator
performance tasks is straightforward, e.g., tracking with a CRT cursor,
assessing decision-making does not yield to traditional automated approaches. This paper discusses the real world
problems that were encountered in building a knowledge base, the acquisition
methodologies that were developed to overcome these problems, as well as the
unsuccessful approaches that were abandoned.
Antisubmarine warfare (ASW) was selected as the initial domain. In the approach that evolved, one team
member acted as a mediator between the ASW experts and the knowledge engineer
designing the system. The mediator
used several approaches to bridge the conceptual gap separating other team members,
including automated approaches, are critiqued. The most promising near-term approach is the articulate
apprenticeship. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. HIGH FIDELITY EMITTER SCRIPTING – A SIMPLIFIED APPROACH Edward E. Buffington AAI Corporation High Fidelity Electronic
Warfare (EW) trainers must model the relationships between emitter modes and
signals, and the uniqueness of emitting platforms, to accurately support the
sophistication of many modern EW receivers.
Typically, this effort utilizes FORTRAN or other High Order Languages,
which results in hundreds, even thousands of subroutines to represent an EW
library. The personnel generating
this library need to have an in-depth understanding of the internal workings
of the trainer and are schooled in analytical operational data, computer
science, and engineering. To reduce
the cost and schedule impact of previous approaches, a new technique is
desired which reduces the prerequisites to only analytical skills. Additionally, the system should be easily
maintained by military personnel as analytical data changes. One obvious solution to the
emitter-scripting problem is to design a trainer that allows creation and
editing of emitter parameters via an on-line interactive system. This system requires a set of commands and
relationship expressions that allows mode and signal parameters to be realistically
correlated, and the randomness of emitter characteristics to be defined. This list of commands and expressions
needs to be concise to minimize implementation cost and usage complexity, yet
versatile and sufficiently complete to handle the variety of correlation that
may occur. The final system
requirement is interpretation of these commands and development of unique
sets of emitter parameters from the generic emitter data to represent each
distinct emitter in a training scenario. A simplified EW emitter
scripting system is easily transportable to new trainers, provides lower cost
for initial emitter scripting, and allows easy updates. This paper expounds on the usefulness and
implementation techniques utilized to create EW trainers with this type of
simplified emitter scripting. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. CORRELATION OF SENSOR DATA BASES IN THE FULL-MISSION TRAINING SIMULATOR Barbara Townsend Evans &
Sutherland Computer Corporation Beth Stovall Rediffusion
Simulation, Inc. Cheryl Colbert Goodyear Aerospace
Corporation Air crew training today
often requires an integrated simulation of the total environment applicable
to the pilot and crew. In addition to
out-the-window visual scenes, advances in technology are providing simulated
cockpit displays for all aircraft systems, including elector-optical sensors,
infrared sensors, real-beam radar, synthetic aperture radar, and
terrain-following/ terrain-avoidance systems. A challenge comes in simultaneously simulating multiple systems
so that the operators receive consistent information across all
displays. The simulated data bases
must be correlated with emphasis on terrain representation, feature density,
feature placement, and feature characteristics. Such correlation can be achieved by using a common set of
source data to develop each on-line data base. Because each sensor simulation system has its own inherent
limitations on data base, displays, and hardware, the correlated source data
base must be generated considering all end use restrictions. This paper discusses: 1) The tradeoffs dealing with sensor correlation versus
real-world accuracy, and 2) A set of computer programs being developed that
generates sensor simulation data bases which are correlated. The Defense Mapping Agency (DMA) Digital
Terrain Elevation Data (DTED) and Digital Feature Analysis Data (DFAD) are
used as the input source to this software system. The programs automatically combine and manipulate this data
with user interaction possible through a set of three-dimensional graphics
tools. Compendium CD-ROM.
Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. VISUAL DATA BASE DESIGN AND
IG EMULATION: Craig Goettsche Steven Hallmark Dan Harlin Evans and Sutherland
Computer Corporation Dana Phillips Rediffusion
Simulation Incorporated Current methods of image
generator (IG) data base have evolved around terminal input and text
processing. Data entry of terrain
elevations and editing component models by hand are no longer acceptable
design and production methods. These
methods are characterized by long development and debug cycles, no graphical
feedback, and little or no information on IG model performance. Man-computer interfaces are now being
designed to enhance the user’s ability to produce data bases more
efficiently. Using graphical
workstations, the user can edit and assemble features to produce a complete
IG data base. The completed base can
be fully debugged using a functional simulation of the IG, which provides
immediate graphical and statistical feedback. This paper will discuss: 1)
Advantages of the
graphical approach 2)
Development and
geometric verification of component features 3)
Creation of DMA
derived terrain and graphical features 4)
Graphical and
statistical IG emulation This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. PROVIDING HIGH PERFORMANCE VISUAL SIMULATION AT LOW COST Richard N. Moon Evans &
Sutherland Computer Corporation For years, the users of
visual systems, in both the military and commercial worlds, have made a plea
to the developers to significantly lower the costs of those visual
systems. Then, in a second breath,
they have continued to demand high visual fidelity. Not surprisingly, the trend among visual system developers has
been to provide more capabilities for higher cost. This paper describes a system design where a serious and
concerted effort has been made to lower costs, while still maintaining the
features most essential and effective for training tasks. During the highly selective process of
determining system features, some capabilities, such as smooth shading, color
blending and transparencies, were seriously questioned. Other capabilities, such as texture, scene
detail management, resolution, dynamic coordinate systems, and reasonable
image quality, remain high on the list.
The paper describes how the
essential features were incorporated in highly cost-effective design with
surprising flexibility and modularity.
Painstaking efforts were made to optimize the hardware efficiency,
making use of custom, semi-custom, and commercial VLSI. These latest technologies have made
possible parallel processor architecture in the geometric processor—a
departure from the traditional pipeline approach. The architecture provides system capabilities ranging from
low-cost, night-only operation to high-resolution, daylight scenes rivaling
the current high-end systems. All of
this can be contained in a single card cage per channel. The challenge of the visual users has been
met. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. A VLSI-BASED DIGITAL IMAGE GENERATOR Roy Latham Link Flight
Simulation Division of The Singer Company A new high-performance
digital image generator has been designed for the most demanding applications
of flight simulation. This paper
discusses the problems of developing an architecture suited to the special
capabilities of very large scale integrated (VSLI) circuitry, which demand a
high degree of parallelism and modularity to minimize the required amount of
custom integrated circuit design work.
Resolving the architecture and design problems led to a system that
has features impracticable with previous technology. Among the image generator’s features are
high scene content and immunity to overloads, 1000:1 dynamic range,
anti-aliasing over a 2 x 2 pixel convolution base, continuously variable surface
translucency, and a texture subsystem that provides color modulation of both
random patterns and specific images free form the artifacts of aliasing and
apparent tiling. In addition, the
technology permits incorporating a comprehensive system of automated
self-diagnosis, and the modularity needed for effective utilization of VLSI
makes the system more readily reconfigurable and minimizes its spare parts
requirements. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. EXPLOITING TEXTURE IN AN INTEGRATED TRAINING ENVIRONMENT John Robinson and
Stephen Zimmerman Evans & Sutherland
Computer Corporation Many issues must be
addressed when the visual content of the real world is mapped into the
constrained environment of an image generator. An image generator’s task, when used in flight simulation, is
to provide a nominal amount of visual cues for effective pilot training. These visual cures are most useful when
they correlate directly to the real world.
This paper discusses texture as a means of providing increased visual
realism and training cues for the pilot. The first half of this paper
discusses texture as an efficient method of increasing scene complexity. This includes a presentation of the
various problems of incorporating texture into a real-time system. The methods by which CT6, the latest
generation CIG system from Evans and Sutherland, addresses these problems
will also be discussed. The second
half of the paper shows how using texture affects the direction of data base
and software development. Some
examples are the use of DMA data for terrain generation and the technology of
reusable data base pieces to provide compact data without sacrificing scene
fidelity. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. AN IDEAL OPERATING SYSTEM FOR SIMULATORS Lt. David S. McKenna Simulator Systems
Program Office Wright-Patterson Air
Force Base Perhaps the most complex
off-the-shelf software element in a simulator is the operating system
(OS). Present simulator
specifications require an operating system, which can effectively execute
real-time application software and also support software development. Simulation is a real-time
environment with intense timing constraints and strict requirements on the
monitoring, manipulation, and processing of data. Program development requires a time-sharing environment with
the tools and utilizes necessary to design, track, and maintain software. Problems encountered with
the operating systems used in today’s simulators has prompted research into
whether current requirements accurately specify the type of OS needed for
simulators, or if new OS specifications and consequently operating systems,
need to be developed. The characteristics
which make an OS a real-time system
and desirable for use in simulators are identified. An evaluation of nucleus functions and utilities for real-time
applications is presented. Included
are in-depth examinations of different schemes for process control,
input/output support, and storage/file management. Emphasis is placed on quick and effective task execution with a
minimum of overhead and the ability to maximize and interact with state of
the art hardware. The question of whether to
develop real-time software on the OS it is intended to run on, or on a large
OS with features like those found in UNIX* is investigated. It is determined which utilities are
necessary for supportable development and efficient support. Software engineering development
techniques and tools, which promote a reliable and maintainable product, are
stressed. The final result is a model of an operating system that is “ideal”
for simulators. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. DEVELOPMENT OF COMMON SOFTWARE FOR MILITARY TRAINER SYSTEMS Richard W. McHard Hughes Aircraft
Company Many processing functions
are common requirements for military trainer systems across a wide variety of
applications. Examples include
instructor assignment and monitoring of student exercises; student input
processing and evaluation; and display generation and management for both
operational and maintenance modes of training. Common processing requirements and implementation have be been
identified across current and projected military trainer systems. The net result is an established baseline
for future trainer systems, thus reducing development time and cost, and
enhancing the reliability and maintainability of systems using this baseline.
Reusability of trainer
software is the key to the development of a common trainer software
baseline. A modular software
architecture of generic, reusable subsystems was defined, using the
principles of top-down structured design.
Information hiding (a methodology, which is fundamental to the Ada
programming language,) was employed to reinforce functionally of trainer of
trainer subsystems and localize the scope of requirements, which may vary
across trainers. The resulting
software is table driven and is easily lifted or modified as required by new
military trainer systems. Finally,
configuration control of the developed software supports the common trainer
by incorporating one large set of common processing modules in a common
trainer software library, to be merged with project specific software
modules, which exist in separate libraries.
The common trainer software
development project has been developed and implemented in support of two
specific trainer projects–one of a weapon system and one of a communication
system. The resulting common trainer
software baseline is planned for incorporation into future trainer systems. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. USE OF THE ADA LANGUAGE SYSTEM IN CONFIGURATION CONTROL OF FORTRAN BASED SOFTWARE Dan Dyke Naval Training
System Center The Configuration Control
and Management of Trainer Systems has been recognized as a significant
problem for many years. Many software
tools are being developed for use as aids in this task. The efforts of the Department of Defense
in the development of Ada and Ada Programming Support Environment (APSE) have
strongly addressed the problems of Configuration Control and management. However, these efforts have been targeted
for Ada based software as it is anticipated that this will be the primary
language of the DOD. The author feels
that FORTRAN based software will require maintenance for many years even
after the acceptance of Ada, and that the features of the APSE could be
applicable to this task. The Ada Language System
(ALS) which will soon be available, is the Army’s implementation of the Ada
Programming Support Environment. ALS
has also been accepted by the Navy.
This paper discusses the applicability of the ALS to the problem of
FORTRAN based software configuration Control and Management. A basic demonstration tool will be developed
and analyzed. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. DIGITAL CONTROL LOADING AND MOTION THE FINAL WORD? J.C. Cooper, Group
Leader, Control Loading M.L. Rutherford,
Manager, Systems Engineering G.M. McKinnon,
Director, R & D CAE Electronics Ltd. This paper reviews the
essential elements in effective load unit design and introduces a novel
approach to digital control loading and motion with extensive performance and
logistics benefits. Performance of
the digital system is superior to modern analog systems. A 3-KHz iteration rate provides the
ability model non-linear characteristics which are difficult to reproduce
cost-effectively in an analog model.
Maintenance and sparing of the digital controller is simplified by the
use of a minimum number of different card types with built-in automated
diagnostics, which locate failures at the board level. Updates and maintenance adjustments are
performed through user-friendly software utilities, with rigid configuration
control of the system’s state via software backups. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC’s
Website. SIMULATING GROWING THUNDERSTORM ECHOES FOR WEATHER RADAR TRAINING John T. Klehr Link Flight
Simulation Division of The Singer Company When rapidly growing thunderstorms
appear enroute, a pilot makes many flight path decisions on the basis of
training and experience in the interpretation of radar echoes displayed in
the cockpit. Echoes from more severe
thunderstorms first appear at high-to-middle altitudes, and they possess
other growth and decay characteristics that make their echoes distinguishable
form the echoes of less severe thunderstorm types at various stages in their
development. A color weather radar
simulator can now be used to provide such training by modeling in four
dimensions the dynamic growth characteristics of various thunderstorm types. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. ADVANCED DYNAMIC SEATS: AN ALTERNATIVE TO PLATFORM MOTION? Grant R. McMillan Armstrong Aerospace
Medical Research Laboratory Wright-Patterson Air
Force Base Edward A. Martin Aeronautical Systems
Division Wright-Patterson Air
Force Base John M. Flach Aviation Research
Laboratory University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Gary E. Riccio Systems Research
Laboratories, Inc. The experimental program
described in this paper is investigating advanced dynamic seats (g-seats) as
an alternative to platform motion systems.
The studies have quantified the effects of dynamic seat cuing on the
performance of a roll-axis turbulence regulation task, and on transfer of
training to a whole-body motion simulator.
The studies have clearly demonstrated that the dynamic seat can elicit
tracking performance and manual control behavior equivalent to that observed
with whole-body motion. To date,
significant transfer of training form the dynamic seat to whole-body motion
has only been observed with pilot subjects.
Techniques to achieve the same training benefit with naďve trainees
are being pursued. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. DEALING WITH THEIR GROWING
COMPLEXITY Steve Seidensticker
and Mary-Ellen Hecker, Ph.D Logicon, Inc., Tactical
and Training Systems Divisions A number of technical and
philosophical issues are emerging in the development of large real-time
simulators that are going to have profound effects on the way such devices
are designed and built. Simulators are becoming more
complex, both in the number of functions that each must perform, and the
number of disciplines involved. In
the near future it will not be uncommon to use speech generation, speech
understanding, artificial intelligence, image generation, complex optics,
embedded processors, graphic displays, and sophisticated motion cue
generators in a single simulator.
Existing approaches to design, implementation, and testing cannot
support the integration of these disciplines into a single harmonious system. Fortunately, technical
developments have kept pace with this problem. High speed local area networks (LAN); ever faster, smaller, and
cheaper processors; cheap and plentiful memory; object oriented design
techniques; and procedures oriented programming languages all have major
potential application to the integration of components in large real-time
systems. This paper will explore and
suggest the application of these developments to future simulators. Examples of a relatively simple
operational flight trainer (OFT) and a multi-cockpit weapon system trainer
(WST) designed around a set of well defined modules will be used to
illustrate the concepts. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING FOR COMPLEX SIMULATORS David Parkinson Singer Link-Miles
Ltd. The requirements for
training systems for increasingly sophisticated aircraft continue to extend
the technology of computing systems applied to real-time simulators. This paper describes a distributed
computing system, partitioned on a functional basis with the autonomous major
functions connected as a network. This system, called Functionally Distributed Simulation, is the
basis for a new simulator generation, the Micro Simulation Technology (MST)
simulator. It permits designing and
manufacturing a simulator on a modular basis, which achieves considerable
advantages in life-cycle, costs, especially those associated with maintenance
and upgrades. Microprocessors are
used throughout, to achieve even greater flexibility and reliability. Extensive use is made of parallel
processing to meet the high iteration rates needed for simulators; the
various ways of interconnecting the microprocessors to meet the performance
requirements are described.
Microprocessors are also used for dedicated tasks such as real-time
status monitoring and built-in test features, especially within the integral
distributed input/output system. The
performance of this system is described, together with results from
simulators that use this modular approach.
This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. MODULAR, FUNCTIONALLY-DISTRIBUTED, MICROPROCESSOR-BASED SIMULATION: ONCE A CONCEPT - - NOW A
FACT Michael B. Ash Link Flight
Simulation Division of The Singer Co. VLSI and ULSI technologies
can support parallel, information-processing methods that only a few years
back were models that generated interest among a handful of theoretical
mathematicians, physicists, neurophysiologists, cyberneticists, and
science-fiction writers. Increasingly performance
simply by adding function-producing parts is so fundamental in nature and in
human endeavors that it inevitably had to be addressed in computing
applications. When specialized as
well as replicative functions are performed in parallel, the result is a
distributed process. Applying this
principle to computing, where system parts are called modules, facilities
solving very complex problems using a divide-and-conquer method. An apparently monolithic entity like a
flight simulator, for instance, can be partitioned into small, discrete,
manageable modules. All distributed
systems are limited by the size of the entire system and also by that of
their individual components.
Functional complexity is limited by the system’s ability to
communicate timely information between the various parts. Because of the disparity in the number of
specialized modules, the primary difference between functionally distributed
General Aviation Trainers and large-scale WST’s is in their information-flow
requirements. The factors that
constrain the system are computer buses, bus networks, and I/O paths. This paper, which examines
the conceptual and philosophical approach that led to the first generation of
modular, functionally-distributed, microprocessor-based simulators, deals
primarily with technical, computational, and motivational perspectives and
with general systems solutions that have been formulated over the last eight
years. It gives dimension to, and
lends insight into, the reasons for taking the critical, evolutionary leap
that is necessary for economic and technological progress. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. AN EMBEDDED IMAGE GENERATION SYSTEM FOR FIELD TRAINING Charles Wakeland,
Senior Systems Engineer Rediffusion
Simulation Incorporated Recent advances in VLSI (Very Large Scale
Integration) logic have reduced the size and improved the performance of
units for the Engineering Workstation and CAD/CAM market to the point where
their performance is comparable to first generation Real Time Image
Generation Systems. Within narrow
confines, these units may be adapted to low-end training applications, which
require real-time imagery with moderate update and polygon requirements. This paper describes a turnkey dual
processor image generation system with payload simulation capability, which
is packaged in a 10 slot Multibus chassis.
The modular, systems oriented, design approach which yields a 10 board
unit for field use is equally applicable to other low-end simulation/training
system requirements. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. PERFORMANCE VS. DESIGN
GOALS Denis R. Breglia,
Acquisition Director (VDRT) Code 731, Naval Training System Center Dick Windyka,
Program Manager (VDRT) American Airlines Training Corporation Bruce Barber,
Program Manager (VDRT) Rediffusion
Simulation Ltd. The Visual Display Research Tool (VDRT) is a visual
simulation system comprising a two channel computer image generation (CIG)
system, a head/eye attitude sensing system, and a helmet mounted laser
projected dome display system. The
VDRT was designed to provide an observer apparent wide field-of-view full
color, high resolution, and high detail density simulation of the
out-of-the-cockpit visual environment. The VDRT design approach takes advantage of the
visual perception limitations of the man-in-the-loop through the use of an
eye-coupled area-of-interest. The
design of the VDRT was presented to the visual simulation community in 1981
at the IMAGE II Conference and the Third IITEC Conference. This paper will discuss the progress in
developing the VDRT resulting from a contract between the Naval Training
System Center (NAVTRASYSCEN) and American Airlines Training Corporation
(AATC). AATC and their major sub-contractors
Rediffusion Simulation Limited, General Electric and Polhemus Navigation
Sciences (PNS) division of McDonnell Douglas Electronics Company have
delivered the VDRT system components on-site at NAVTRASYSCEN in April
1985. In-plant tests of system
components have been completed and results will be reported. System integration and Government final
inspection will have been completed by December 1985 and system performance
relative to design goals will be reported. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. EDGE-BLENDING MULTIPLE PROJECTION DISPLAYS ON A DOME SURFACE TO FORM CONTINUOUS WIDE ANGLE FIELDS-OF-VIEW Paul Lyon Evans &
Sutherland Computer Corporation Juxtaposing several
projector channels is a viable method of meeting the “wide angle
field-of-views” requirement of many training simulators. Blending overlapped images on a dome
surface can be done either optically by using lenses and optical filters or
electrically by “rolling-off” the video signals at edge boundaries. The quality of edge-blending between projector
channels can be evaluated by quantifying parameters like: registration
accuracy in the overlap region, color match between adjacent channels,
intensity variation across the edge boundary, brightness uniformity across
the entire viewing area, and exit-pupil size. In some simulators wide exit-pupils (more than one eyepoint)
are required. In these cases the
quality of edge-blending is largely determined by the gain characteristics of
the screen material used. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. THE GUARD UNIT ARMORY
DEVICE, FULL CREW INTERACTIVE SIMULATION TRAINER LTC Ronald W. Krisak
and MAJ George W. Smith Army National Guard and Dr. William A.
Stembler Computer Sciences
Corporation The Guard Unit Armory
Device, Full-Crew Interactive Simulation Trainer, or GUARDFIST, is a tank
appended, gunnery simulation system. GUARDFIST
uses available technology in microcomputers and videodiscs to provide a
full-crew, interactive tank gunnery simulation. The combination of videodiscs and computer-generated imagery
will provide the crew with a variety of tasks in a real world environment. This paper describes the
initial research and development effort to apply this technology to a tank
gunnery simulator, as well as the intended training applications. Although GUARDFIST was initially intended
for use on Army National Guard and Army Reserve tanks, continuing research
indicates a number of potential applications for this technology. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. ON-BOARD TRAINING IN ELECTRONIC COMBAT Rollin L. Oson AAI Corporation This paper examines the advantages of adding
On-Board Training functions to programmable Electronic Combat devices. The flexibility now built into many EC devices makes
it possible to modify and add to the basic functions of the devices and to
communicate with other devices.
On-board Training functions can be added to such devices. For Electronic Combat equipment, On-board
Training (OBT) involves injecting simulated radar signals into EC devices to
provide realistic threat displays and responses for training purposes. A hypothetical application is described. Alternative implementations on several
levels of complexity are discussed.
An OBT retrofit application is described, the On-Board Electronic
Warfare Simulator (OBEWS), which is being designed for the U.S. Air
Force. Aspects of OBT training
effectiveness and system configuration are discussed. Problems with OBT systems are
examined–task definition, capacity limitations in host equipment, interaction
with basic operational functions, and long-term maintenance. Special aspects of land-based of
land-based and sea-based OBT are presented. This paper examines the advantages in incorporating
On-Board Training (OBT) functions as an integral part of Electronic Combat
devices. OBT functions can greatly
enhance the training value of operational EC equipment carried on aircraft or
other vehicles by injecting a simulated radar emitter environment into the
equipment during training missions. A
wide variety of implementations can be developed to fill particular training
requirements and to integrate with specific EC equipment. A hypothetical example and an actual
retrofit implementation discussed in this paper encompass a range of
alternatives. Each approach has its
advantages and problems. However, any
properly designed OBT system will greatly enhance the training utility of the
EC equipment in which it is embedded.
This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. THE SHUTTLE MISSION SIMULATION–FROM
DESIGN CONCEPTS TO AN OPERATIONAL TRAINING DEVICE Peter W. Sivillo
and Dr. Riley D. McCafferty Link Flight
Simulation Division of The Singer Company The Shuttle Mission Simulator (SMS) is a unique,
high-fidelity simulation of the U.S. Space Transportation System Mission,
from prelaunch through orbit to landing, including placement and retrieval of
various experimental payloads and subsequent descent and landing. This device is used for extensive training
of pilot-astronauts and mission and payload specialists prior to, and during,
the Space Shuttle flights. An
extremely demanding aspect of the simulation and training is the very high
flight rate to be encountered in the near future, which will require rapid
reconfiguration of the simulator to follow the many different requirements of
the actual flights. A solution to
this problem is given here. First,
however, we present a description of the extent of the simulation itself, in
terms of fidelity, training capability, malfunction simulation, motion,
vision, and aural cues, the largely digital simulation, the mathematical
models developed, the dynamic response design, the computer complex, and the
tilting-base motion system. An
extensive description is then given of the multi-mission system, by which
rapid reconfiguration of the system will be accomplished, enabling the
Shuttle Mission Simulator to support twice the flight rate without increasing
manpower. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. AUTOMATION IN THE TRAINING ANALYSIS
PROCESS William F. Jorgensen Eagle Technology
Inc. Automated processes are providing training analysts
with the capability to generate training system requirements rapidly. The training analysts interact with
appropriate computer systems and data bases through video terminals to enter
and review vast amounts of data, make decisions about the data and arrange
tasks to be trained into common groups.
Through displayed menu selections and specific search criteria, the
data base can be manipulated and analyzed as required by the analyst. The analysts can then generate training requirements
while reviewing and analyzing data on the video screen. Training system requirements are generated
in a similar manner to meet training requirements and both are entered
directly into the data base by the analyst.
Training system requirements that are developed in this manner are
more complete and more efficiently produced than by commonly used manual
procedures. Training analysis products can then be compiled by the computer
for any logical grouping of tasks and printed as necessary to meet the
requirements of the project. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. WATER SURVIVAL TRAINING DEVICE TRAINING FOR ATTITUDE AS WELL AS SKILL D. Shiras Jarvis Naval Training
Systems Center The role of water survival
training devices is not limited to the areas of learning necessary motor
skills and specific survival knowledge, but has the larger purpose of
instilling an attitude of preparedness and readiness for the unexpected. The psychological stress on an individual
of a pressure situation, such as an open ocean survival evolution, causes
some basic physiological changes.
Scientists describe psychological stress in terms of activation level;
the greater the stress–the higher the activation level. Activation levels range widely range
widely from very low (such as while asleep) to very high (such as during
intense physical exercise). As the
activation level approaches maximum, the subject experiences increased
strength and endurance as well as an almost infinite pain tolerance. Unfortunately, these attributes are
coupled with a narrowing of the subject’s attentional focus. In the extreme case, the individual
focuses attention on one item to the exclusion of all others. This condition, however, is catastrophic
in most aquatic survival situations.
While the enlargement of strength, endurance, and pain tolerance
parameters is to the benefit of the victim, the inability to reason well and
focus attention on multiple stimuli is often fatal. The victim, however, who is prepared for the unexpected to
happen, who has a plan for situational evaluation and action, and who has the
resolve to keep trying regardless of setbacks, can deal with most aquatic
emergencies. Since now two survival
situations are alike, the role of water survival training devices is to
simulate a variety of situations while instructors stress not how to survive
the training evolution, but how to analyze the situation, choose a course of
action, execute the plan, and then reevaluate the situation. With an attitude of readiness before an
aquatic emergency, a survivor has an excellent chance of overriding the
attention problem manifested in the typical open ocean survival scenario. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. SICOMORE–A NEW CONCEPT FOR NAVAL
SIMULATORS Patrick Martin Phillippe Paris Bertrand Bouvier THOMSON-CSF
Division Simulateurs Conventional training simulators for crews of Combat
Information Centers (C.I.C) are often faithful replicas of the real
C.I.C. When a Navy possesses a great
variety of equipment, C.I.C.’s and vessels, it would require an equally large
number of such simulators which is not always compatible with the budgets
allocated for training with simulators.
Having in mind the variety of types of training and the impact of
budgetary constraints, THOMSON-CSF developed the SICOMORE system (Simulator
de Centre Operations Modulaire et Reconfigurable) to provide a modular and
re-configurable C.I.C training simulator.
Due to the modularity of its software and hardware, SICOMORE can be
re-configured to simulate any kind of C.I.C (frigate, mine hunter, submarine,
maritime patrol aircraft . . .).
Furthermore, SICOMORE can be used for other types of training such as
operator basic training or action speed tactical training (ASTT). This paper presents the main
characteristics of this system, essentially its modularity and
re-configurability, from the operational and technical viewpoints. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. TRANSFER OF TRAINING OF SIMULATOR VISUAL
AND TRAINING FEATURES FOR THE CARRIER LANDING TASK WITH UNDERGRADUATE PILOTS Dennis C. Wightman,
Naval Training
Systems Center Daniel P. Westra Essex Corporation Gavan Lintern University of
Illinois, Urbana-Champaign A transfer-of-training experiment was conducted this
past year as the culmination of the carrier landing behavioral research
program at the Visual Technology Research Simulator (VTRS) at the Naval
Training Systems Center (NAVTRASYCEN) in Orlando, Florida. The results of this experiment provide
guidance on the design and use of simulators for the Navy’s new undergraduate
pilot training airplane, which together with the simulators and other
training aids, will comprise the T-45 Training System (TS). Two visual display variables and two
simulator training variables were selected for inclusion in this experiment:
scene detail (day contrasted with night); field of view (wide versus narrow);
task type (circling, straight-in or segmented); and number of simulator
trials (20, 40, or 60). A total of 72
student pilots were trained on the VTRS prior to going through the Field
Carrier Landing Practice (FCLP) phase of their pilot training program. The performance of these students at FCLP
was contrasted with that of a group of 54 students who did not receive
simulator training. Results show that
students trained in the simulator performed better at FCLP than students in
the control group. There was no
transfer advantage for those trained with a daytime high-detail scene
compared to those trained with a lower cost nighttime low-detail scene. There was also no transfer advantage for
those trained with a wide field of view compared to those trained with the
lower cost narrow field-of-view scene.
Transfer performance was better for the students who had 40 or 60
simulator trials than for the students who had 20 simulator trials. The pilots who trained with a segmented
approach schedule did as well or better on transfer to FCLP than those training
with the modified straight-in approach schedule or all circling
approaches. The fields of view and
scene detail results apply only to the carrier-landing task. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. Harry E. Roscoe Sperry Frank M. Connell C L S Systems A new approach to logistics
support has been introduced to the development of training devices, in
general, and to flight simulators specifically. The availability guarantee is now appearing in Requests for
Proposals for flight simulators.
Although the Government may have a primary objective to obtain a high
degree of service from training devices, it has also imposed the full
spectrum of logistics considerations upon the contractor. Logistics considerations must become an
integral part of the design, if a contractor is going to meet the
availability requirements. This must
be a consideration of design to insure a supportable trainer. This paper reviews the status of current
attempts to impose availability guarantees upon flight simulator contracts,
and discusses the pros and cons of this approach from the Government and
contractor positions. The paper also
discusses penalties applied to non-performance, and types of contracts under
which these are most applicable. It
addresses the current requirements for the basic “ilities” of the classical
support approach, and the advisability of continued use of them. These requirements include, but are not
limited to Reliability Programs and Demonstrations, Maintainability Programs
and Demonstrations, Supply Support, Support Equipment, Technical
Documentation Standards, and Training.
The paper evaluates each of the classical elements of support under
various support concepts where an availability guarantee is imposed by
contract, and offers recommendations on the level of surveillance required
for each. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. RISK ANALYSIS IN MAJOR TRAINER
ACQUISITION Erik S. Hougland, PhD Harv Adkins, MSE,
MBA Advanced Systems
Engineering Branch Naval Training
Equipment Center RISK: The
possibility of suffering harm or loss. VENTURE: An
undertaking that is of doubtful outcome. RISK is a “Buzz word.” What is risk and how and why does the
Naval Training Equipment Center engage in Risk Analysis? Risk is used to refer to
making decisions when probabilities have been assigned to the outcomes
affecting the results of the decision.
“Uncertainty” is used to refer to making decisions when these
probabilities are neither assigned nor known. An example of a decision under risk is betting on the outcome
of a roll of the dice. One does not
know the specific outcome in advance, but the probabilities of each possible
outcome are well known and may affect one’s decision, i.e. bet, in advance of
the roll. An example of a decision
under uncertainty would be for someone in the United States to make a bet on
a local European soccer match. Most
people in the United States would have no idea of the probabilities of one
team beating the other! Major decisions in trainer
acquisition are made under both risk and uncertainty. These decisions include, but are not
limited to the following: Choice of contract type:
fixed price, incentive fee, etc. Selection of source from
proposals submitted, and Evaluation of contractor
progress during trainer construction. Risk Analysis techniques are
presently being used at the Naval Training Equipment Center to aid in these
decisions. Two Risk Analysis projects
will be described in this paper: Evaluation of proposals for
contract award and Monitoring of contractor
progress during construction. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. THE COST DATA BASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
(CDBMS) J. Steven Roberts JMCA This paper describes the
Cost Data Base Management System (CDBMS) and its benefits in estimating the
cost of weapon systems. CDBMS is an interactive cost
estimating and documentation system that was developed under contract by SAIC
for the Deputy for Airlift and Trainer Systems (ASD/AF) at Wright Patterson
AFB (WPAFB). The ASD/AF development that
was completed in April of 1985 is a product improvement over the May 1981
version that was developed for the Deputy for Simulators (ASD/YW). CDBMS is installed on the
ASD Automated Management System (AMS) and is available to all System Project
Offices (SPOs) at WPAFB. CDBMS is a generic
estimating system and documentation system.
This means that CDBMS is equally usable by DOD and industry in
developing the life cycle cost of weapon systems. The only non-generic features of CDBMS are certain Air Force
specific report formats such as AF1537.
CDBMS does not include any Navy or Army specific report formats
however all the data required to produce these reports are contained in the
CDBMS system. CDBMS is in use by several
SPOs at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base and modification, maintenance,
enhancements, and support is being continued under contract with the author
of this paper. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. MANAGEMENT OF THE SOFTWARE PROBLEM Edward L. Averill Staff Engineer to
the Software Department Larry K. Rude Associate Director
Software Engineering Training &
Control System Operations Honeywell Aerospace
& Defense Two conceptual notions are
identified as controlling the current system/software development
operations. Both greatly impact the
development process. The first
concerns requirements, while the
second concerns program management
responsibility. The experience of
practitioners is reported to be quite different than these notions would lead
us to expect. The paper examines the
implications of changing the conceptual notions bringing them into
consistency with the practical experience.
Requirements according to
these notions should be defined with complete rigor, and design must be
exactly as specified (no more and no less than). Practice shows us that requirements not only mature slowly, but
also change through the development and also the life cycle. A development project,
according to the second notion, needs to be treated (to optimize schedule
& dollars for this project) as
if both the product and the process, by which the product is built, are new
work unqualified by previous work.
However practitioners, carrying out the development, feel the work is more similar to maintenance business than it is to new work (i.e. that
it is qualified by previous
work). This is because requirements
are interpreted in terms of previous experience. Old designs and implementations are adapted to the “new”
project. And old code (at least the
executive part and/or application framework) is used as a springboard to
create the new code. In fact
reusability occurs naturally to the degree that it is able. But under current notions the reusability that is able to occur makes little impact on development cost. The paper explores a product
line approach to project development in which only very specific product line type requirements are
expected to be fixed, and in which the unique project requirements are
implemented by a product line
development process. This approach is shown to be
consistent not only with practical experience, but also with the current
technological advances which make the new concepts practical in to-day’s
environment. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. A SOFTWARE ENGINEERING
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR FLIGHT SIMULATORS John A. Schepp The Singer Company Link Flight
Simulation Division The complexity of modern simulators has overwhelmed
the capacity of conventional approaches to maintain effective cognizance and
configuration control. The problem is
intensified by the emergence of system engineering techniques which stress
functional analysis, requirements allocation, and traceability of design
features to requirements. A Software
Engineering Management System (SEMS) is described which uses the technology
of a relational data base to overcome previous limitations on principles are
applicable to the much broader but similar problems of overall simulator
development and life cycle management.
The principal components of SEMS are: 1)
A comprehensive
project data base capable of providing multiple user-oriented project views. 2)
A suite of processors
and protocols to allow production of project-germane information and documentation. 3)
Supervisory and
monitoring capability for the integration of pre-existing software
development facilities into the system. 4)
Links to interface
geographically separated sites into a unified project control system. The conceptual development and organization of the
system are described and examples of its operation are provided. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. CONFIGURATION MANAGEMENT IN A SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT
ENVIRONMENT T. Michael Moriarity
AAI Corporation Software configuration
management deals with the identifications, change control, and status of
software items. Properly applied
configuration management procedures can improve visibility, efficiency, and
integrity of the development process.
In software intensive development projects, configuration management
principles in general and change control practices in particular are
sometimes perceived as obstructions to the development process. Therefore, these practices are often
implemented late in the development life cycle. The advantages of configuration management are thus lost during
the early critical phases of a program. Part of the reason that
configuration management procedures are perceived as an impediment to the
development process is that traditional configuration management practices do
not provide timely benefits commensurate with their maintenance effort. Traditional practices were developed on
large production programs in which the emphasis was on the control and
accounting of a relatively small number of changes to a relatively stable
product. The software development
environment, on the other hand, is characterized by the integration of a
large number of changes into a transient product. A configuration management
system design to be more compatible with the software development process and
to take advantages of software development resources can provide extensive
benefits to the development team.
These benefits may encourage the installation of configuration
management procedures early in the software development phase, thereby providing
the advantages of configuration management throughout the development life
cycle. This paper draws on the
experience of several large simulator software development programs to
identify design strategies for a configuration management system that
provides substantial benefits during the development phase and meets the
requirements of traditional configuration management in the later phases of
the development life cycle. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. AN ALTERNATIVE TO ISD IN THE DEVELOPMENT
OF TRAINING PACKAGES FOR THE LAVI FIGHTER AIRCRAFT Avi Kedem Manager, Research
and Development Section IAI Training Center
Dr. Jonathon
Smilansky Training Consultant
to IAI Training Center, Research and
Development Section Israel Aircraft Industries is developing a new
fighter aircraft, the LAVI, which is to be delivered together with Training
Packages for both ground maintenance crews and pilots. The ISD procedure was to be used as a guideline for
the design of Training Packages. The
procedure was found to be focused on task analysis without a clear
delineation of how the design of Training Packages would follow from the task
definition. The task analysis phase
was found to be unmanageable since thousands of tasks could be defined for
both the ground maintenance crews and the fighter pilots. Therefore, a new instructional development
process, called the Integrated Job Performance Training (IJPT), method was
created which is based on a shortened job analysis process and on the
systematic planning of instructional activities that stem from the analysis. Under IJPT an instructional design
consultant works with subject matter experts to produce Training Packages
which are designed around the performance of essential job tasks. This article includes a description of the specific
stages involved in the design of these Training Packages, and how they differ
from the stages involved in the ISD process.
The presentation will also include a description of how this new
Training Package development method produces instructional specifications,
which in turn become the foundation for the design of aircraft simulators and
other training equipment. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. THE APPLICATION OF FRONT-END ANALYSIS TO THE ACQUISITION OF AIR FORCE
TRAINING SYSTEMS Major Andrew J.
Courtice, USAF Deputy for
Simulators Wright-Patterson Air
Force Base The previous methods used to
acquire Air Force training systems and devices have been characterized by
such descriptions as overly complex, too late to support the initial weapon
system deployment, too expensive, and, most importantly, improperly designed
or configured to support the training requirements of the eventual weapon
system training program. In analyzing
the management prerogatives available to institute solutions to these
critical problems, the one area which offers to provide immediate positive
solutions and acquisition alternatives is to institute a systematic training
based front-end analysis process beginning as early as possible (pre-concept)
in the acquisition cycle. This
methodology takes a systems approach to defining the training requirements
which will evolve into a fully integrated and costed training system
development effort and provide all of the management strategies needed to
provide operational maintenance training and training support anywhere in the
Weapon System Acquisition Process. The Deputy for Simulators is
establishing such a capability for instituting training system front-end
analysis (FEA) in the earliest possible stages of weapon system
acquisition. The Deputy has developed
a process that defines FEA in terms of the specific tasks involved in the
process. These tasks can then be
selectively applied to weapon system programs to augment or complete
front-end analysis as required. The
primary emphasis is to use existing weapon system manpower, personnel, and
training processor data to create a notional training system baseline. Then, in the early acquisition phases, as
the weapon system design develops, the training system baseline is
concurrently evolved into a new weapon system specific training system
requirement and the Air Force will have the information required for total
training system acquisition. This
will permit the delivery of the training system and its elements, including
the support needed to maintain and operate the training system, early enough
to meet the training requirements of the user. The model is a management
tool that provides strategy for acquisition and structure to follow-on
technologies and methodologies such as Logistics Support Analysis (LSA) and
Instructional Systems Development (ISD).
Early comprehensive MPT considerations and their impacts are the
primary benefits. The model can
provide a life cycle audit trail, supporting maintenance, aircrew, and
support training need in evolving or existing weapon system programs. Most importantly, it provides the critical
funding estimates and impact analysis needed throughout the acquisition
cycle. It will also provide managers
with the timely research and systems data needed to pursue acquisition
milestones in a fully coordinated and timely manner. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. A PRAGMATIC
APPROACH TO DEFINE TRAINER REQUIREMENTS Dr. Steven R. Null Hughes Aircraft
Company An inquiry into the cause of
cost and training effectiveness failures in the development of training
devices revealed that an incomplete analysis application process was a
contributing factor to the problem.
In order to improve this process, designers began with a systematic
examination of the sensory, physical, and mental demands made upon operator
trainees. The demands were
scrutinized using both quantitative and qualitative standards. They were also evaluated from a learning
theoretical perspective. Improving
this process resulted in a better definition of trainer needs, and in more
effective training delivery at reduced cost.
Existing device design
procedures were augmented by a process termed Performance Demand Analysis,
based upon sensory, physical, and mental requirements. It has been applied to two situations:
one, involving the determination of simulation fidelity; the other, the cognitive/memory
requirements and training features necessary to solve a longstanding training
problem. In the first inquiry, the
visual simulation derived was significantly different from original
suggestions resulting in a considerable cost reduction. Training features for the longstanding
training problem were formulated to complement proven instructional
strategies to resolve the memory training problem. In each case, application of these supplemental procedures
improved training effectiveness and reduced the cost of the system. The functional characteristics developed
using Performance Demand Analysis yield an objective baseline for a pragmatic
trainer design well matched to actual needs. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. F-16 SIMULATORS–WHAT HAVE WE LEARNED? John F. Lethert Directorate of
Engineering Deputy for
Simulators Wright-Patterson
Air Force Base This paper will look at the
F-16 Weapon System Trainer Program to determine what lessons have been
learned. In looking at the lessons
learned the paper will examine them in light of current Air Force Simulator
Policy, specifically, the training of safety of flight and warfighting tasks,
concurrency, and minimizing simulator costs.
In looking at these areas the paper will: 1) Show how the lessons learned have been incorporated
into the F-16 program. 2) Discuss how they can be incorporated into the F-16
and future programs. 3) Discuss what is the relationship of these lessons to
such initiatives as commercial versus military practices, Modularity, and the
Training System Concept. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. ADA FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF SOFTWARE ADAPTABILITY AND MAINTAINABILITY Paul E. McMahon Link Flight
Simulation Division of The Singer Company A major goal of the Ada language is to decrease the
cost impact of software modifications resulting from requirement
changes. This paper shows how Ada has
the potential to achieve that goal through example of modifications to the
F-16 Trainer Flight Simulator. Ada
features not available in Fortran are discussed as they would be applied to
the F-16 TFS examples with the potential modification in mind. From the Fortran examples provided, the
rationale for many of Ada’s features can be seen. The point is made that Fortran is a programming language, while
Ada is a design, documentation, and implementation system. Ada addresses all stages of the software
development life cycle and is not which Ada provides must be initially
applied during design activities if Ada’s full benefits are to be realized in
reducing the cost impact of software modifications. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. NEW COAST GUARD SIMULATORS–OUR FOUR-YEAR
EXPERIENCE Commander David A.
Jones U.S. Coast Guard
Aviation Training Center In July of 1981, the U.S.
Coast Guard awarded a contract to Sperry Corp. for two flight
simulators. One simulator was for a
recent addition to the Coast Guard inventory, the HU-25A. The HU-25A, a fixed wing Medium Range
Surveillance (MRS), is a modified Falcon 20.
The other simulator was for the HH-65A, a modified Aerospactaile
Dauphin helicopter. The HH-65A was
still in development when the simulator contract was awarded so the aircraft
and simulator were being produced concurrently. The project officer for the HH-65A simulator was involved in
the entire acquisition process – from draft specifications to
ready-for-training date. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. COMPUTER-BASED INSTRUCTION: ARE YOU READY? Lt. Col. R. A.
Gregory and Oliver Nelson Standards and Policy
Directorate, DCS/Technical Training , Air Training Command Randolph Air Force
Base, TX Throughout the education and
training communities of the Armed Forces, automated technologies are
increasingly being introduced. The
faculties and staffs of all the services are changing management practices
and instructional strategies in response to the addition of new computerized
systems. Impacting management,
trainers, and students, these new technologies must be introduced based on
defined requirements and through well-planned technology transition
programs. Major problems face the
traditional faculty and staff: changing course designs and management
procedures, developing computer literacy, obtaining expertise to maximize
technology capabilities, and solving organizational and personnel problems
inherent with the introduction of new technologies. Historical evidence shows that where management has failed to
establish user acceptance in advance of system delivery, program success
seldom occurs. Overselling and
improper training often led to improper use of rejection of earlier
technology advances, such as television, sound-slide and programmed
instruction. With the advancement of
microcomputer technology, education and training applications are rapidly
increasing. The new technology has
many benefits to offer educators and trainers, but successful application
depends on faculties and staffs willing to accept and knowing how to use
it. In the United States Air Force
Air Training Command, new training programs are being designed for managers,
supervisors, instructors, and course developers to prepare them for the new
technologies. These initiatives are
highlighted so other agencies can also plan training interventions for their
faculties and staffs. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. THE ARMY’S INTEGRATED TRAINING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM Maj. (P) Robert
Behncke Chief, Training
Developments U.S. Army
Development and Employment Agency Fort Lewis,
Washington This paper addresses the
Integrated Training Management System (ITMS), an Army-wide program to
automate the management of training functions from company level to
Department of the Army. This beginning
in the development of ITMS represents the initial step in fully integrating a
management system designed to improve the efficacy with which units go about
accomplishing their most important mission: training for the day of war. Additional changes also lay ahead through
the requirement to ultimately integrate ITMS with the Automated Data Systems
developed in support of logistics and personnel functions in units. These efforts to develop a training
management system incorporating the technical capabilities and management
skills of the 80’s and its subsequent total integration into the Army
Management System should receive nothing less than the highest priority. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. Richard Glennon NAVTRASYSCEN Robert Klaus Army Material
Command Dr. Wyatt Woodsmall Army Material
Command The purpose of this paper is
to present some ideas that have the potential to enhance training
effectiveness and training system value.
Knowledge Based Expert System and Neuro-Linguistic to Programming will
be suggested as two new technologies that may be applied to training
systems. Finally, the Army’s
experience in applying these technologies will be presented. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ISD PROCEDURAL MODELS Robert H. Schaefer Grumman Aerospace
Corporation The Instructional Systems
Development (ISD) procedural models used by military organizations to govern
the development and procurement of training systems are described in a
variety of documents, standards, and specifications. In addition to the model described by
military standards, which presumably are interservice in application, some of
the services have developed individualized ISD procedures and manuals. As a result of this proliferation of ISD
materials, the military has at its disposal a wide range of ISD standards and
specifications to employ when developing a training system. Due to the diversity of available ISD
procedural models, the procuring agency can be confronted with a dilemma as
to which one to choose. A fundamental question is
whether or not the ISD models contained in these documents are
interchangeable, or whether unique differences exist between them? If differences between them do exist, what
are the relative advantages and merits of each model? Finally, what criteria should be applied
by the procuring agency in order to select the model that is most appropriate
to their training system needs? This paper contains the
results of a comparative analysis performed on five of the ISD procedural
models contained in various military specifications and standards. The ISD procedural models analyzed are
those contained in: 1) NAVEDTRA 106A, Interservice Procedures for
Instructional Systems Development 2) AFP 50-58, Handbook for Designers of Instructional
Systems 3) MIL-STD-1379B, Contract Training Programs 4) MIL-T-29053B, Requirements for Training System
Development 5) NAVEDTRA 110A, Procedures for Instructional Systems
Development A sixth training document,
NAVSEA OP 45519, Submarine Training Materials Development Guidelines and
Production Specification was also examined.
While NAVSEA OP 44519 does not provide clear traceability to the ISD process
model it was included in the comparative analysis as an alternative means of
procuring training materials. The comparative analysis
concluded that the ISD based models contained in the above referenced
documents are not equivalent. Each of
the five procedural models contain both advantages and disadvantages. These differences are specifically
identified and discussed from two points of view; that of the procuring
agency, and that of the contractor. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. INSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES AND THE USER Wayne Olson, Terry
Kryway, Amanda Williams Easter Logicon, Inc. Flight simulators play a key
role in the training of military aircrew.
They provide an environment in which the aircrew may train and
practice procedural and flight tasks under the close observation of qualified
instructors. The instructor is
responsible for controlling the training event, evaluating performance, and
providing feedback. As training
requirements increase and simulators become more complex, so does the task of
operating and interacting with them.
Most of this complexity involves the Instructor Operator Station
(IOS), the interface between the instructor and the simulator and between the
instructor and the trainee. The
quality of training received from these devices depends a great deal on the
instructor’s ability to monitor aircrew activities. Thus, these devices incorporate instructional support features
to aid the instructor, but their utilization is the exception rather than the
rule. This is not because instructors
are incapable of the task, but because the complexities of operation require
substantial training and experience in order for these features to be used
effectively. This indicates a failure to
properly analyze the task of the instructor in designing the IOS around his
needs. The purpose of this paper is
to provide a general overview and discussion of instructional features from a
user’s standpoint. The intent is not
to document the merits of instructional features, but provide insight into
user needs. The information presented
is based on interviews with simulator instructors and observation of
simulator training sessions at numerous Navy and Air Force simulator-training
facilities. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. THE HUMAN SIDE OF COMPUTER-BASED TRAINING Norbert J. Kubilus Educational Testing
Service More and more, the world of
training is becoming a computer-oriented world. Computer-based training can provide advantages over more
conventional training methods in terms of flexibility and cost
effectiveness. While the primary
emphasis is being concentrated on the computer hardware and software used to
deliver the training content, there is often too little consideration being
paid to the human factors. In
general, the human side of computer-based training requires an assessment of
the interfaces between the trainee and the computer. Basically, one must ask whether a
computer-based training device can be used easily, accurately and without
trainee fatigue. This paper describes
some of the fundamental factors that must be considered such as information
presentation, temporal usage concerns, and maintaining trainee interest. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. THE NEXT TRAINING CHALLENGE FOR SIMULATION–TEAM TRAINING Robert A. Hansen and
Roy A. Wulff Link Flight
Simulation Division of The Singer Company Simulation has greatly
enhanced the training of individuals and crews through their systematic
exposure to essential elements of the environments in which they must
perform. Similar benefits will be
available to aviation, infantry, armor, and command teams when simulation and
instructional technologies are applied to the unique problems of team
training. Training systems geared to
the development and consolidation of specific elements of team skill will
employ computerized models of many battlefield environments and of the
essential characteristics of friendly and hostile forces that comprises
them. The team trainers of the future
will make extensive use of modern computer technology in controlling the
interactions among the team members and their practice environment, but they
will also permit a high degree of flexibility in team response. Teams will practice in standardized
environments in developing skill in fundamental procedures, but they will
also be able to practice in free play settings to encourage the development
and evaluation of innovative techniques.
Simulation technology holds great promise for the training of many
kinds of teams. The value of its
impact depends heavily, however, on the care with which requirements on each
kind of team are defined and on the care with which these requirements are
analyzed and expressed as requirements on the training system. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. TEAMWORK FROM TEAM TRAINING–NEW DIRECTIONS Eduardo Salas,
Arthur R. Blaiwes, Richard E. Reynolds Human Factors
Division, Naval Training Systems Center The Human Factors Division
of the Naval Training Systems Center has initiated a systematic R&D
effort to address three prevailing problems in the areas of team training and
team performance. These are the lack
of:: (1) conceptualization and
integration of team research studies; (2) a sound team performance
measurement system; and (3) research dealing with team processes. Specifically, this paper describes two
unique and innovative projects aimed at solving the above problems and at
providing the much-needed guidelines for training operational military
teams. Discussion as to whether
existing team training programs teach teamwork (i.e., are we there yet?) is
provided. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website.
A PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM FOR TRAINING SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT Ralph B. Pettit Sonalysts, Inc. P. Marshall
Magruder Hughes Aircraft
Company An integrated approach is
presented for the development, integration, and management of performance
measurement in training systems. This
approach organizes and translates user requirements derived through front-end
analysis into a set of quantitative and qualitative performance
measures. Management of the
performance measurement system is maintained through the use of a proposed
Performance Measurement System Report (PMSR), delivered under the
contract. The report provides a
mechanism for determining training requirements accountability and
traceability during training system acquisition. The PMSR allows cooperative involvement among representatives
of the procuring agency, contractor, and user community throughout the
design, development, and validation of the training system. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. INTEGRATING COURSEWARE & GRAPHICS: A TOTAL USER PACKAGE Keith Grindstaff and
Mark Partridge Ground Systems
Group, Hughes Aircraft Company Development of CAI
courseware and graphics displays has always been, from the user’s standpoint,
a cumbersome effort, often resulting in wordy, ponderous, text-heavy
instructional material. An integrated
courseware and graphics package has been developed to support rapid creation
and modification of training exercises, including verbal and visual content,
and the simulation environment itself.
This package allows the user, without having any special software expertise,
to create and change both the training scenarios (courseware) and all
associated graphic displays. As
training requirements and strategies change, and as changes are made to the
prime system, the user, a subject matter expert, can make the needed courseware
and display updates with no requirement to impact or modify the operational
software. The Display Development
System (DDS) allows the user to create graphics displays quickly, using a
menu-driven approach. Both textual
and graphics data can be displayed.
Courseware is written in a simple, High-level trainer Authoring
Language (HAL) which gives the user complete control of the DDS produced
graphics, and control of the entire training exercise. This integrated package
offers many benefits now being realized on two current trainer development
programs. The user of DDS/HAL can
quickly make whatever changes are needed to displays and courseware whenever
they are needed. Not having to rely
on software personnel to make software changes results in significant savings
of time and money. Beyond that, since
this package is independent of the operational trainer software, the user is
given tremendous freedom and flexibility in creating and maintaining displays
and courseware. This enables the user
to concentrate more fully on courseware, resulting in a more effective
presentation of course material. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. TOP DOWN STRUCTURED ANALYSIS AND USER INVOLVEMENT: A COMBINATION ESSENTIAL
FOR EFFECTIVE SYSTEMS DESIGN John J. Chancellor Eagle Technology,
Inc. James M. Young,
Ed.D. Defense Training
Data and Analysis Center The role of the end user in
today’s highly computer-dependent society is one of active participation in
the use of the products, which are the outcome of systems analysis and
subsequent development. This role is
rapidly becoming an important factor in the development of computer-based
training and information systems.
Traditionally, end users have been intimidated by the apparent mystery
cloaking the systems analysis process, and thus have learned to accept the
information generated by a systems analyst as being the exact truth and not
intended to be changed in any way.
Often differing expectations caused some type of conflict, either at
the beginning of a project or at the end of a project with the final
delivery. Systems were delivered to
less than ecstatic users and sometimes were regarded as unsuccessful. As the role of the end user
becomes increasingly important in developing computer-based systems, there
must also be an increase in the number and choices of methods that can be
offered to end users. There must also
be a corresponding awareness of the concerns of the end users by the systems
analysis involved. The mystery
surrounding the systems analysis process should be opened up and made clearly
obvious. The use of the Top Down
Structured Analysis methodology as presented in this paper shows how the use
of highly graphical notation coupled with a rigorous approach to
documentation can keep people involved and surprises under control. An example of how this process has aided
the Training Technology Applications Program of the U.S. Air Force depicts
the success of the methodology. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. USER-DIRECTED TRAINER ARCHITECTURE Eve J. Parrish and
Daniel H. Masaki Ground Systems
Group, Hughes Aircraft Company This paper discusses design
concepts of the latest trainer architecture which features user-directed
control of the trainer through data based directives. The discussion focuses on a trainer system
design approach that can easily accommodate changes and provides the
instructor with greater control and flexibility in creating training
exercises. The goal of this trainer
is to shift the responsibility of training exercise design and implementation
from programmers to the instructors and subject matter experts. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. CONTRACTOR SUPPORT, HOW CAN WE ENSURE TRAINING DEVICE AVAILABILITY? Timothy R. Mathews,
SMSgt, USAF Headquarters
Tactical Air Command Langley Air Force
Base Phase-out of the simulator
maintenance career field in the United States Armed Forces is now well under
way. Whether or not contractors can
successfully maintain the military’s training devices is not at issue. Instead, tomorrow’s challenge will be
providing cost-effective and timely support for military trainers while
ensuring trainer effectiveness and configuration management of the
devices. If we are to meet that
challenge, straightforward contracts that require trainer availability must
become commonplace. Support contracts
that include incentive and penalty provisions will benefit both government
and industry. From the user’s
perspective, this paper discusses the need for guaranteed trainer
availability within the Armed Forces aircrew training community, and proposes
methods of implementing contractor support for existing and future aircrew
training devices without sacrificing trainer availability. The author focuses on available methods to
successfully transition from either organic support to contractor maintenance
to full contractor logistic support.
Benefits of contract support along with pitfalls of current support
techniques are examined. The author
also explores the need for enforceable contracts that will enable both the
government and industry to capitalize on a successful transition to
contractor logistic support. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. USE OF THE COMPUTER READABILITY EDITING SYSTEM J. Peter Kincaid Naval Training
Systems Center (Code 10) The Computer Readability Editing
System (CRES) is a tool for helping technical writers adhere to writing rules
contained in military standards and guidelines. For example, it helps in using consistent terminology, defining
technical terms and avoiding certain kinds of awkward sentence
construction. The most important
feature of the system is its control of vocabulary using a series of
carefully compiled word lists including a common word list of 4,000 words and
seven technical word lists (e.g., electronics and propulsion engineering). Users can easily compile lists for their
own needs. As text is analyzed, CRES
flags uncommon words and provides comments about a dozen other features of
the text, which should be brought to the writer’s attention. The system has also been used to assess
the readability grade level of job and training reading materials. These assessment studies became the basis
for setting Navy standards; for example, Navy policy is that sailors need to
have a ninth grade reading ability to comprehend common job reading
materials. CRES also is aiding the
production of training materials for teaching technical vocabulary. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. FAULT INSERTION IMPROVES MAINTENANCE TRAINING Lance E. Young Hughes Aircraft
Company An effective electronic
maintenance-training program is dependent on the ability to insert faults into
training equipment so those students may have hands-on experience in
troubleshooting “failed hardware”.
The faults, and method of presentation to the student, must reinforce
the training objectives while at the same time demonstrate the classic
failure mode of the training equipment.
Ideally, the method of fault insertion will be: transparent to the
student, low cost, easily maintained, require a minimum of support
documentation, be remotely and rapidly controllable, limit wear and tear on
training equipment, and pose no safety hazard to personnel or equipment. The increased complexity and
size of operational systems coupled with higher costs for personnel and
training dictate the need for a more realistic, effective, and efficient
fault insertion technique as opposed to those in common use today. This paper will examine the concept of a
microprocessor based fault insertion device (FID); a technique which has been
successfully utilized in several major training systems. Comparisons will be made between a FID and
other common methods of fault insertion. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. |
© 1999, 2000, 2001 Simulation Systems and Applications, Inc. All Rights
Reserved.