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I/ITSEC 1986 – 8TH I/ITSEC
TABLE OF CONTENTS
a multiprocessor bare machine ada
system for flight simulators
real-time
debug in ada environment
object-oriented
development of training systems using ada
simulation
of an advanced scout attack helicopter for crew station studies
MTs ii, a
triple threat tactical environment trainer for air defense crews
simulation
based maintenance training
real-time
simulation of FLIR imagery
a new
generation of trainers for acoustic analysis
The use of
generic sensor simulators in team trainers
providing
high performance visual simulation at low cost, revisited
design of an
optical simulator visual system
visa 4–a
computed image generator for ground training
generation
of texture patterns for realistic visual simulation
aircrew
training system: test and evaluation
issues in
managing total training system development
The navy
hardman process: Training the analyst
The
challenge of mpt integration
software
security–how do we design it?
design,
development and management of reusable software components in ada
training
system building techniques & the potential of ada
transferring
classroom instruction to cbt
computer-based
training to operate state-of-the-art weapons systems
simulator
design criteria–new emphasis in concurrent developments
functional
specification of training devices within a total training system context
specifying
large cig data bases
organization
of a photographic data base*
acceptance
test procedures for very large data bases
systems
engineering for training systems–a team approach
return on
investment (roi) for full mission simulation–the developer’s perspective
whatever
happened to teamwork? a concept of future customer acceptance testing
emphasis on
quality: a procedural model for acquiring and managing technical support
documentation
training
systems quality assurance–the challenge to management
commercial
quality standards for training system subcontractors and vendors
contractor
logistic support puts the logistician into the front line of design
Practical
applications of total contract training (tct)– lessons learned from E-3 TCT
the reserve
component training technology field activity, boise, idaho
enhanced
knowledge of results–individual and team approaches
can
table-top training enhance p-3c acoustic analysis instruction?
aircrew
training–the relative contribution of major training system resources to future
readiness
the generic
instructor/operator station–the next-generation approach to ios modularity
on-line help
and references for courseware developers
a parallel
processor alternative to the modular simulator architecture
multiple-microcomputer
architectures–an integrated approach is needed for simulation
universal
threat implementation concept development
measurements
and effects of transport delays in a state-of-the-art f-16C flight simulator
Helicopter
simulation techniques for full mission flight simulation
volatile
environment software cost estimation
Proposal
management through the contractor’s knothole
managing
trainer configuration when development and production overlap
understanding
cost estimating and cost-training effectiveness models–a place to start
methodologies
for comparing cost/effective measures of alternative training systems
in-plant
formative evaluation of training device instructional subsystems
the role of
evaluation in training systems acquisition
training
data generation with commercially available integrated software
government
data requirements in a changing training environment
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a multiprocessor bare machine ada system for flight simulators In a conventional flight
simulator, the real-time programs are loaded and controlled by an operating
system, which is normally provided by the vendor of the computer system. During the simulation, much of the
operating system is redundant, as the functional capabilities of the
operating system far exceed the requirements of the real-time programs. The unused portions of the operating
system consume system resources and increase the complexity of the design of
those portions of the operating system that are called by the real-time
programs. Real-time programs written
in Ada can use the I/O and tasking features of the language and need not call
the operating system for these services.
The removal of the explicit calls to the operating system can lead to
the removal of the operating system itself, and the direct connection of the
Ada runtime system to the underlying hardware. This configuration is known as a Bare Machine Ada system. Real-time response, code execution speed,
execution time predictability, user code space, and reliability are all
improved by the removal of the operating system. This paper discusses the advantages of a Bare Machine Ada
system over a conventional implementation, and describes a prototype system
implemented on a tightly coupled, dual processor, super-minicomputer system
configured to represent a flight simulator.
The characteristics of a real-time Ada program executing on the
prototype system are compared to similar Ada program and corresponding
FORTRAN programs executing on a computer with an operating system. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. real-time debug in ada environment Real-time debug is a tool
which primarily isolates errors concerning lower-level computer software component
(LLCSC) interfaces. Because Ada
discourages making data available on a “global” basis, it is necessary to
design a real-time debug system that accesses information without violating
the software engineering design principles of the Ada environment. To meet the requirement for a test
methodology which removes errors within the Ada Programming Support
Environment (APSE), the DIANA data structure is examined to determine its
suitability to be transformed to the real-time environment to assist in performing
real-time debug functions. Currently
implemented real-time debug features are evaluated for their suitability
within an Ada “real-time” environment and their applicability within an Ada
Programming Support Environment (APSE).
The types of errors detected and their removal from software are
examined, with emphasis on the types of errors which real-time debug must be
designed to detect and evaluate to allow for the most effective error
removal. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. object-oriented development of training systems using ada This paper discusses aspects
of software engineering and design methodology to be used for development of
software using Ada for an existing C-141B Operational Flight Trainer
(OFT). The OFT software was
originally developed using FORTRAN 77 as the implementation language. The paper describes the application of
software engineering concepts such as abstraction, information hiding,
modularization and generalization, and the development of a methodology for
generating a program design based on these concepts. Also describe are problems with the
traditional object-oriented design (OOD) methodology, and attempts to
front-end OOD process to incorporate solutions for these problems. The methodology described is applicable to
the development of software for any type of training device. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. simulation of an advanced scout attack helicopter for crew
station studies The system complexity and
high workload of the next generation of light scout/attack helicopters is a
major cause of concern for the U.S. Army.
The Crew Station Research and Development Program has been established
by the Army to study the issues of battle captain performance for one-man
versus two-man crews. A Crew Station
Research and Development Facility (CSRDF) has been contracted for. It consists of a distributed computer
system with several stations which play different roles in experiments. Coordination of experiments is done from
the Experimenter-Operator Console where a team of Army experimenters and NASA
personnel control and monitor the mission scenario used to test the
crewmembers. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. MTs ii, a triple threat tactical environment trainer for air defense crews Modern Air defense weapons
such as Stinger, Chaparral, etc., can be extremely effective if used within
their tactical boundaries, but their high cost and the difficulty of
obtaining suitable targets makes training with live weapons impractical. Existing Moving Target Simulators such as
the M87 Stinger MTS are effective for procedures training, but a scenario
presented with a single target above a painted environment does little to
convey the stresses of real-life combat to the trainees. If, however, a simulation
presents a screaming enemy fighter attacking the group of gunners head-on,
strafing them as it passes overhead and, at the same time, a hostile
helicopter pops up from the nap of the earth and a third, unidentified
aircraft appears in the distance as the sounds of the battle roar on, will
the trainees remain calm and make the right decisions? Will the group leader assign individual
gunners to the correct targets? Will
the trainees ensure that the target is within the range and angular velocity
launch boundaries, and that it is not too close to the sun or a sunlit cloud
before they fire? The next step in
training systems is then to provide all of these elements without the danger
or expense of the real battle. The MTS II was developed to
provide the most effective training possible under these simulated threat
conditions. Designed for all Short
Range Air Defense (SHORAD) systems, the MTS II presents three realistic
independent video aircraft targets interacting with up to eight different
real life backgrounds. These visual
cues coupled with a correct IR environment, countermeasures and fully
directional threat and battlefield sounds make the MTS-II the next step in
SHORAD training. This paper expounds on the
MTS II system design, which presents a solution to the particularly difficult
task of training air defense gunners in a realistic tactical environment in
an efficient and cost-effective manner. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. simulation based maintenance training The training of personnel to
maintain today’s sophisticated military equipment has long been associated
with basically two extremes in terms of level of instruction and resulting
proficiency. On the simplistic end of
the scale, recent technology has produced panel boards and video disk based
devices which offer an abstracted, idealized portrayal of the operation and
failure modes of the actual device to be maintained. These two dimensional devices allow for a
variety of training situations but lack fidelity and encourage development of
poor maintenance habits. At the other
end of the scale, actual operating equipment has been used which, while
certainly realistic, allow for only routine servicing and mundane maintenance
tasks as failures of components cannot be activated upon demand. These trainers also expose the trainee to
hazards far above their ability to cope.
As an alternative a proper maintenance trainer design could be based
upon proven simulation concepts.
These concepts have been established primarily in flight simulation
and training. This paper will enumerate
and quantify these fundamental concepts.
It will then be shown that for the first time a set of maintenance
trainers based upon these concepts has been developed, and that significant
improvements in depth of training have been made. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. real-time simulation of FLIR imagery Infrared imagery appears
superficially similar to monochrome television imagery. An accurate simulation, however, must not
only produce realistic images of self-luminous objects rather than
illuminated scenery – it must also replicate the visual anomalies of the
imaging system. These anomalous
effects arise from the imperfect nature of infrared imagers; they vary among
systems, and they can become the dominant visual aspect of the displayed
imagery. A strategy has been
developed for producing high-fidelity simulated IR imagery in real time. The approach relies upon modeling
techniques, which can create a database of infrared scenery derived from
visual data, and upon a post-processor coupled to an existing image
generator, which will produce IR system-specific effects. A software emulation of the post-processor
has been developed which permits evaluation of its projected performance, as
well as facilitating tuning of system parameters in order to achieve
realistic IR imagery. To complement these
developments in high-fidelity IR simulation a set of software tools is being
developed to afford an efficient means of generating IR-specific
characteristics for inclusion in the IG database. These tools blend the physics of the scene, atmosphere, and
sensor with the requirements of the mission to be simulated and the IG system
to be used, thus contributing a major addition to the training system. This paper reviews some of
the aspects of FLIR imagery and their underlying causes, and describes the
modeling approaches and tools, as well as the basic functions performed by
the post-processor which are required in order to simulate FLIR imagery. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. a new generation of trainers for acoustic analysis The development of low-cost
trainers for acoustic analysis (AA) is dictated by the need for both initial
training and continuing refresher training in this volatile skill. The state-of-the-art in computers and
graphics systems supports the development of trainers that produce the high
resolution displays of operational equipment, support a computer-assisted
instructional (CAI) system, and provide the portability and low cost for wide
distribution to multiple fleet units and reserve components. The key to an effective AA
trainer for advanced and refresher training is a means of creating a realistic
display of what the student would observe in the real world. Recordings of actual acoustic contacts
provide a data base from which realistic displays can be created. Low-cost is achieved by performing the
conversion from acoustic data into display data by an off-line process that
is separate from the trainer. This paper describes the
development of the use of prestored data in a trainer, the signal processing
necessary to create the data base, the proof-of-concept trainer that
incorporates the use of prestored data, and the current research initiatives
that will lead to improvements in low-cost trainers for AA. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. The use of generic sensor simulators in team trainers There is a natural tendency
on the part of training systems designers to provide a level of simulation
for team trainers similar to that provided for operator trainers. Students entering a team training course
should have a working knowledge of the equipment operating procedures;
therefore, the real purpose of team training is to train the student in the
proper interaction with other team members, based upon the scenario presented
to the entire team. This paper
examines the types of trade-offs that must be made in designing a cost
effective team training system, (i.e., What are the minimum sensor simulation
capabilities that a team trainer must possess to facilitate team
training?). The main thrust of this
paper is to reflect upon the types of trade-offs that were made during the
design of the Generic Radar Display System (GRDS). GRDS will provide the simulated radar video for the Fleet Combat
Training Centers where as many as 22 Combat Information Center (CIC) mock-ups
can be joined into 1 team exercise.
This paper describes how the selection of the proper generic radar
simulation models simplified the design of GRDS while enabling it to simulate
any of the Navy’s Air Search and Surface Search Radars to meet the needs of
combat team training. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. providing high performance visual simulation at low cost, revisited In the process of
transitioning from the theoretical to the actual, things often change
greatly. This is also the case in the
move from system design, to system implementation and finally the actual
performance characterization. In a
follow-up to last year’s paper “Providing High Performance Visual Simulation
At Low Cost,” which described the system design and architecture, this paper
will discuss what has been learned in the actual implementation and use of
this system. An evaluation of the low
cost approach is presented, delineating the system capabilities and
limitations under various training requirements. One aspect that will be discussed at length is the channelized
system architecture and how this architecture responds to different types of
visual imaging simulation including sensor channels, narrow fields of view,
and combinations of imaging channels, all used in the same system. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. design of an optical simulator visual system This paper describes the design
of a truly optimal simulator visual system, i.e., one that fully satisfies
human visual requirements with minimum information processing and display
equipment. The concept is based on the
fact that only 130,000 visual resolution elements or pixels can be observed
by the eye at any instant in time.
This, coupled with the inability of the human to distinguish
intermittent visual occurrences if they occur at moderate rates (30 per
second) leads to the conclusion that one should be able to generate a wide
field high resolution display with no more information processing requirement
than those of a conventional 525 line television system. The impact of this is very great. Current wide field visual systems require
several 1000 line image generation and display systems to produce resolutions
significantly poorer than the desired one minute of arc human capability. The concept takes advantage
of the variable acuity nature of human vision by utilizing non-linear
projection optics to redistribute pixels on a linear light valve format in
the correct geometric pattern on the viewing screen so the eyes’ requirement
is met in both field of view and resolution.
The optical system is then slaved to the observers’ viewpoint by an
eye position sensor and closed loop control system. This paper describes the 10
years of development on this and related concepts conducted by MCAIR and
supported by the Navy, NASA, and USAF.
It concludes with design and performance details of a demonstration
system being constructed for the USAF (HRL), Williams Air force Base,
Arizona. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. visa 4–a computed image generator for ground training VISA 4 is the most recent
member of the THOMSON-CSF family real time computed image generators to have
been developed by the Simulator Division.
VISA 4 has drastically changed and increased the capabilities of
training simulators. It is
particularly well suited to armored vehicle simulators, and can meet
requirements for driver and gunner training at the individual or platoon crew
level. This paper describes the
principles of the VISA 4 system and the new features which contribute to its
potential for training ground based personnel. The main characteristics of
VISA 4 are: 1) high image quality 2) generalized use of high definition texturing on the
whole environment 3) dynamic underload and overload control 4) close correlation between image and vehicle
simulation, necessary for aircraft simulators, and especially important for
ground operation simulators. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. generation of texture patterns for realistic visual simulation Effective simulation of
real-world scenes can be enhanced by the addition of the structured visual
complexity of texture patterns, which provide important visual cues needed
for more complete assessment of the operating environment. This feedback can be provided by addition
of texture rather than by increasing the complexity of the underlying
database. Texture patterns can be
generated by reproduction of a real example of the desired surface or by
synthetic generation of patterns from features derived from multiple
images. In either case, it is
important that texture enhance the real-time simulation. Edges of the texture pattern must be
blended and obvious periodicities must be masked to create a realistic
scene. This paper reports the
investigation of several approaches to the generation of good texture
patterns. Evaluations of synthetic
methods of flat and solid texture pattern generation are compared to repeated
use of a pattern derived from images of real surfaces. Examples of foliage, grassland, and water
demonstrate techniques. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. aircrew training system: test and evaluation The recent initiatives by
the United States Air Force to implement total contractor Aircrew Training
Systems; (ATS) have invoked various levels of accountability with respect to
development and performance. The ATS
contractors(s) are faced with new, completely interrelated design
verification procedures, quality assurance requirements, and
implementation/interface controls.
Test and Evaluation concepts established by DOD policy are directly
applicable to this new environment.
However, the processes are complex, requiring rigorous basic
disciplines from development through the full life cycle of the system. Recognition of the T&E requirements as
design objectives will significantly reduce the risks and improve utility,
supportability, and the contractors profitability. This paper provides an approach to the philosophical and
functional management issues associated with the measurement, evaluation and
qualification of the various elements of an Aircrew Training System during
both the development and the operational program phases. Included are considerations for system
testability to certify the ISD, Media, Curriculum, and the trainee. The paper also addresses the Test and
Evaluation contributions to performance management, product improvements, and
cost benefits throughout the life of the contract. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. issues in managing total training system development Redefining the contractor’s
product as a fully trained individual rather than a supplied training
capability has posed management problems that are new to the simulation
industry. Different management
approaches and techniques are required to deal with the larger goals of a
total training system contract, both at program management levels and at
higher levels. Program managers must
coordinate the efforts of an even more diverse group of technical
specialists, often from several different companies or user communities. Existing disciplines supporting training
device development remain essential capabilities, but they now must be
augmented as early in the acquisition process as possible with those
disciplines necessary to identify a training need and translate it into an
engineering specification. Senior
managers must find ways of smoothly integrating these new disciplines within
existing organizational structures, preserving existing technical strengths
while accommodating a shift in business emphasis from the delivery of a
defined product to the supply of a long-term service. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. emerging issues and implications for program management in the acquisition of
training systems in the air force The evolution of major
training acquisition organizations from a device/equipment focus to a total
systems emphasis is more than a reflection of the growing concern for more
accuracy, timeliness and economy on the part of both using organizations and
program managers. It is a far more
basic statement of policy and philosophy that recognizes that training should
be an integral and primary function of all military activity and cannot be
separated into component parts (i.e., initial, mission, continuation) without
the whole becoming significantly less than the sum of its parts. While this systems integration requirement
will affect the user and technical arenas in many profound ways, the real
challenge to the success of acquiring accurately configured, timely, cost
effective and objectively based total training systems lies in the ability of
management to direct, control, measure and coordinate each element and
resource to its maximum benefit to the system. It has been stated on more
than one occasion that the Army’s job is to “equip the man” while that of the
Air Force is to “man the equipment”.
Using the change in focus from equipment to systems, it appears that
these two quips might be modified to “equip and prepare the available human
resources to maximize his or her ability to do the mission”. This description contains many provocative
concepts and implications but as a minimum suggests that management focus
must evolve from simple training tasks and devices definition to a total
responsibility for the integration of the man’s or woman’s entire education
and training throughout their military exposure. This tasking and/or responsibility takes on special criticality
when considering the following: Demographics suggest that
manpower availability and quality may be significantly lower in the not too
distant future. Since existing and
near future systems have been designed and implemented around a sufficient
number of highly qualified (mostly male) personnel, the impact that lower
numbers and lower qualification level may have on mission readiness is
potentially profound. The Air Force is currently
utilizing an available manpower pool of over 1,138,000 personnel to
accomplish its mission worldwide. One
of the requirements of acquiring a new weapon system must be insuring that
available manpower is present to support the new system and that every person
assigned is used to his or her maximum potential and benefit to the Air
Force. Using a task or device concept
in training requirement definition negates consideration of this responsibility. Assumption of responsibility for total
system acquisition requires mangers to account for all MPT issues on a life
cycle cost basis. As high technology continues
to provide new and more capable weapon systems to the Air Force, current
methods of specifying and acquiring training are becoming more and more
suspect. With major issues such as
contractor vs. “blue suit” training and specialist vs. generalist force
structures, questions of the ability of the task and skill oriented ISD
process; ability to support training system specification and
statement-of-work requirements have arisen. Program managers, facing the
new requirements of training system acquisition, are now required to have a
whole new set of skills, knowledges and perspectives available for decision
making. How many such managers are
qualified and equipped to integrate MPT issues, high technology advances in
both the weapon system and the training arenas, research and development
activity and mission and operational requirements with the complex and
demanding requirements of the acquisition process? This paper is intended to
address these issues with particular emphasis on the program manager and his
relationship with industry. This
emphasis is especially appropriate because of industry desire to provide
totally supported weapon systems and because of the fact that industry will
continue to be the major source of training system acquisition support for
the Air Force. The paper will define
the evolving issues in training systems acquisition, define the current tools
and methodologies which are currently being implemented, and propose several
initiatives and requirements which must be achieved if program managers of
the future are going to be able to realize the total benefit a training
system concept has to offer. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. The navy hardman process: Training the analyst This paper focuses on the
training of Manpower, Personnel, and Training (MPT) analysts to perform the
Navy HARDMAN Methodology. It
describes analysts’ performance requirements as a foundation for determining
trainee educational outcomes and the knowledge and skill requirements for an
experience-based training program. It
describes the Navy HARDMAN Methodology as a logical planning and analytical
process prior to and in concert with weapon HARDMAN as both a people and a
data interaction process. It points
out the necessity for training analysts to influence the weapon system
acquisition documentation, decision, and interaction processes if HARDMAN is
to be effective. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. the role of the training situation analysis in united states marine corps training systems acquisition The Marine Corps is
experiencing major equipment changes in almost every occupational field. These changes are impacting the training
pipeline and especially the formal schools.
This paper describes how the Training Situation Analysis (TSA) is used
to cope with these rapid changes and their impacts upon Marine Corps formal
school training. The TSA, as conducted
for a Marine Corps formal school, functions as a management plan that
identifies the training need, considers alternatives and specifies the
solution for the need, and describes how the solution should be implemented. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. The challenge of mpt integration Integration of manpower,
personnel, and training (MPT) planning systems is needed at both the specific
weapon system and aggregate levels in order to avoid disconnects and
unexpected consequences for functional area managers. Some recent reports on the need for MPT
integration are reviewed, and a number of MPT integration needs are
identified. New systems that are
already under development in order to meet these needs are described. The new MPT planning systems can be
organized into three categories: (1) the consolidation of MPT guidelines; (2)
the use of computer-assisted techniques for MPT tradeoffs, multi-source input
aggregation, and aggregate systems management; and (3) the use of incentives
for timely and accurate MPT planning by contractors and aggregate systems
manager. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. software security–how do we design it? With today’s growing
complexity in weapon system technology, we are experiencing a corresponding
increase in fidelity of aircrew training devices. Industry’s ability to
accurately simulate all phases of a mission, using classified equipment and
information onboard today’s aircraft sets the stage for potential
espionage. As a result, there is
growing concern within the defense community over the possible compromise of
the integrity and confidentiality of the data and programs used in the
simulation. To this date, the main area
of focus for security has been external.
These include plans to restrict access and control electronic
emissions. Previous emphasis being
directed toward external security, this paper addresses the somewhat
neglected area of software security.
There are two phases of the software life cycle – developmental and
operational. In the developmental
phase, software security can be implemented by secure operating systems. I will present a design for a secure
operating system. Within the
operational environment, maintenance/modification processes present a wealth
of opportunity to compromise the system through software modification. Strict control must be maintained over the
programmer/analyst’s ability to access classified information and
programs. To deal with operational
security, I will present methods which limit and control unauthorized access
to code and data. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. design, development and management of reusable software components in ada The use of Ada and reusable
software components in flight training devices promises to significantly
reduce the cost and development time of future trainers. This paper deals with the selection,
design, and development, and management of reusable software components
utilizing Ada as the design and implementation language. In order to realize the benefits of
reusable software components, careful planning is needed to ensure that
appropriate candidates are selected.
In this selection process the additional cost of producing an
efficient real time software component is discussed and weighted against the
useful lifetime of such a component.
Since design is the most critical part of the development cycle of a
reusable component, generality versus efficiency tradeoffs are discussed in
terms of how they will affect the future success of the component. The successful management of reusable
components and their acceptance by programmers is also discussed. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. training system building techniques & the potential of ada The acquisition of Training
Systems is being stressed continually by the advent of requirement
change. The cost and schedule impacts
from such changes are felt throughout the acquisition and fielding process. The use of FORTRAN places
constraints upon the development process which limits ability to reduce the
effect of requirement change.
Preliminary experience with Ada in the training arena shows that an
Ada environment does not share the FORTRAN limits. The paper examine the
essential differences between the Ada and FORTRAN software environments in
relation to both requirements change and to the introduction of generic
“standard” components with Trainer Products.
The concept of generic components is defined in terms to show how an
Ada environment facilitates in ways a FORTRAN environment cannot. Support software
prerequisites (particularly for Training System products) are identified and
are shown to be necessary to allow developers to exploit the potential within
structures that are part of the Ada language. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. design of level iii interactive videodisc training– exploiting the power of
the technology to enhance learning Interactive videodisc is now
commonly being used in military training, but the new technology is so
powerful that new design strategies are needed. Los Alamos National Laboratory’s Training Research Team is
developing experimental computer-based (IBM-PC based) training with
interactive videodisc (Level III) on military applications. The goal is to exploit the technology to
enhance learning, with the focus on learning requirements and not on the
technology. As part of this process,
the Team has compiled a set of nine design strategies. This set of strategies is readily portable
to other training efforts using this technology. The strategies are unique in that: (1) the technology is so new
and thus few guidelines exist, and (2) they incorporate learning theory and
human factors principles. The
strategies described are being used on Level III projects ranging from a
tactical operations cognitive strategies tutor to a part-task helicopter
trainer. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. transferring classroom instruction to cbt Many organizations are
considering adopting computer-based training and are now investigating the
hardware/software market for the tools to create and implement courseware in
their training environments. One
problem they face is that of altering their course presentations from the
traditional classroom format to that of an independent structure centered
around a computer-based environment. At issue are design
considerations such as learner control, branching, mastery criteria,
remediation, and others. In fact, most of the design must be redone in order to
maximize the instructional potential of the technology. It would appear that such an undertaking
would be too costly in time, resources, and money. But that is not necessarily the case. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. computer-based training to operate state-of-the-art weapons systems This paper describes a
computer-based training (CBT) system and its initial application in the
F/A-18 pilot training program. The
F/A-18 weapons system is digitally-based, incorporating mission computers,
multi-function CRT displays, and input through menu-based cursor and keypad
control. Thus the F/A-18 pilot’s task
is composed of information processing and management as well as psychomotor
skills. The interactive graphics,
immediate feedback and remediation capabilities of the CBT system proved to
be useful and practical in training these types of skills and has influenced
the application of CBT to other aircrew training programs and maintenance
training. The CBT system used was by
today’s standards relatively simple.
Modern, state-of-the-art CBT systems, which provide such facilities as
high-resolution graphics, videodisc and video overlay will allow even wider
applications and greater efficiencies.
Specific examples are provided. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. new emphasis in concurrent
developments Rather than pages of
specific design-to performance descriptions and tolerances, development
specifications released at contract award for complex training systems often
require the simulation of many aspects of a trainer to be “in accordance with
design criteria.” The use of this
reference enables work to begin on aircrew training devices roughly at the
same time as full-scale development of the weapon system being
simulated. However, this concurrent
approach complicates the determination of the simulation performance
required. By properly using a design
criteria list, the actual detailed requirements for simulation can be well
communicated. This paper explores the
use of a design criteria list in a typical weapon system trainer
development. Examples of design
criteria use and misuse are drawn from on-going simulator programs. The need for weapon system prime contractor
involvement, well chosen design criteria freeze dates, and documentation of
design assumptions throughout the development cycle is emphasized. Through the process illustrated, the
accumulation, distillation, and application of design criteria data is
portrayed as the cornerstone of representative simulation of actual weapon
system performance. In concurrent
weapon system and simulator programs, design criteria may actually be more
important than the development specification itself in determining simulation
requirements. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. functional specification of training devices within a total training
system context The training systems
industry has long recognized the need to base the design of complex and
expensive training devices on specific training requirements. The numerous efforts that have been made
to achieve this goal have encountered problems across a range of areas. User communities and procuring agencies
have in the past been forced to struggle with these problems alone, but with
the advent of total training systems acquisition, the system supplier must
face this problem directly.
Functional design techniques from engineering disciplines have proved
insufficiently sensitive to required student behavior. Media selection models from ISD, on the
other hand, are not optimized to support the development of a new
device. The use of ISD media models
has identified training requirements for which simulation is needed but
without sufficient detail to support engineering decisions. There is a clear need for a media design
process which is oriented around training requirements and which yields
information required for device engineering.
This paper outlines a process which appears to have promise as a
response to these needs. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. specifying large cig data bases Computer image generators
have reached a level of maturity in terms of the image realism they can
achieve. The recent addition of
advanced hardware texture to surfaces has provided unsurpassed realism,
allowing the creation of much more effective and diversified visual
cues. As a result, CIG systems can
now be applied to a broader class of training missions. Because the scene realism is
now adequate for many training missions, the CIG data base content problem is
becoming increasingly important. New
training tasks such as mission rehearsal and nap-of-earth flight require data
bases with an increasing geographic extent and density of three-dimensional
objects. To meet the new
requirements, many data base management and compression schemes are being
devised and new hardware capabilities will be created to support them. The problem for the user then becomes one
of determining which of these approaches meets his needs. This paper will discuss and
show through example the need for data base management and compression. In addition, it will discuss the
trade-offs that occur because of compression schemes. Last and most important, this paper will suggest
several methods of specifying data base requirements that take into account
such parameters as geographic extent, specific content, density and
correlation. The goal of the
specifications is to allow the user to more readily understand the data base
processing performance of a computer image generator and to reduce the
confusion caused by the various management and compression schemes. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. organization of a photographic data base* The increasing emphasis of
the use of photographic images in visual simulation has introduced new
challenges. In photobased systems
that allow full freedom of movement around three dimensional objects, the question
of the image data base size and organization becomes a significant system
design issue. This paper addresses
the topic of storage and retrieval of multiple images that represent
three-dimensional generic objects such as trees, buildings, and targets. In order to obtain a smoothly changing
view of the object as the eyepoint moves relative to the object, many
photographs taken at different aspect angles are used. Determining the actual number of different
aspects required and how these should be physically stored is a nontrivial
task. Increasing the number of
different aspects facilitates the accomplishment of smooth transitions, but
at the same time makes real-time retrieval more difficult. This paper describes a method of
organizing the image data for a 3D object onto a disk taking the device
performance characteristics into account. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. * This work was performed
under PM-Trade/NTSC Contract Number N61339-83-C-0066. ** Now at the University of the Pacific, Stockton, California acceptance test procedures for very large data bases A new class of acceptance
test procedures is required to verify the content and performance of a new
generation of very large, map-correlatable data bases. Advances in CIG hardware design and
improvements in software modeling tools and modeling strategies have allowed
vast increases in both the size and density of visual data bases used in
military flight and tactical training.
While procedures for verifying data base content and proper visual
system/host interaction are well established for smaller, less complex
commercial data bases, these procedures fall short when applied to the large
military data bases currently being produced. This paper reviews the development and evaluation of acceptance
test procedures for the AV8B East and West Coast data bases created for the
USMC. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. systems engineering for training systems–a team approach This paper will present an
approach to the conduct of the systems engineering process that can be
applied to the development of both total training systems and training
devices. The approach focuses on a
team effort by the acquisition organization, the contractor and the ultimate
using organization working together throughout the development cycle. Some of the DOD’s streamlining initiatives
are applied to this process as well as the recently published DOD-STD-2167
and updated military standards. The textbook systems
engineering process must be adapted for training system development to
coincide with the normally compressed acquisition phases of most large
training systems. Several concepts
found in DOD acquisition and systems engineering documentation are tailored
for training systems programs and the development process, design reviews and
testing discussed. This paper will
show how a strong analytical process at the beginning of the contract effort
can result in more objective testing at the end of the development
phase. Recommendation for the conduct
of major design reviews which emphasize the purpose of each review and
utilize naturally evolving documentation will be make. An integrated process to improve the
efficiency of training system development will be outlined using a team
approach. This approach, in order to
be successful, will require all parties to adopt new methods of doing
business with more freedom and flexibility for the contractor and less
involvement in the design details by the acquisition organization. This also means some checks and balances
must be defined and implemented.
Throughout the paper several basic principles will be emphasized along
with a proposed implementation. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. return on investment (roi) for full mission simulation– the developer’s
perspective The cost effectiveness of
full mission simulation, once a central topic to the user attempting to
justify initial investment costs, has now become the concern of the developer
as he attempts to justify simulation in terms of “return on investment.” When choosing how to invest limited
dollars to meet capital asset needs, priorities and rates of return guide companies
and their selection of competing capital asset requests. Many capital acquisition programs are
easily quantified by using classical rate of return formulas. For example, replacing one drill press
with another is easily justified if the new press runs faster, costs less to
maintain, and therefore increases productivity. But if the new drill press does something the old press could
not do, the ability to compare or quantify productivity levels is diminished. The ability to quantify full
mission simulation capital expenditures for aircraft engineering, training,
and marketing is difficult because the value of the full mission simulator as
an aircraft engineering, training, and marketing tool has not been precisely
quantified. The present paper proposed a
flexible/expandable formula for quantifying the present and continuing value
of the full mission simulation.
Simulation ROI for aircraft engineering and marketing is broadly
broken down into two categories: (a) new aircraft development programs and (b)
changes to existing aircraft. Full Mission
ROI for training is divided into the initial and transition training
categories. The ROI formula for full
mission simulation provides a vehicle for quantifying the investment by
identifying cost/savings associated with a range of engineering, training,
and marketing uses for the simulator system. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. whatever happened to teamwork? a concept of future
customer acceptance testing A major goal of systems
procurements has been getting a quality product as quickly as possible. In the simulator world, a serious drive is
now on for concurrency. Attempts have
always been and will still be made to reduce the total cost of the procurement. One costly phase of the development
schedule, because of its associated time and manpower requirements, is the
test phase. Of particular importance
is Customer Acceptance Testing. By
making some significant changes to the test philosophy and how the tests are
actually conducted, significant gains could be made by the contractor, buyer
and user. This paper will review
doctrines of system test planning which have been held sacred by both
sides. A background to the purpose
and goals of system test will be presented.
Additionally, the structuring of a system’s various test phases will
be reviewed. New ideas will then be
presented on how, with cooperation and trust by all parties concerned,
everyone can accomplish what they always have and now a lot more. Evidence of how implementation of some of
these new ideas has worked will be reviewed. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. emphasis on quality: a procedural model for acquiring and managing technical support documentation Acquiring
and maintaining high quality technical support documentation is vital to the
Naval Training Systems Center’s mission.
To this end, a comprehensive plan for managing the Technical Support
Documentation Program has been implemented by the Center. The plan ensures that all technical
support documentation products receive “cradle to grave” quality
assurance. These products include
training documentation, technical publications, vendor data, engineering and
maintenance drawing, and other support data items. The plan’s heart is a procedural model designed to address six
prime drivers: (1) STREAMLINING requirements, (2) user needs, (3) cost
reduction, (4) scarce personnel resources, (5) a requirement for quality
products, and (6) a need for control during the product life cycle. The model was developed by integrating
three constructs: (1) improved acquisition management techniques, (2)
technological applications, and (3) stringent product monitoring. When fully integrated, these elements are
in constant interaction, ensuring that each construct’s variables are fused
into a cohesive, comprehensive whole.
This paper discusses the constructs, the variables and their
importance in achieving the quality required by the CENTER OF EXCELLENCE
concept. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. training systems quality assurance– the challenge to
management This paper briefly discusses
the need for training systems quality assurance. The tendency to “front-end” load the support effort in training
systems development towards procurement and not by long-term support is
discussed. In recognition of a need
to meet established training needs over the long term, the Navy developed a
Quality Assurance and Revalidation (QA&R) system to assure that training
equipment does, in fact, meet training requirements and operates to
established standards. The current
process of QA&R provides evaluation of the various segments of a command
operated inspection program and its elements. Each topic is examined for what it provides to management in
both the long and short-term improvement of the training systems. New efforts to support special command
requirements are emphasized along with additional inspection elements. The effects of management on the QA&R
system are pointed out along with the challenge that must be met by
management in a successful QA&R program.
The need for management action to ensure effectiveness is stressed to
bring home the point that only through management action can the process of
quality assurance succeed. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. commercial quality standards for training system subcontractors and vendors Link quality assurance
specialists have set out to determine a more precise definition of “best
commercial practices” than is currently applied in procurement policies,
which call for criteria less rigorous than those imposed under MIL-Q-9858 and
MIL-I-45208. The term “best
commercial practices” is understood to apply to those items which are neither
complex nor critical, and such items represent the large majority of
procurements made under military and commercial contracts. It has been Link’s experience that quality
obtained under “best commercial practices” ranges widely, from full compliance
with MIL-Q-9858 to virtually no compliance whatever. Establishment of precise standards for
“best commercial practice” leads to three desirable results: quality
inspection costs are reduced, suppliers know precisely what is expected, and
minimum standards are defined for training systems in general. Accordingly, we have developed four
specifications that define “best commercial practices” to our suppliers as
part of a comprehensive procurement quality assurance program. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. contractor logistic support puts the logistician into the front line of design This paper discusses the
implications of the move towards Contractor Logistic Support (CLS) as a
low-cost support option used by the U.S. Government in new procurement
programs. Also discussed are the
implications of CLS to the Contractor’s organization and to the logistician
in particular, highlighting the increased importance of logistics throughout
the program. User benefits of CLS are
described including better equipment availability and lower support costs. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. Practical applications of total contract training (tct)– lessons learned from E-3 TCT TCT is an approach to
acquire training that has as its product a guaranteed, initially qualified
employee. TCT emphasizes a specified
level of training rather than a list of hardware required to train
individuals. Total maintenance is
within the contractor’s scope of effort.
The advantages of TCT programs for the DoD are being acknowledged by
an ever-increasing circle of interested parties. Best commercial practices can dramatically reduce training
costs. Critical resources, e.g.,
manpower and hardware, can be transferred from training to operational
commitments. The purpose of this
paper will be to discuss general TCT principles and the problems encountered
in our E-3 specific applications of TCT, offer some solutions to problems
that are inherent in TCT, and relate lessons learned that may prevent others
from retracing our errors. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. combat mission simulation–the “attractive alternative” The AH-64 Apache – the
Army’s most advanced and lethal attack helicopter – is a highly complex and
formidable weapons system designed to fly nap-of-the-earth at night and in
adverse weather and to defeat a sophisticated array of enemy tanks and air
defense weapons. The complexity of
the weapon system coupled with its operational environment and mission
presents a formidable challenge to the training community. The challenge has been met through the
development of a suite of system training devices designed to off-load
training from the actual aircraft.
The Apache program further challenges collectively the user community,
the materiel developer, and industry to develop and deliver as part of this
training system a means to attain and maintain tactical decision-making
skills necessary to fight and survive in a high threat environment. This paper describes the general
capabilities of the AH-64 Apache helicopter and its training system from both
institutional and unit perspectives.
The capstone of the training system, the Combat Mission Simulator, is introduced
with detailed explanations of design approaches and tradeoffs made to attain
the highly sought combat skills training capability – the attractive
alternative. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. the reserve component training technology field activity, boise, idaho The Reserve Component
Training Technology Field Activity is a multi-agency sponsored research
activity dedicated to improving Reserve Component training through research,
development, and application of advanced training technology. This paper describes the unique training
constraints of the Army’s Reserve Components and outlines six projects begun
in Fiscal Year 1986 to address training needs associated with these
constraints. The projects are
designed to (a) formally identify Reserve Component training needs at the
nation-wide level, (b) determine and demonstrate cost-effective methods for
remotely delivering training over distributed locations, (c) examine skill
retention among the Individual Ready Reserve, and (d) evaluate the
effectiveness of a computer-based training device for rifle marksmanship in
addition to identifying practicable training management strategies tailored
for use in the Reserve Component environment. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. Large ammunition stockpiles
remaining from World War II, Korea, and Vietnam provided sufficient training
ammunition resources in the early seventies.
Ammunition was issued that allowed all U.S. Army units, regardless of
component, to request the same amount of ammunition for respective weapon
systems. Now that these stockpiles
have dwindled, replacements are very expensive and Congress will not continue
to fund training ammunition requirements without sufficient
justification. Weapon Systems
Training Effectiveness analyses were done from 1976 to 1983 to determine the
number of rounds required for individual and crew proficiencies. Existing training devices and subcaliber
munitions that could be substituted for full caliber rounds were identified
and recommended for use in weapons training programs. In late 1979, training ammunition
guidelines were documented in Training Circular 25-3, for most fielded weapon
systems. Resources such as subcaliber
munition, devices, and dry firing were described and trade-offs identified. The paper will describe how this was done. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. enhanced knowledge of results–individual and team approaches The effectiveness of
training programs depends fundamentally upon the availability of knowledge of
results (KOR) concerning trainees’ performance and how the KOR is used in
instruction. This paper describes
examples of individual and team training applications of enhanced KOR. The individual training system, called the
Automated Performance Assessment and Readiness Training System (APARTS),
generates KOR on carrier landing performance that is used by instructors to
integrate training in operational aircraft with practice in a flight
simulator. APARTS is currently being
implemented at all Air Wings and Fleet Replacement Squadrons. The team training example, the Surface
Anti-submarine Warfare (ASW) Training System, incorporates a variety of KOR
data and presentation techniques to address problems unique to team training. Procurement of a prototype version of this
major system is underway at the Naval Training Systems Center, and
“follow-on” systems are planned for the near future. Requirements for individual and team
training are compared. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. computerized system for diagnosing maintenance technicians’ faults isolation capabilities–implemented in training packages for the LAVI fighter aircraft The accurate and efficient
diagnosis of faults is a critical element in the training and certifying of
maintenance technicians. This
diagnostic process starts with noting a symptom (e.g. a warning indicator or
the result of a routine maintenance check) and ends by pinpointing specific
faulty elements. It requires more
complex cognitive processes than those required for correcting system faults
once they have been diagnosed. This paper describes a
computerized system where a technician is presented with a symptom indicating
malfunction, asked to specify an initial list of “suspected” components,
required to indicate a first step in fault isolation by pointing to the exact
location of the element/sub-element on the equipment, asked to indicate the
desired system test and presented with a data reading to be used for
determining the next course of action. This series of requests and
data feedbacks forms an “item tree” to evaluate fault isolation capabilities
within different skill areas. The
computer provides feedback on individual and group performance which can be
used for formative and summative testing of technicians in training, for
certification and recertification of competence and for purposes of trainer
and program evaluation. This system
makes it possible to examine fault isolation capabilities of large groups of
candidates. It is therefore
advantageous for testing purposes when compared to the use of multiple choice
tests or even expensive maintenance simulators. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. can table-top training enhance p-3c acoustic analysis instruction? The ability to analyze
acoustic signals passively and classify the contact is a skill requiring
constant practice by both the novice and the experienced sensor or sonar operator
in order to maintain a high proficiency level. In the P-3C community, personnel receive Basic and/or Advanced
Airborne Acoustic Analysis training in preparation for a sensor operator
position and then return for Refresher training periodically between
deployments. This report investigates
the possible use of table-top type trainers in P-3C Acoustic Analysis
training as a replacement for the paper gram instruction approach employed in
the Basic, Advanced and Refresher classes, or as a “between training” method
used during deployment. The three
major sections of this paper include: 1) the results of a survey of Acoustic
instructors and sensor operators; 2) a discussion of the ability of table-top
type trainers to enhance future sensor operator instruction; and 3) a
comparison of the functions and methodology of two table-top trainers
developed by the Navy. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. aircrew training–the relative contribution of major training system resources to future readiness The paper considers the
broad areas of manned simulation technology, range system technology, and the
emerging area of embedded training.
The focus is upon the application of these technologies in a
systematic fashion to the advanced stages of tactical aircrew training. Recommendations are made for a major
re-thinking of DoD investment strategies with respect to those training
system technologies having the greatest likelihood of supporting readiness
under increasingly mobile and dispersed force structures. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. the generic instructor/operator station– the next-generation
approach to ios modularity This paper proposes a
software-based approach to a generic Instructor/Operator Station (IOS), based
on a modular, message-driven architecture, which provides the universality to
support a variety of flight simulators. A generic IOS is an
environment composed of software modules, databases, training objectives and
instructional support features (ISF) that can be combined in reliable and
consistent ways to support multiple simulator applications. These modules may be incorporated into
libraries of capabilities, which may then be drawn upon, dependent upon the
features necessary to each specific application. Each module within a functional library may be classified in
one of three ways: 1) Generic – universal across simulators; 2) Application dependent – appropriate only to the
airplane or mission being simulated; 3) System unique – only appropriate to a specific
simulator. In such an environment, an
IOS may be built using software tools, similar to the method used by computer
systems programmers in generating operating systems. This approach may permit a subject matter
expert unfamiliar with software and hardware design to build or modify an IOS
with little or no software or hardware experience required. This paper considers the
implications of this approach, how the modules may be defined, developed and
combined appropriately, and the impact on the system development
process. It also discusses support
tools and the impact of new technologies such as knowledge-based systems,
modular simulator concepts and Ada on developing the generic IOS environment. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. on-line help and references for courseware developers This paper reports on the
increasing use of on-line help and reference programs within computer
systems, specifically authoring systems for the development of computer-based
training. The advantages of
developing a comprehensive help program are explained. The “help” features of two well-known
authoring systems are described. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. a parallel processor alternative to the modular simulator architecture The modular simulator
concept has been proposed as a means of reducing the cost of training
devices. With this approach a number
of different self-contained, single function subsystems consisting of a
processor, local memory, I/O, and related trainer hardware are combined. A local area network is used to link the
subsystems into a complete trainer.
There are a number of practical difficulties with implementing this
approach. As an alternative, a
parallel processor architecture is proposed in which a single parallel
computer is used with a single I/O system.
All processors share tasks and have equal access to shared memory and
to the I/O bus. An experiment was
conducted employing this architecture in an existing helicopter OFT. The results of the experiment indicate
that the parallel processor approach is a more practical, cost effective
solution than the modular simulator approach. A major benefit is that spare processors can be available
on-line to replace failed processors automatically with no interruption of
training. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. multiple-microcomputer architectures– an integrated approach is
needed for simulation The advent of 32-bit busses
which support full 32-bit microprocessors has signaled a coming of age of
microcomputer technology for simulation applications. The VME-bus, a fully non-proprietary bus
standard developed through a cooperative effort of major semiconductor manufacturers,
has board-level product offerings from over 200 vendors. As this number continues to grow, so does
the competitive base of the various components (in low cost, general purpose
form) needed to build high fidelity simulators. Although the growing availability and variety of these
off-the-shelf components do not minimize the need for sound system
integration, they can facilitate this crucial process, and more importantly,
afford an opportunity to rethink how it can be done better. For example, in the past, shared memory
has been widely used to communicate between multiple cpu’s in a training
system. Should this concept be
adopted in microprocessor-based systems, or will emerging message passing and
data broadcasting methods serve our needs more effectively? Once the best communications mechanism has
been selected, what intelligence will be needed to partition the simulation,
determine the data that must be transferred, and synchronize the distributed
software modules of the system such that the fidelity of the simulation math
model is preserved? Research has been undertaken both within the government
and by military contractors to answer these questions. The Systems and Computer Technology
Division of NTSC has contributed through the building of an advanced
development model based on the VME-bus and commercially available components. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. universal threat implementation concept development This paper presents a
software-intensive, real-time, reactive threat training simulation design,
based upon an optimal blend of fidelity, simplicity, and flexibility. The development approach is based upon the
simplification of current simulation model fidelity requirements through
perceived training objectives and existence of highly interactive, complex,
semi-autonomous defensive systems onboard new generation strategic aircraft. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. measurements and effects of transport delays in a state-of-the-art f-16C
flight simulator In recent years the military
community has developed advanced simulators for high performance fighter-type
aircraft. These devices not only
simulate high performance aircraft but also complex tasks such as air to air
combat, aerial refueling, air to ground combat, and formation flying. With the increases in the sophistication
of these simulators has come a corresponding increase in computational
complexity. This complexity has
negated the effects of higher computational speeds available in today’s
computers; thus the transport delays have remained essentially constant. What has not remained constant, however,
are the effects these transport delays have on the training nature and
consist of many computers interfaced with each other, the determination and
measurements of the transport delays is often difficult. The effects these delays have on the
simulation of a high performance fighter-type aircraft are also difficult to determine. The Air Force Human Resources Laboratory,
Operations Training Division (AFHRL/OT) is currently completing the
development of a new F-16C simulator with full field-of-view visual display
and no motion system. This paper describes the methods utilized to measure of
the transport delays that exist in this system and some of their effects on
the training effectiveness of the simulation. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. Helicopter simulation techniques for full mission flight simulation The power of simulation as a
design and training tool has long been recognized and successfully exploited
by the fixed-wing aircraft community.
This in turn has begun to influence the helicopter industry which until
now used simulation to a much lesser extent.
This is evidenced by the emphasis on simulation by the U.S. Army in
the procurement of the next generation light helicopters (LHX) and the
investments currently made by the helicopter companies on simulation
equipment and facilities. The approach
to fixed-wing aircraft simulation has become fairly uniform within the
industry despite advances in aircraft technology and capabilities. On the other hand, rotorcraft simulation
has taken divergent paths. There is a
plethora of techniques and more are in the offing. One reason is that the rotor wake, rotor dynamics, and the
interaction between the rotor, airframe, engine and drive train are extremely
complex and difficult to model, even to achieve a credible offline
non-realtime simulation. Consequently,
designers of helicopter engineering/training simulations face a bewildering
array of techniques for real-time, man-in-the-loop simulation. This paper surveys the
different rotor modeling techniques from a real-time simulation user’s
perspective. It describes the most
commonly used techniques, their underlying assumptions and simplifications,
computing requirements, and strengths and weaknesses. It is hoped that the paper will provide a
potential designer/user with an understanding of the options available to him
and help him choose an approach that will best meet his needs. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. volatile environment software cost estimation The classical cost
estimation approaches supported by the literature (Bottoms-Up, Top-Down) or
by the use of models (Boehm, Putnam) sometimes cannot accommodate the
volatile training simulation environment.
The product is subject not only to the usual hazards of erroneous
definition, requirements misinterpretation, and change, but also to the prime
system’s equivalent hazard set.
Initial cost estimates should include the risk assessment and cost for
a given level of change. The
statistical cost-risk software development estimation technique is a viable
alternative to classical methods. It
uses a manageable set of criteria to achieve completeness of requirement, the
accuracy of task sizing and the programmer staff productivity. The results, with a 10-percent
demonstrated accuracy including management, material, other direct costs, and
labor, are obtainable with a personal computer. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. Proposal management through the contractor’s knothole Contractor effort on a
training systems proposal starts well in advance of the notice in the
Commerce Business Daily (CBD). This
effort includes a training requirements analysis to determine the level of
performance requirements necessary to satisfy training objectives. Trade studies are performed among possible
solutions to the performance requirements so they can be satisfied in the
most cost effective manner. The
results of these trade studies are in part shared with the government to
influence the Prime Item Development Specification (PIDS) during its
preparation for the benefit of both the contractor and the government. Due to competitive
groundrules, open communication with the customer is not always
possible. Frequently, the contractor
proposal manager lifts his eyes to the skies and wonders how he could
influence the RFP. Over and over the
same questions are asked; Why do these requirements exceed the apparent
funding? What is the real
funding? Is the customer really
looking for constructive changes or interpretations? Does the originator really understand the
resulting impact? This paper is intended to
promote discussion relating to the need to understand the contractor’s
proposal tasks and problems. It is
hoped that this understanding will lead to improved communications which will
result in better procurements. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. managing trainer configuration when development and production overlap Development and production
of high technology, low volume, complex trainers has in recent years
presented significant challenges to government contractors when trainer
acquisition schedules require that follow-on production unit activities begin
before completion of the development unit test and evaluation phase. The objective of the program management
team during this critical period is to maintain development engineering
design freedom while managing the impact and incorporation of design changes
into the production process. This
paper presents the important issues and processes of configuration and
production control and describes how concurrent production can be accomplished
through a series of steps including defining the trainer design elements to
control, developing production critical items, release schedules, determining
design confidence factors, and establishing a Configuration Control Board
with good communications between the design, manufacturing, procurement and
support operations. Monitoring and
controlling the hardware and software elements must begin as soon as
production activities start. Complex
production follow-on training systems that integrate test and perform to
baseline specifications and meet government and contractor schedules can be
delivered on the heels of the acceptance of a prototype development system. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. understanding cost estimating and cost-training effectiveness models–a place to start At a time when Government
budget cuts are in vogue and increased military readiness is the goal,
knowledge of cost estimating and cost/training effectiveness models is
essential for decision-makers and training analysts. As with many aspects of our economy, costs
associated with training continue to climb.
Understanding and correctly using cost estimating and cost/training effectiveness
models can help in the area of controlling the costs associated with
training. This paper will present a
number of the more common cost and training effectiveness models, describe
the use of the models and develop a glossary of terms. The material presented here is by no means
exhaustive. The intent is to
introduce the reader to some of the techniques available and to provide a
starting point for learning more about the subject. By being aware of and correctly using these and other types of
cost estimating and cost/training effectiveness models, decision-makers will
be able to increase the return of the investments made in military training
systems. By using these techniques,
it will become possible to achieve the goal of receiving better training for
less cost. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. methodologies for comparing cost/effective measures of alternative training systems To select among alternative
training systems, the cost and effectiveness of each must be measured and
compared. For this paper it is
assumed that effectiveness can be measured cardinally and costs are life
cycle costs. When evaluating life cycle
costs of alternatives the time value of money must be considered. The life cycle costs must be presented in present
value terms by discounting. Inflation
should be considered only to the extent that it affects the real interest
rate (the effective discount rate) or if differential price growth exists in
resource prices of the alternatives. Three methods to quantify
and combine the costs and effectiveness of alternatives are evaluated: (1)
cost-effectiveness ratio; (2) normalized cost and effectiveness measures; (3)
marginal cost effectiveness. None of
these approaches will select the “best” alternative because of the
subjectivity of effectiveness measures.
However, the marginal approach will enable one to eliminate
alternatives. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. The relative costs of Active
forces and Reserve forces make Guard and Reserve units increasingly important
in defense planning. With the
inception of the Total Force policy, the training objectives of Guard and Reserve
units became the same as those of Active units with similar missions. The other side of the economic coin that
favors Reserve forces is less time and equipment for training, fewer training
areas, and poorer training facilities.
These factors plus geographic dispersion of Guard and Reserve units
make the training environment for Reserve forces much different from that for
Active forces. This paper is a
progress report on Phase 1, Army Reserve components, of a study of technology
and procedures to improve training programs of the Reserve components of the
Services. The study methodology for
Phase 1 is expected to be used for subsequent phases that examine the Navy
and the Air Force. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. in-plant formative evaluation of training device instructional subsystems Current training device
evaluations performed in-plant do not adequately address instructional
subsystem issues. Instead, these
tests focus primarily on engineering topics.
Formative evaluation is a method which allows training device
designers and users to determine instructional subsystem problems before the
device is shipped. It also provides
opportunities to make improvements.
This paper defines training device formative evaluation, describes it
purposes and techniques, and points out possible obstacles to its
conduct. The paper concludes with an
example of formative evaluation which was performed on the M1 Tank Institutional
Conduct of Fire Trainer. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. the role of evaluation in training systems acquisition As the number and
sophistication of training systems increases, there is a need to evaluate the
effectiveness of the systems. The
services have attempted to identify and define how that evaluation should be
accomplished, primarily by looking at the concept described as “Transfer of
Training.” This paper identifies the two types of evaluation, formative and
summative, that have received universal acceptance in government, industry,
and academia. It describes the
characteristics of each type of evaluation, and specifies when each should
occur. Further, it suggests the role
of both the contractor and the government.
Those roles include the requirement for active government
participation in formative evaluation, a role which has been traditionally
ignored. The presentation format of
the paper uses a model for evaluation as a foundation for the
discussion. The description of the
model includes the identification of each requisite step in the process. Each element of the model is amplified in
the contest of using evaluation for modern training systems. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. training data generation with commercially available integrated software The imposition of critically
short turn-around times for Contractor Training Programs on complex equipment
systems can overload training groups that are not fully automated. Traditionally, these training groups accomplish
significant efforts with short turn-around times by parcelling out
assignments to several training developers.
This creates problems with standardization, control, and program
philosophy. Parcelling produces
inconsistent and incompatible materials, increases the management and
coordination efforts, and requires more reviews and more rewrites, all of
which inevitably increase costs.
Commercially available integrated software provides relief by enabling
training developers to generate MIL-SPEC training materials on personal
computers utilizing the same data base for nomenclature, terminology, and
references; the same spread sheet for computing class length; and the same
window-driven word processing for producing training outlines and course
materials in final format on-screen.
The necessity for this approach is manifold: shrinking DoD budgets,
increased contract requirements, and the necessity to operate more
efficiently. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. government data requirements in a changing training environment Department of Defense
specifications for technical data, spares and support documentation have been
the proverbial “thorn in the side” to simulator and training device suppliers
for many years. These government requirements
are the most significant factor in the higher prices they pay for similar
commercially available devices. As
military aircrew training devices changed from an all organic to a Contract
Logistics Support (CLS) concept, there is a real potential for significant
decreases in government training device life cycle costs. With the work force stability provided
under CLS, the need for the highly sophisticated and costly logistic support
is dramatically reduced. This paper
will evaluate the various life cycle cost factors and assess the relative
impact of reducing the current government standards (MIL-STD, MIL-SPEC) to
best commercial practices in a CLS environment. This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium
CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. |