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Manpower, Training, and Documentation Analyses:

Not Strange Bedfellows

Dr. Robert S. Bloom, Dr. Renata V. Schmidt, and William P. Hardy

GP Taurio, Inc./General Physics Corp.

This paper specifies a conceptual model for training systems development describing the interrelationship of MPT Resource Requirements Analysis, ISD training content development, and technical documentation for military tactical weapon systems and training devices.  It describes how a common data base containing specific performance data drives a variety of analytic, resource determination, and requirements decision tasks.  It discusses the interface points and impacts of the three military training system development components on each other and on their products.  It demonstrates how military and contractor manpower and training analysts and hardware and software engineers can coordinate their data collection, analysis, and documentation efforts in a timely and cost-effective manner.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Interdisciplinary Systems Definition Model

Dr. Gary J. Ketchie, Ph.D. and Kristen L. Thompson

Honeywell, Inc.

This paper will present information on an Interdisciplinary Systems Definition Model (ISDM) for training design and developments which is implemented during the military acquisition process, and which utilizes a diverse range of technical skills and disciplines.  The central theme of the model emphasizes the need for individual technical disciplines to coordinate not only products but processes which may affect an adjacent discipline’s methodology.  The focus of the model is the definition and development of those aspects to be trained which address the functional and operational aspects of the system.  Functional aspects in this context deal with the skills required to place the system into a state of functioning, or simply, the man-machine-interface.  Operational aspects refer to activities performed by the operators(s) in response to the changing tactical environment, including coordination and communication with the supported echelon of deployment.  In addition, this paper provides information on the systems engineering approach used to define doctrinal deployment and tactical applications of a system with no type classified predecessor or similar system in the field.  The model will show how the disciplines of Mission Analysis, Human Factors Engineering, and Training have been brought together to define user applications.  In this paper, these factors are considered in the context of the Human Factors, Manpower, Personnel, and Training (HMPT) model which preceded the current MANPRINT model.  This paper will describe how the variables of the battle field environment, threat, and taskings affect the hardware, software, soldiers, and procedures which determine the overall contribution of the system to force effectiveness.  As an example, this paper will show how the model has been applied to the Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System (Joint STARS), an evolving system in the Military Acquisition Process.  By utilizing the skills of mission analyst, human factors engineer, and training developer, concerns related to work station layout, workload, crew size, sensor performance, and training developments have been addressed during the validation and full scale engineering development stages of the acquisition cycle for Joint STARS.  Finally, this paper will show examples of how the inter-disciplinary approach was applied to system and personnel issues which affected software design, operational concepts, and training.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Computer-Assisted Instructional Systems Development/Logistic Support Analysis Interface for C-17 Aircraft

H. Barbara Sorenson, Ph.D.

Air Force Human Resources Laboratory

Brooks Air Force Base

The development and delivery of military training on new weapon systems is dependent on the identification of training system requirements early in the weapon system life cycle.  An automated interface between Logistic Support Analysis (LSA) data and the Instructional Systems Development (ISD) procedures will provide training developers with a means to assist in identifying training requirements earlier in the weapon system acquisition phase.  This paper discusses the design and development of such an interface for the C-17 aircraft being developed by McDonnell Douglas Aircraft Corporation.  The interface development includes three objectives: (a) tailoring of an existing computer-aided LSA data system for an emerging weapon system; (b) developing automated ISD worksheets; and (c) demonstration of a prototype interface of the ISD automated worksheets with the aircraft system LSA engineering data.  The implications of the ISD/LSA interface are twofold.  First, it will aid in the development of training by providing a more efficient method of identifying training requirements earlier in the weapon system acquisition process, and second, it will provide an audit trail for LSA and ISD data being utilized in training requirements development.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Simulation Fidelity:   A Rational Process for Its Identification and Implementation

Robert C. Bruce, Ed.D.

AAI Corporation

The degree of fidelity required in simulators to effectively transfer newly acquired skills between the classroom and the work world remains illusive and ill-defined during the front end analysis of system design.  Frequently, fidelity specifications are inconsistent between the ultimate users of the system, the acquisition agency, and the contractor charged with the design and production of the final training system.  Such a situation is not in the best interest of the student and is likely to produce a device insensitive to the directions provided by sound instructional and engineering analyses.  This paper presents a technique for allowing individual training tasks to define specific degrees of simulator fidelity and then objectively tracking the task/fidelity relationship throughout the design, development, and testing phases.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Designing Training Devices:  

The Optimization of Simulation Based Training Systems

Michael J. Singer, Ph.D.

Army Research Institute

Paul J. Sticha, Ph.D.

Human Resources Research Organization

Effective training devices are those that meet training requirements at minimum cost, or provide the maximum training benefit for a given cost.  The Optimization of Simulation-Based Training Systems (OSBATS) is a model that is designed to facilitate the investigation of tradeoffs involved in developing effective training device concepts.  The model is based on benefit and cost approximations that are used to analyze tradeoffs between various training device features in developing device configurations, and then conducts similar tradeoffs between different training device configurations.  The development of OSBATS has been more theoretical than the typical decision support system or aid, but shares many of the attributes of the standard decision aid.  The tools or modules that comprise the model address the following activities: a) the clustering of tasks for developing coherent training device configurations, b) the identification of optimal instructional features for a task cluster, c) the specification of optimal fidelity levels for task cluster, d) the selection of the minimum training device family that meets training requirements, and e) the allocation of training resources in the family of suggested training devices.  The final output of the OSBATS model is a functional description of the optimal set of efficient training devices given the tasks, training criteria, and cost constraints.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Training Systems R&D Program:

Progress and Challenges

Dr. Ronald Hofer

PM TRADE

Dr. Haliml Ozkaptan and Dr. J. Peter Kincaid

Army Research Institute

The training device and simulation community has achieved the technological power to simulate military systems and operations with impressive realism.  This technological strength is offset by the fact that we do not always consider the cost and potential training systems that we field.

This paper describes a joint R&D program between the Army Research Institute (ARI) and the Program Manager for Training Devices (PM TRADE) to provide training developers and engineers a set of tools to establish the capability for evaluating training alternatives with respect to: (1) desired effectiveness at minimum cost, or (2) maximum effectiveness at a given cost.  We are developing computerized decision aids with supporting databases and procedures to help optimize the training development process.

The program upon which we have embarked addresses: (1) the implications of MANPRINT for developing simulator/device based training systems, and (2) the analysis of training requirements to determine skills and knowledges to be trained, (3) the development of training strategies, (4) the question of how much simulation or fidelity is enough given that a training device or simulator is needed, and (5) the best manner of implementing embedded training.  We are also examining optimal ways to organize and present the information needed for embedded training and electronically presented technical information.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Hybrid Ada/FORTRAN Systems for Flight Simulation

Vincent F. Rich

Gould, Inc.,

Computer Systems Division

Contemporary military flight simulators are normally programmed in the FORTRAN language.  The Ada language has been mandated by the Department of Defense and is expected to be in widespread use by 1990.

Ada supports an interface to subprograms written in other languages.  This multilingual capability will allow simulator vendors to phase the conversion to Ada over a number of projects, providing that a hybrid system is acceptable to the end user.  This capability will also allow simulator upgrades to be programmed in Ada while the existing software remains largely unchanged.

The phased conversion of simulator from FORTRAN to Ada can be accomplished with either a lateral, top down, or bottom up strategy.  The lateral strategy involves the structuring of the software into a number of operating system processes communicating via shared memory.  These processes can then be programmed in either Ada or FORTRAN.  The top down strategy involves high level Ada programs calling lower level FORTRAN subprograms such as standard software components and math models.  The bottom up strategy involves the conversion of the standard software components into Ada, and the calling of these components from a high level FORTRAN program.  Selection of the optimum strategy will depend on a number of factors including the computer system architecture, operating system, and characteristics of the FORTRAN and Ada compilers.

The advantages of a hybrid system must be balanced against the possible loss of reliability and maintainability of the software.  Potential problems exist in the areas of exception processing, parameter passing, constraint checking, FORTRAN/Ada runtime system conflicts, and concurrency.

This paper considers the advantages and disadvantages of each implementation strategy and discusses the problems and difficulties that are encountered in the implementation of a multilingual system.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Reusing FORTRAN in An Ada Design

William F. Parrish, Jr. and Kent G. Trewick

Naval Training Systems Center

Many simulator processes and algorithms have been implemented in FORTRAN.  Some examples are ocean models, aircraft avionics models, and sonar sensor models.  As we begin writing training device software in Ada, it is important that we consider reusing existing FORTRAN code.  This is particularly true for FORTRAN based trainers undergoing major software modifications.  Various techniques for interfacing Ada and FORTRAN designs are investigated.  Benchmarks are presented comparing an all FORTRAN or all Ada implementation to a combined FORTRAN/Ada implementation.  Problems concerned with calling FORTRAN subroutines from Ada procedures and tasks and vice versa are explored.  Differences in arithmetic types between the two languages are also explored.  Particular emphasis is placed on the effect that a combined Ada/FORTRAN implementation has on computer resources.  This consideration is of major importance when modifying an existing trainer where spare time and memory may be very limited.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Ada and the Issue of Portability

Marianne Forsyth

Cubic Corporation

Maintainable and reusable software is a benefit gained from developing training device software in the Ada program language.  Furthermore, reusable simulator software can reduce development and life cycle costs.  Previous languages for simulator software development such as Pascal or FORTRAN have lacked the strict standardization of a programming language like Ada.  This standardization will lead to software which is more effective, more reliable, easier to maintain and reuse.  A cost-saving benefit of Ada contributing to reusability is the feature of software portability.  In order to use a particular Ada compiler on a simulator project the compiler must be validated by passing the Ada Compiler Validation Capability (ACVC) test suite.  Validation of an Ada compiler is the process of testing the conformity of the compiler to the Ada programming language standard, ANSI/MIL-STD-1815A.  However, using a validated compiler does not ensure software portability between different compilers and multiple computer systems or for that matter between different compilers on the same computer system.  Implementation-dependent constructs listed in Chapter 13 in the Ada Language Reference Manual, which are tested as part of the validation test suite, provide the primary reason for portability difficulties and code incompatibility.  Some compiler vendors may fully implement these Chapter 13 features while other vendors may not.  In addition, the method of implementation may differ between compilers.  These implementation-dependent features may be an obstacle in the benefit of portability.  Although portability is considered to be an implementation level issue there are issues which must be considered during design.  This paper will discuss an approach to portability, based on experience gained from the lessons learned, problems encountered and analysis performed.  In conclusion, guidelines enhancing the prospect of developing portable Ada code are discussed

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Requirements Definition for Ada-Based Training Systems

Mike Caffey and Dr. Matt Narotam

Burtek, Inc.

The importance of the requirements definition stage in developing Ada for simulator systems is one of the “lessons learned” on the Ada Simulator Validation Program (ASVP).  The traditional approach to requirements definition generally utilized for training systems is reviewed and some of the problems that result are discussed.  The types of requirements that impact the design and life cycle support of the system are defined because of their significance to the process utilized for developing the system design.  The impact that Ada and Object-Oriented Design implementations have on the requirements definition process is examined by first addressing the characteristics and features of Ada that satisfy software engineering concept.  Next, the decomposition and design procedures of the method and the manner in which requirements are utilized for generating the software design are discussed.  The process involved in the establishment of these requirements is also discussed. Finally, activities related to the systems requirements review process are addressed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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The Next Generation of Trainers:

Lessons Learned From the Ada Simulator Validation Program

Jerry H. Hendrix

Boeing Military Airplane Company

The transition to the next generation of Aircrew Training Devices (ATD) is upon industry and government.  More sophistication of aircraft systems, radar equipment and technical delivery systems will make simulation even more complex.  Emphasis will be taken away from classical flight dynamics, atmosphere, etc. and transition toward the more complex voice recognition weapon delivery or “Darth Vader”-like helmets which allow pilots to aim weapons by turning their heads.  Another transition to alleviate these problems of sophistication is Ada.

The Ada language has been adopted by the Department of Defense for use on all mission-critical applications.  Early in 1987, the Tri-Services made it clear that training systems simulations shall be in Ada.  But, mandating Ada is not enough.  Industry must take actions to prepare for a new transition crisis: FORTRAN “mindset” to Ada “mindset” (procedural-oriented design vs. object-intensive design).

The use of Ada and its capabilities and attributes promises to reduce the cost and increase productivity in the development life cycles.  This paper discusses aspects of building real-time systems in Ada from a lessons-learned viewpoint for rehosting an existing flight trainer.  Most contemporary flight simulators have been written in FORTRAN, whereas the future promises flight simulators written in Ada.  As was done with FORTRAN in the past, there must be software guidelines followed when doing real-time Ada.  For the most part, in the immature Ada world, the power of the compiler and computer dictates one’s choice for these guidelines.

This paper discusses methodologies, compilers and guidelines of the real-time Ada software produced for the Ada Simulator Validation Program (ASVP).  The characteristics of a real-time, Ada program can be equal to, if not better than, FORTRAN.   Once must realize it is extremely difficult to produce a real-time, maintainable, reusable and loosely coupled Ada system.  One can produce a reusable and loosely coupled system, but maintainability is sacrificed.  One can also build a reusable and maintainable system, but may lose visibility control in some areas.  There are many different methods and approaches for producing Ada code.  Some are and some are not useable for building a real-time system.

This paper discusses the advantages and disadvantages of building a real-time Ada system using the methodology Boeing adopted on the ASVP.  Comparison of FORTRAN and Ada is represented, but the emphasis is more on real-time Ada.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Experience in Implementing an Ada Real-Time Program for Flight Simulation Operation

Greco Myren

Honeywell Flight Simulation

The use of Ada and reusable software components promises to significantly reduce cost, development time, and improve reliability.  This paper reviews the experience gained in implementing an Ada real-time software program (a software crew station for a flight simulator implemented using the Alsys Ada compiler on Sun-3 160M Workstation, in conjunction with a real-time simulation on a Gould 32/8750).  First, Ada and the spirit of Ada are briefly reviewed.  Then the methodologies, design problems, desired speed and time optimization techniques, isolation of machine specific “C” graphics primitives, compiler bugs, debugging experience is then related to common areas of concern to industry.  Recommendation for Ada development are then given.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Ada Implementation in Multi-Device Configuration

S. Ramachandran and D. McCabe

McDonnell Douglas Helicopter Company

This paper examines Ada implementation of a multi-device configuration in an engineering organization.  The advantages and disadvantages of Ada are examined from this perspective.  System architecture, software development environment, Ada compilers/cross-compilers and software development environment, Ada compilers/cross-compilers and software engineering methodologies are discussed.  Simulation architecture selected by McDonnell Douglas Helicopter Company and lessons learned are presented.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Instructional Technologies for Embedded Training

Richard E. Reynolds, Ph.D.

Naval Training Systems Center

Kent E. Williams, Ph.D.

The University of Central Florida, Institute for Simulation and Training

It has been proposed that embedded training in operational military weapon systems can aid in achieving the goal of improved readiness.  An analysis of embedded training goals and the potential contribution of embedded training toward enhancing personnel readiness was conducted.  The emphasis in this specific project was the instructional technology requirements for embedded training, as opposed to the numerous engineering requirements relating to safety, reliability, etc.  This analysis indicated that the advantages of shore-based training, particularly with respect to instructor functions, could be compromised in the embedded training environment.  On the other hand, the fidelity and accessibility of training would be promoted by embedding training in operational equipment.  To overcome this potential compromise of instructor function, an evaluation of four instructional features, which could be implemented in the embedded training software, was undertaken.  The instructional technologies under examination include: automated adaptive instruction, automated expository feedback, intelligent platforms, and simulation of missing team members.  This paper will discuss the completed initial analysis and describe the research in progress.  Initial data collected shall be summarized at the conference presentation.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Identification of Critical Instructional Support Features for Embedded Training In the Shipboard Environment

William F. Jorgensen and Brenda J. Hoskin

Eagle Technology, Inc.

Daniel J. Dwyer and Michael Oberlin, Ph.D.

Naval Training Systems Center

Embedded training has long been considered a potentially efficient training concept which could provide meaningful use of available time and resources to maintain skill proficiency levels or teach new skills while on the job.  A major problem is the development of embedded training which can be used effectively by a single user and which will provide management and control of the training environment.  Factors such as varying levels of training complexity and measurement of trainee performance are important training issues, and must be included in the training design.  The Human Factors Decision at Naval Training Systems Center is presently engaged in embedded training research using the AN/SPA-25G radar repeater as a test bed.  The newly developed AN/SPA-25G radar display is a computer controlled console which can be used to automatically compute calculations such as intercept courses and speeds, closest points of approach and many other similar functions formerly requiring the use of maneuvering board procedures.  This embedded training project is using the capabilities of the AN/SPA-25G radar repeater and innovative scenario generation software to develop both a training process and the necessary instructional support features which will deliver and manage the radar operator training onboard ship during routine operating hours.  Training programs currently being developed include equipment proficiency training for newly assigned operators and for more experienced operators, task component training (practice of specific skills within a given task) either on the PC itself or on the AN/SPA-25G radar display, and scenario training with multiple targets.

The driving force behind the successful implementation of embedded training lies in the reduction of instructor workload while still providing quality training.  One way that this can be accomplished is through a judicious application of key instructional support features.  This paper discusses the methodology used in identifying 11 critical instructional support features necessary for successful embedded training in the AN/SPA-25G radar repeater and defines each of these important features.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Teamwork from Team Training:   An Assessment of Instructional Processes in Navy Team Training Systems

Albert S. Glickman

Old Dominion University

Ben B. Morgan, Jr.

University of Central Florida

Eduardo Salas

Human Factors Division

Naval Training Systems Center

This paper presents findings from a cooperative research effort between the Center for Applied Psychological Studies of Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, and the Naval Training Systems Center, Orlando, FL.  These studies of Team Evolution and Maturation (TEAM) are designed to investigate the development of teamwork during the training of operational Navy teams.  Initial results are summarized in terms of a general model of the phases of team evolution and maturation, a “developmental” research perspective based on this model, prototype procedures for measuring team development during training, and data which provide empirical support for the model and measurement procedures.  In addition, findings are presented which help to explicate the instructional strategies and processes employed in team training.  The implications of these studies are discussed and recommendations are given concerning interventions for improving team training instructional technology.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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The Great Divide:

Are “State of the Art” Technologies overshadowing operational training effectiveness in the development and acquisition of training devices in TAF?

TSGT. William J. White, 355TTW/LGMD

A-10 OFT Development Technician Team

Davis-Monthan Air Force Base

This paper will discuss the impact that “State of the Art” technology has on the world of simulation training effectiveness.  The complexity of recently developed full mission simulators brings into view the realization that the training device is taking center stage in training systems.  The focal point must center on mission and training requirements.  More simply put, the trainee/instructor accomplishments are the measure of an effective training device.

Today’s full mission simulators are technical marvels.  Acquisition and developmental agencies are getting a product that matches or exceeds the required design criteria.  The operational users however, tend to end up with a machine that is often difficult to effectively operate and will not satisfy the need for effective training accomplishment.  There is a growing division between operational elements and development/logistics agencies.  The training device is moving into the focal point of training systems.  As training devices evolve there is an underlying tendency of the training device to become a burden to the training system.

This paper will examine solutions to the over development of training devices.  State of the art technology can be used effectively if it is used practically.  Operational requirements are not as complete and foolproof as is desired.  The user must be included in all phases of development.  The United States Military has been in the training business for a long time.  Operational units have defined training requirements and identified areas of attention.  An experienced pilot knows what he wants out of a flight simulator and all too often this insight is lost in the shuffle or is identified at an inappropriate time.  Training devices must be concentrated at the greatest level of effectiveness, the user.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Design of a Generic Training Device Control Console Using Ada

Victor Faconti and Dr. Bruce McDonald, Ph.D.

Harris Corporation

Several factors set the stage for control console designers who wish to compete in today’s training environment.  Chief among these are various DoD initiatives to reduce the costs and increase effectiveness of training systems.  The DoD mandate to use Ada is a good example.  This paper documents a program of research aimed at developing a design approach to realize the DoD cost-effectiveness goals in the training device control console area.  This approach features increased use of modular generic software solutions which can be applied over a wide range of situations.  At the same time, the approach allows for modification to accommodate specific requirements as needed.  A functional baseline was developed based upon reported console design studies and then expanded through developmental testing and user surveys.  User reactions and Ada lessons learned are also discussed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A Research Tool to Improve the Effectiveness of Performance Measurement Within the IOS

Amanda M. Williams, Ph.D.

Tactical and Training Systems Division

Logicon, Inc.

Gary S. Thomas, Ph.D.

Air Force Human Resources Laboratory

Operations Training Division

Williams Air Force Base

Functions of the Instructor/Operator Station (IOS) include the display of information necessary for the instructor to monitor and assess student performance and to provide the student with diagnostic feedback.  To support these functions, reliable, valid and useful measures of student performance are necessary along with graphic capability to display relevant information.

The Air Combat Maneuvering Performance Measurement System (ACM PMS) is a prototype research device developed to address monitoring and debriefing requirements of the IOS.  The ACM PMS includes state-of-the-art graphics display capabilities and traditional and innovative measurement algorithms to support ACM training.

The device has been interfaced with the Simulator for Air-to-Air Combat (SAAC) and the Air Combat Maneuvering Instrumentation (ACMI) range and is capable of collecting, displaying, storing, analyzing, and replaying ACM performance information gathered from training exercises conducted in both the simulator and on the range.  The co-location of the SAAC and the ACMI provides a readymade environment for ACM operational training research.  With the implementation of the ACM PMS, automated data collection from both simulator and airborne ACM training is possible.

The ACM PMS was designed to support a program of research intended to develop, refine, and validate useful measures of performance and to develop ways of presenting this information to both the instructor and the student.  High resolution, real-time, interactive graphics are expected to yield innovative approaches to providing measures of student progress and to supplement and replace methods of debriefing.

The paper describes the ACM PMS development to satisfy SAAC and ACMI user requirements, the system’s capabilities, and plans to use the device for measurement validation and performance monitoring and debriefing research.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Training Engineering:

A Parametric Approach to Computer-Based Training Design

Mary Stoddard Trainor and Andrew E. Andrews

Los Alamos National Laboratory

Training engineering, a new model for computer-based training (CBT), has been devised and put into use by the Cognitive Engineering Design and Research Team (CEDAR) at Lost Alamos National Laboratory.  Training engineering is the application of scientific principles to the design, construction, and operation of efficient training systems.  Such an approach is necessary because of the level of complexity CBT design and development has reached with the new advanced technologies.  Instructional designers are under pressure to implement these new technologies more rapidly than has been required in the past, yet few models have emerged to aid designers in this process.  Training engineering is such a model.  It provides techniques for design and development that are derived from successful engineering techniques.  This paper begins with a discussion of the engineering approach and then applies this approach to training.  Examples from prototype CBT projects at Los Alamos are used throughout to illustrate the training engineering concept.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Efficient, Production-Oriented CBT Authoring

Kevin J. Parks

Ford Aerospace and Communications Corporation

Computer based training is no longer an experimental method of training in the military.  It has been used on a very large number of programs, either as initial training to precede simulator training or as standalone training.  There has, however, been much controversy over how best to produce computer based courseware.  The training community has realized that a major cost in the use of CBT is the development of the courseware.  The goal is to develop the most effective courseware for the least cost.  The controversy has been between whether to use an authoring system, which speed production and is easy to use but has restrictions, or to use an authoring language, which is more difficult to use but provides more capability and flexibility.

This presentation will describe a solution to that controversy, the use of an authoring package that combines both an authoring system and an authoring language.  The package was designed to be multilevel so that ease and power would both be available to the courseware developer.

The first level of the authoring package is designed to be easy to learn and quick to use.  It is intended for the beginning author and the development of simple courseware interactions.  It consists of a series of menus and forms that the author uses to specify how the courseware will work when the student interacts with it.

The next level is designed to be used when the author needs more sophisticated tools than are available in the first level.  The difference is that there are more menus and more choices.

The third level is an authoring language that provides extremely powerful tools for developing sophisticated part-task training and simulations.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Interactive Video–A Project Review with Implications for Training in the British Army

Major Tony Croucher MSc RAEC

Royal Army Educational Corps Centre

The concept of Interactive Video (IV) is examined in the light of the training requirements of the British Army.  The reasons for the IV project are detailed, together with the basis for the selection of the system, project implementation, subject identification and the courseware design processes.  Difficulties in the project management and in interactive design are discussed and a structured approach to the design process presented.  This approach was based on the combined use of structured design methods, flow charts, and screen layout documents.  The results indicated that the approach was valid, that effective interactive design was difficult, and team stability vital.  The knowledge gained from the study suggests that in view of the extent of initial and continuing resource overheads, the military use of IV is likely to focus on such applications as simulation where cost benefits may be more easily identified.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Fault Tolerant Computational Systems

Jeffrey Pulcini

Concurrent Computer Corporation

Over the years, the use of trainers has become more vital in ensuring operational readiness.  Because both training and personnel time are in short supply, the training device should be operational both when scheduled and during the entire training session.  This latter requirement has become more important as long, simulated missions are increasingly utilized to insure full crew/mission training.  The objective of this paper is to introduce the engineer to the concepts of availability and fault tolerance.  It does so by addressing the topic in three parts.

Part one describes levels of fault tolerance and works to put bounds on the problem.  This is vital since various fault tolerant concepts might include costly and unnecessary components such as uninterruptible facility power and full fault detecting software and hardware.

Part two describes example hardware and software systems that will achieve the designated levels of fault tolerance.  By utilizing examples, key system elements of the hardware, as well as system and application level software can be highlighted and discussed.  Each of these entities must have attributes that will map into a fault tolerant philosophy, thus determining the approach and cost of the resulting system.

Finally, part three examines some of the end user implications of fielding a fault tolerant simulation system.  This section highlights such considerations as sparing, maintenance philosophy, and quality of maintenance.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A Tightly Coupled Distributed System for Flight Simulators

John R. Bocskor and Robert J. Cichon, Sr.

Gould Inc.

Computer Systems Division

To attain the realism necessary for simulation today, higher and higher system fidelity is required.  Initially, all simulation software was controlled and executed on a monolithic processor that had to complete execution of all software modules within a specific time frame.  As simulation requirements increased, it became evident that portions of the simulation software could be executed in parallel.  To meet the requirements for increased fidelity in simulators being designed today, the software has been divided into several cooperating modules.  These modules generally lead and execute in a number of computers connected by a portion of common physical memory referred to as shared memory.  These conventional shared memory systems are typically used in cases where true parallel processing takes place.  The shared memory system allows for high-speed coupling of computers which in turn allows higher frame rates thus better fidelity.  A new method of tightly coupling multiple computer systems without the inherent deficiencies of conventional shared memory was needed.  In addition, a new hardware implementation that utilizes gate array technology and a means of controlling such a system from a designated Host System are required.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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The Development of a Real-Time Ada Equipment Simulation

Scott L. Waldron

AAI Corporation

This paper will describe the software development effort that was made in the development of a receiver simulation using bare-machine Ada.  First a description of the host system will be given.  After this concept is presented, the model selection and specification will be discussed.  A brief explanation of the tools and methodologies (i.e. Ada compilers, bare-machine Ada, object-oriented design, DOD-STD-2167 waterfall model, simulation approach, ADADL design tool) will then be given.  The software design phases will be presented next, which include preliminary design, detail design, code and unit test, and hardware/software integration.  Finally, a later addition to the model followed by various techniques developed will be outlined.  Assuming the reader may someday be involved in a similar endeavor, it is hoped that this start-to-finish style approach of presenting the software development of a real-time receiver simulation will be exceedingly beneficial.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Learn to Fight–Learn to Teach: Requirements for Air Combat Trainers Based on Four Years’ Experience

A.G. Barnes and R.D. Armour

British Aerospace PLC

The twin dome Air Combat Simulator at British Aerospace, Warton has been in regular use by the Royal Air Force to provide pilot training in Air to Air Combat.  The training is given both at TWU (Tactical Weapon Unit) level, and are taught the basic skills and disciplines.  OCU pilots are experienced squadron pilots who are taught the optimum deployment of their weapon system, and its capability against likely threats.

The simulator standard is described, with emphasis on the hardware requirements to provide high availability in rugged use.  Features have evolved, particularly in the area of the instructor/operator station, to maximize training benefit.  These include rapid access to performance data, immediate selection of new configurations, efficient monitoring of performance, and instant replay.

The organization of courses also contributes to training effectiveness.  An environment is created to produce close instructor/student involvement.  Students not participating in the actual combat benefit considerably by monitoring peer performance.  The courses are short and intensive, without distraction.

Recommendations emerge relevant to the specification of training devices of this type.  In particular, the cost aspects, and the technology trade-offs, are discussed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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The Development of Design Guidelines for Maintenance Training Simulator Instructor and Student Stations

Daniel J. Dwyer

Naval Training Systems Center

Robert J. Carroll

Applied Science Associates

Trainer-critical features (e.g., performance monitoring, student recordkeeping, etc.) for maintenance training simulators (MTSs) are typically derived during the front-end analysis phase of the acquisition process.  The critical features (i.e., functional capabilities) are then designed into the MTS instructor station (IS) or student station (SS) by incorporation these requirements in the procurement specification.  Although many of these features are common to most MTSs, a lack of standardization in their implementation has led to vastly different operating formats despite the same instructional intent.  This paper discusses the procedures and the results of a research effort to develop a tool for acquisition personnel and design engineers to ensure the standardization of critical IS and SS features during the design of the MTS.  The procedures used during this research effort included (1) developing a classification scheme for categorizing the various types of MTSs, (2) developing a MTS attribute taxonomy to identify and categorize MTS features, (3) performing a commonality analysis to assess the degree of functional similarity of features across and within MTS categories, and (4) conducting a survey of instructors to determine users’ perceptions of the effectiveness of the various features.  The results of the survey indicated that instructors gave high (perceived effectiveness) ratings to 13 of the 17 features assessed.  These results were relatively consistent across the different types of MTSs indicating that the features were a function of instructional requirements rather than peculiar to specific MTS types.  The findings were then used to derive a set of design guidelines for developing maintenance training simulator instructor and student stations.

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F-16 Flight Control System Training Game

Lea T. Adams and Charles E. Thomas, III

Honeywell, Inc.

Research in diagnostics demonstrate that a critical difference between expert and non-expert technicians is experts have a good conceptual device model similar to the actual device structure while non-experts have inaccurate models generated from inferential misconceptions.  Our goal was to bypass the novice-expert continuum by eliminating the novice’s generation of misconceptions.  Our approach was to develop a computerized adventure game whose underlying “world” was isomorphic to a specific device, (i.e., F-16 Flight Control Pitch Trim Subsystem [FCS]).  Adventure game players develop maps or diagrams of adventure game environments.  By taking advantage of this game strategy, novices can generate device structures by playing an adventure game with an environment isomorphic to the device.  The statistical results of a pilot study showed that the adventure game training medium (1) facilitated learning of the structure, function and troubleshooting of the FCS, (2) decreased the probability of misconception generation, and (3) was a highly motivating learning environment.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Application of Expert System Technology to Aid Controller/Role Players in a High Realism Training Environment

Gary J. Pasewark, Staff Engineer

The Singer Company

Link Simulation Systems Division

Many current command and control training devices use a role player concept.  In this concept the target students interact with the device through personnel who play the role of superior, adjacent, and subordinate groups.  The role players receive information from the training device and communicate it to the student staff as they would in real life.  The credibility of the information flow to the student staff is as dependent on the role players as it is on the fidelity of the device.  Problems arise from excessive role player workload, role player gamesmanship and the use of personnel with minimal training as role players.  These problems increase as the complexity of the training requirements increase.

The solution to these problems is to provide the controller/role players with aids to ease their workload and allow them to concentrate more fully on responsibilities that their played roles require.  One such aid is the application of expert systems technology.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Knowledge-Based Simulation–An Approach to Intelligent Opponent Modeling for Training Tactical Decisionmaking

Azad M. Madni, Ph.D. and Yee-Yee Chu, Ph.D.

Perceptronics, Inc.

Robert Ahlers, Ph.D.

Naval Training Systems Center

Modern weapon systems have greatly expanded the range of options that can be exercised by trained tactical decisionmakers.  However, tactical training environments today are unable to create the different opponent behaviors necessary to challenge the decisionmaking skills of tactical commanders.  Since the use of human opponents is clearly not cost-effective, this training requirement falls under the purview of computer-based simulation.  This paper presents a knowledge-based simulation approach for tactical adversary modeling along with an interactive user interface that allows non-programmers to modify simulation models on-line.  A laboratory application that addresses a set of training objectives appropriate for surface warfare officer training is also included.  The suggested approach is directly applicable to meeting current training simulation requirements generated by the surface Navy.  Both the simulation approach and the software implementation are upward-compatible with the modeling of coordinated adversaries and supporting team members.

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The Training of Experts for High-Tech Work Environments

Sherrie P. Gott, Ph.D. and Robert Pokorny, Ph.D.

Air Force Human Resources Laboratory

Brooks AFB

When a training program fails to markedly influence the development of high-tech complex skills (such as electronic troubleshooting), the failure can generally be traced to two sources.  First, failure occurs when training is not based on clear and explicit models of the desired expertise.  For problem solving expertise, specifications of the expert’s internal strategic processes for handling complex problems and the particular forms of knowledge and skill that support the strategies are especially critical.  Secondly, failure occurs because the training of complex mental skills often fails to consider the conditions that are needed for the development of cognitive expertise, though similar conditions for the development of advanced physical skills are well known.  They include extensive, constructive practice sessions where “the game is played” (i.e., authentic problems are solved) under realistic conditions.  For such practice to be constructive, the trainee needs commentary and guidance from a coach who, among other things, can model the desired (problem solving) performance and carefully sequence problems according to the trainee’s progress, while at the same time providing external support in the form of problem solving hints and instructional information.  This set of conditions requires the learner to adopt an active role in skill development and situates learning and extended practice in the context of real world problems.  This instructional approach is in contrast to traditional, more passive skill training where the instruction amounts to telling students about a domain such as electronics rather than providing learning experiences for doing electronic problem solving.

A large research and development program is underway in the Air Force to train technicians for complex work environments in a manner that seeks to avoid these pitfalls.  The Air Force Basic Job Skills (BJS) Research Program is examining the performance of technical experts in dozens of occupations to establish models of expertise as targets for training. Advances in knowledge engineering procedures such as those used in developing expert systems are being applied to specify in great detail the technical expert’s strategies and supporting skill and knowledge bases.  Of particular interest are dimensions of expert performance that cut across Air Force jobs and can thus be characterized as basic to expertise in complex work environments.  In some sense these common dimensions can be viewed as modern day basic skills or the skills needed for a technologically advanced world.  In addition, applications of artificial intelligence in the form of intelligent tutoring systems are being utilized to create the desired conditions for active, problem-oriented learning.  In this paper, work done with over 15 experts in four related electronic and computer maintenance jobs will be highlighted to illustrate the “engineering” of expert knowledge.  Also, a successful training study conducted with apprentice electronic technicians will be reported.

Automated Flight Test Data Correlator for a Helicopter Flight Training Simulator

Susan C. Garing and Michael L. Brychcy

The Singer Company

Link Flight Simulation Division

This paper discusses an accurate, semi-automated method for increasing the performance fidelity of a helicopter flight training system’s aerodynamic model.  The method employs an automated correlation algorithm known as AUTOCOR for systematic adjustments of the quasi-static mathematical model using fundamental aerodynamic model parameters.  The AUTOCOR algorithm is divided into two phases.  The first concerns calculation of the incremental forces and moments necessary to modify the vehicle’s static trim attitudes and pilot control positions to match those of the actual helicopter throughout its entire flight maneuver envelope.  The second phase centers on optimal incorporation of these forces, moments, and other empirical adjustments into the simulators model data tables by judicious use of numerical techniques.  The AUTOCOR algorithm provides satisfactory results even with an incomplete flight test data set.

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An Experimental Analysis of Critical Visual Display Parameters for Computer-Based Training

and Job Performance Aiding

Rosemary D. Garris, Daniel J. Dwyer, Patrick J. Moskal, and Christopher P. Mulligan

Naval Training Systems Center

The growing reliance on video display units to present graphic information support of both military training and job aiding, is expected to continue.  Empirical research has provided guidelines for display parameter associated with alphanumeric (textual) information, however research concerning graphics (particularly line drawings) is limited.  This paper discusses the results of recent experiments which explored the effect of critical visual display parameters on task performance using line drawings as stimulus materials.  The results suggested that in many cases, very low levels of graphics detail may be sufficient to produce adequate response times in locator task performance.  Additionally, it is noted that, production of graphics with low levels of detail result in dramatic cost savings.

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Computer Aided Training Development System (CATDS)

J.D. Jared

Boeing Military Airplane Company

The newly designed Computer-Aided Training Development System (CATDS) is an innovative approach to reducing the time and expense inherent in the Instructional Systems Development (ISD) process.  CATDS is unlike other systems in its flexibility of applications, support of user definitions and ability to interface with Logistics Support Analysis (ISA) databases.  The overall goal for the system was to provide better training to DoD customers at a lower cost.

CATDS was written in Turbo Pascal to take advantage of its data manipulation speed and practical use on standard PCs.  The system currently uses five major files to support task and training requirements analyses.  These are: Task File, Definitions File, Index File, Equipment File, and Reference File.  These are a combination of user-modified and system-modified files and form the main database for CATDS.  In addition to the five main files, CATDS supports the concept of task planning matrices to be used during the task identification phase.  The analyst inputs and manipulates data through a series of screens.

CATDS generates management and contractual reports through the successive stages of ISD, and from proposal analysis, to final deliverable courseware and training device requirements, including CDRL items.  It provides analytical documents and audit trail documentation for any portion of the ISD process.  Information available to management enables them to track progress and identify potential problems quickly.

CATDS has been used effectively to support contractual requirements and proposal efforts for aircrew and maintenance training.  CATDS has been used to support the A-6 Replacement Wing program, where over 3,000 tasks were analyzed.  CATDS has supported the Egyptian and Italian 707 Tanker programs with approximately 1,500 and 1,200 tasks analyzed.  CATDS has been proposed for the Advanced Tactical Fighter, the Army’s Light Helicopter (LHX) family, the Space Station, the Facility Intrusion Detection System (FIDS) and additional tanker programs for Brazil, Australia, and Spain.

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Constructing an Intelligent Tutoring System Using an Existing Expert System as a Base

Ruth M. Hawkins, Robert W. Ensey, and Sue Kemner-Richardson

Douglas Aircraft Company

Military research organizations (e.g., HRL, DARPA, ARI) have been funding efforts to design and build expert systems to aid in the maintenance and operation of weapon systems.  As the technology matures and these expert systems become more practical, it may in some instances be possible to use an existing expert system knowledge base as the expert module in an intelligent tutor/coach.  The authors begin by providing a brief introduction to Expert Systems (ES) and Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS), including a discussion of the advantages derived from using an existing ES as the basis for an ITS expert module.  They go on to discuss the degree of cognitive fidelity that exists in the expert system as a factor to consider when designing the ITS.  Finally, they describe a specific example where this approach may be feasible–the Pilot’s Associate.

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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI) in Maintenance Training:

Some Tangible Results

David J. Sykes and L.C. Keskey P.E.

Honeywell, Inc.

This paper describes the implementation of an AI system that can perform the dual role of Job Performance Aid (JPA) and Intelligent Tutor (IT) for use in On-the-Job Training (OJT).  It is well known that the best human experts possess a mental model of internal equipment operation and a good trainer will teach this conceptual knowledge as well as the usual diagnostic skills.  The Intelligent Tutor portion is aimed at building this mental model through interaction with a simulation of the equipment.  The student interface employs high resolution graphics and a mouse.  The simulation is a qualitative causal model which is much simpler than a full mathematical model yet retains all the important distinctions between system states.  The Job Performance Aid is an Expert System (ES) which is automatically derived from the qualitative simulation model.  This is accomplished by using the model to predict the behavior of the equipment and the propagation of effects under all conceivable conditions.  The ES rules are then induced from the fault symptom pattern produced by exercising the model.  By taking this approach, the ES provides “deep reasoning” as opposed to the “shallow reasoning” often found in an ES based solely on externally observable features.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Low Cost Personal Computer Rifle Marksmanship Expert Trainer (MET)

Albert H. Marshall, Robert T. McCormack, Edward J. Purvis, and Ronald S. Wolff

Naval Training Systems Center

The Naval Training Systems Center has developed a low cost marksmanship expert trainer, MET, that allows low cost marksmanship training without an instructor, real weapon or rifle range.  The system is safe and does not use costly ammunition.  As part of this program, a special long range light pen was developed.  The U.S. Navy is currently contemplating the use of this system to teach marksmanship in the Navy’s Recruit Training Centers.  Teaching marksmanship has required live rounds, special ranges, and a large number of instructors.  At present, Navy investment in real estate in close proximity to recruit training centers to construct rifle ranges would be difficult.  Also, a large number of experienced instructors would be needed and the high cost of live rounds will add greatly to the Navy’s training budget.  This paper describes the MET system and the technology applied to this new rifle marksmanship training device.  An expert system has been developed to alleviate both the cost and shortage of instructors.  The expert trainer is controlled by a personal computer, the Zenith 248.  The MET collects real-time shooter performance data or facts, and then executes rules that analyze the trainee performance.  Trainee feedback is provided on the computer monitor and by a computer generated voice.  The feedback describes the source of shooting errors including improper sight picture, poor shooting position, incorrect trigger squeeze, and incorrect breath control.  Through detailed guidance, the novice is able to transition to marksman.

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MARS: A Target Projection System for Air Combat Simulators

Pierre Rapp

Thomson-CSF Division Simulateurs

The operational experience and technical know how acquired in air combat simulation has led THOMSON-CSF Simulator Division to develop a new simulator projection system.  This equipment called “MARS” for Multiple Aircraft Raid Simulation, provides combat pilots with better perception of their targets for multi aircraft training by overcoming the limitations of light valve projectors.  In particular, the use of laser and acousto-optical techniques provides high contrast images without halo.  The images displayed by MARS are usually ground or air targets, missiles in flight and the sun, but it is also possible to display gunnery effects such as tracers and countermeasure decoys.

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Helicopter Shipboard Landing Research at the Visual Technology Research Simulator

Daniel P. Westra

Essex Corporation

Dennis C. Wightman and Joyce J. Madden

Naval Training Systems Center

Simulator design and instructional issues for helicopter shipboard landing operations are presently under investigation at the Navy’s Visual Technology Research Simulator (VTRS) following the recent installation of a Vertical Take-Off and Landing (VTOL) simulator.  Research strategy at VTRS to provide answers for applied problems has employed economical multifactor experimental design to deal with the many factors which may influence performance and an iterative three phase process to deal with “transfer of training” as the ultimate issue.  The first phase of this process consists of performance studies in which the effect of various design features on experienced pilots are examined in the simulator.  The second phase consists of in-simulator transfer-of-training experiments in which pilots novice to the task are trained under various simulator configuration.  The third phase employs the transfer-of-training experimental paradigm with training in the simulator and testing at an operational site.  Currently, the VTRS helicopter shipboard landing research program is in the second phase.  This paper presents results from two major performance experiments already completed, and show how the results were used to progress from the first experiment to the second and then to the current in-simulator transfer-of-training experiment, which will also be discussed.

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Effect of Scene Content and Field of View on Weapons Delivery Training

Lt. Kevin W. Dixon and Capt. David G. Curry

Air Force Human Resources Laboratory

Williams AFB

Two of the issues faced by designers of modern high-performance aircraft simulators are: (1) the level of visual scene realism required to adequately train complex tasks within the simulator; and (2) the field-of-view required for such training.  The experiment discussed in this paper was designed to study both of these problems as they relate to the training of manual dive bombing in the F-16 aircraft.  The experiment was performed in two separate simulators using the same visual image generators and data base.  The first simulator was a Fiber Optic Helmet Mounted Display (FOHMD) System with a full 360-degree field of regard; the second used Wide Angel Collimated (WAC) Windows to provide a more restricted field-of-view (FOV).  Subjects with no previous fighter aircraft experience were trained to perform 10-degree, 20-degree, and 30-degree dive bomb attacks on either a simulated bombing circle, a low detail airfield target scene, or a high detail simulation of the same scene.  The transfer/test condition was a second different high detail airfield scene.

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Simulation of the Ground Combat Environment

Allen T. Irwin

Science Applications International Corporation

Modern weapon systems, as exemplified by the M1 tank and AH-64 attack helicopter, are placing new demands on simulators.  Because of the increased costs and hazards associated with training using actual equipment, a demand is emerging for combat simulators that can train tactical commanders and crews to operate and fight in the ground combat environment.  This paper examines the background of combat simulation, the specific requirements generated by the emerging demand, the present technical capabilities to support such requirements, and a brief look at the future growth needs of technology.

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The SIMNET Visual System

Richard S. Johnston

BBN Delta Graphics, Inc.

The SIMNET System, developed by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, allows for collective team training of military personnel.  Using a network of multiple simulators, the initially fielded system trains armored vehicle crews in the land battle environment.  Trainees engage in two-sided, free-play, tactical exercises on terrain matching real world locations.

The SIMNET program necessitated developing a new visual system.  This system required a sufficient number of independent viewports for full crew training, a large number of various moving models, and a database capable of providing adequate detail.  Also, these requirements had to be met with an extremely low cost device.

A visual system with eight independent viewing channels was designed. Each can display up to 1000 visible, four-sided, textured, antialiased polygons at a 15Hz rate.  Using a hybrid depth buffer architecture, the program can process over 150 moving models.  Pixel throughout meets the higher depth complexity typical of ground based simulation.  Dynamic database techniques allow training over large areas.  And, automated database generation software rapidly creates databases which closely match real location.

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Photographic Texture and CIG:

Modeling Strategies for Production Data Bases

L. Charles Clark and Thomas C. Brown

Evans and Sutherland Computer Corporation

The addition of texture to Computer Image Generation (CIG) systems has increased the potential for realism and cueing effectiveness in visual data bases used for flight simulation.  While the visual simulation industry has already embraced texture technology, most of its attention has been focused on synthetic or statistical patterns.  The use of photographic texture has been demonstrated and shows great promise, but it has not yet been thoroughly exploited in the production environment.  Although photographic texture can significantly enhance the realism of a data base, its indiscriminate use often introduces unrealistic visual anomalies into the scene.  However, when it is applied correctly, photographic texture can improve the efficacy of current and future CIG systems.  The enhanced realism in flight simulation which accrues from the proper use of photographic texture provides a critical advantage in training effectiveness.

This paper discusses the scope of usefulness for photographic texture in production data bases, particularly for constructing self-repeating texture patterns.  The results of new modeling strategies which mitigate or eliminate some of the visual anomalies inherent in the use of photographic texture are also described.  Finally, examples are given of how photographic texture can be exploited to meet some specific training requirements for current and future simulators.

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Achieving Realism in SAR Simulation

Peter Hunt, Staff Scientist

The Singer Company–Link Flight Simulation Division

Synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) is becoming an integral part of modern airborne warfare and reconnaissance.  One of the roles of SAR simulation is to present imagery realistic enough to convey the visual clues needed for training for these tasks.  This paper describes a SAR simulation approach that achieves the required realism by modeling the physical properties of the radar illumination process.  Central to this approach is the interpretation of all features in the data base as three-dimensional objects.  Complex objects can be constructed from several layers of primitives.  If ground truth is absent, appropriate synthetic objects are created (houses, trees, roads, and cars) in real time, and are illuminated as normal data base features.  To take full advantage of this approach, the format and scope of the data base have been extended to describe complex and moving objects and to include the clues needed to perform real-time synthetic breakup.

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Low-Cost Digital Radar Generator for Comprehensive Radar Simulation

Dr. George L. Bair and Wayne C. Greaves

Merit Technology Incorporated

A new approach to radar simulation is described.  It is based upon emerging hardware and software technologies and is suited to many applications including training, engineering analysis, radar prediction, and systems integration.  The Digital Radar Generator (DRG) is capable of simulating all air-to-air, air-to-ground, surveillance/command/control, navigation, and air-to-surface (i.e., ocean surveillance) radar modes including high resolution coherent ground map modes and Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar (ISAR).  Low cost is achieved through the use of innovative radar modeling and multiprocessor hardware/software architectures.  The hardware architecture evolves from the emerging technologies of: (1) VMEbus, (2) high capacity monoboard computers, and (3) high density RAM boards.  The DRG uses Defense Mapping Agency (DMA) standards and special products for data bases to support conventional ground map and high resolution map modes.  The paper provides an overview of our design methodologies and concludes with a discussion of a prototype DRG system developed during the previous year and an advanced development DRG system currently under development.

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High Fidelity Voice Simulation System

Terry J. Schmidt

McDonnell Aircraft Company

McDonnell Douglas Corporation

The Digital Voice Response System (DVRS) is a totally integrated system which was developed in the Flight Simulation Subdivision of the McDonnell Aircraft Company (MCAIR), a division of McDonnell Douglas Corporation (MDC) at St. Louis, Missouri.  The system was designed to simulate Automatic Terminal Information Services (ATIS) broadcasts and Ground-Controlled Approach (GCA) instructions for real-time man-in-the-loop flight simulators and trainers.  Consisting of a single printed circuit card integrated into a commercially available personal computer, the DVRS achieves a high degree of realism by digitally recording, during nonreal-time, the voice of an experienced controller of ATIS broadcast (along with associated radio and environmental noise) as a series of messages and then playing back the appropriate message or messages, as selected by the simulation host computer, during real time.  In addition to voices, other sounds typically heard in the pilot’s environment can also be reproduced by the DVRS.  Missile launch, gun fire, engine noise, and aural tones associated with crewstation cautions and warnings are common examples of aircraft sounds.

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One Picture is Worth a Thousand Pixels:

The Graphical Editing of Digital Data Bases

J.L. Costenbader

The Singer Company, Link Flight Simulation Division

The ability to create and modify data bases for digital image generators on graphical devices is not a new technology.  Early tablet digitizing programs, however, were cumbersome and difficult to use.  Today’s advanced graphics workstations have undergone such rapid and significant improvements that it has been difficult for the user community to stay abreast of technology advancements, and the data base generation requirements have advanced almost as rapidly as the improvements on the workstations.  Larger data bases, texture, increased data base densities, more complex models, photographic source material, automatic digitizing capabilities, and other features have contributed to the need to marry the new data base requirements to a new generation of workstations.  This results in increased productivity, less training time, and better data bases.  This paper examines the use of graphical devices in the development of data bases for visual and radar simulation systems.  It presents a brief overview of older systems that have served as a springboard to newer technology.  Then it examines, in detail, the current state of the art in graphics workstations and modeling systems and how new capabilities are being utilized on these workstations to create data bases for total training systems.  Finally, speculation is offered on future modeling systems as workstations continue to improve.

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CIG System for Periscope Observer Training

Peter E. Sherlock and Richard J. Cant

Ferranti Computer Systems Ltd.

This paper will describe a training system for the cost-effective, real time simulation of periscope visuals using Raster Graphic, Computer Image Generation Techniques.  The design is optimized to present high definition target images against a realistic background, with emphasis on sufficient detail and realism to allow periscope observer training in target detection, observation, and classification.  A channelized architecture is employed in which target data bases are separately processed to form individual target images.  Dynamic background images are generated by a background channel.  Unlike conventional approaches, targets and background do not form part of an overall data base; outputs from the channels are mixed together on a priority basis in real time.  Target detail is thus maintained independently of overall scene complexity.  Smooth edges and motion are sustained by incorporating sub-pixel area antialiasing throughout.

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An Advanced, Low Cost Instructor Station

Peter M. Tutko

Honeywell Flight Simulation Operations

The advanced instructor station design is based on a systems modularity concept that requires an intelligent IOS whose processing capacity and graphics capability be directly proportional to the training requirements.  In identifying the future growth path for instructor station capability, this effort has produced a single IOS design concept that meets this growth potential by isolating the IOS functions and connecting them with a high-speed bus.  The identified functions are the graphics engine, an intelligent graphics processor, a CPU for IOS specific functions, an intelligent disk controller, and an intelligent communications interface.  This design not only allows flexibility to meet changing trainer requirements, but also gives the designer a flexibility to design to production cost.  Application software is written in the Ada programming language and the graphics engine supports a standard software interface library, such as GKS or PHIGS.  In short, off-the-shelf hardware (board level) and software components are used to reduce the recurring development effort to the integration of the specific vehicle application.

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A Digital Signal Processing Solution for Sound Simulation

Brian P. Leger

McDonnell Aircraft Company

McDonnell Douglas Corporation

The design of sound simulators for aircraft and other vehicles has often presented a variety of problems in areas of integration, flexibility, maintenance and life cycle cost.  Recent developments in digital signal processing (DSP) technology have provided a powerful and cost effective solution to these problems by way of a special device known as a single-chip digital signal processor.  This technology allows fixed hardware to be highly flexible by using software algorithms to perform functions that would normally require analog oscillators, noise generators, filters and amplifiers.  This approach eliminates recurring hardware design, simplifies integration, increases system reliability and provides better quality and control of sound parameters.  This paper describes the features and advantages of a DSP-based sound simulator prototype that is capable of generating complex tone scenarios such as those found in avionic systems and other sounds such as those developed by a vehicle and its surrounding environment.

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MPT&S Guidance and Control for Weapon System Acquisition

Robert W. Stephenson, Ph.D.

Plans and Operations Office (AFHRL/XO)

Air Force Human Resources Laboratory

Lt. Col. Frank C. Gentner,USAF

Manpower, Personnel, and Training Directorate (ASD/ALH)

Headquarters, Aeronautical Systems Division

The need for manpower, personnel, training, and safety (MPT&S) guidelines and constraints can originate at both the specific weapon system and aggregate system levels – whereas the typical Government acquisition team specializes only in information at the first (weapon system design) level.  The amount of organizational support provided them is also not adequate to their task.  In order to help integrate MPT&S factors during weapon system acquisitions, the Government needs: (a) enhanced analytic capabilities to analyze total system tradeoffs between man and machine in the performance, maintenance, and support of system tasks; (b) interactive communications with experts in system utilization policy and aggregate system constraints; (c) MPT&S-oriented incentive systems for Government, as well as for contractor personnel; and (d) a strong centralized headquarters advocate for MPT&S factors with the authority to establish policies and procedures for acceptable MPT&S guidance and control.  Specific control guidance is also needed by Government acquisition teams and teams of contractor personnel.  For this purpose, recent case studies of Government guidance and control were analyzed, and two lists of “do’s” and “don’ts” were developed.

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What’s Happening at ASD Regarding MPT

Lieutenant Colonel Frank C. Gentner, USAF

Manpower, Personnel, and Training Directorate (ASD/ALH)

Acquisition Logistics Deputate, Aeronautical Systems Division

Air Force Systems Command, Wright-Patterson AFB

More emphasis needs to be place on manpower, personnel, and training (MPT) factors earlier in weapon system acquisition.  To accomplish this, a new directorate was created at the Air Force Systems Command’s largest product division, Aeronautical Systems Division (ASD).  The MPT Directorate was chartered as a model organization to study and recommend ways in which the Air Force’s most expensive asset, people, can more fully affect weapon system design, particularly in the early phases of the acquisition process when design adjustments are made most economically.  This paper discusses the MPT Directorate’s implementation plan and the progress made to date.  Included are (I) a brief summary of why the Directorate was established, (II) MPT integration problems to be solved, (III) MPT process objectives, (IV) the Directorate’s mission and functions, (V) its proposed concept of operation, and (VI) time-phased actions that must be taken to meet program objectives.  The procedures and analytic tools could be applied by other Air Force organizations in pursuit of similar objectives.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Footprint–One Small Step for MPT

Maj. Joseph Fil

Armored Family of Vehicles Task Force, Ft. Eustis

Kris Hoffman and Don Johnson

Defense Training and Performance Data Center

Dennis Collins

Soldier Support Center – National Capital Region

Each of the military services are implementing new forecasting methods for Manpower, Personnel and Training (MPT) requirements of major new systems.  The primary aim is to make better trade-offs in weapon system design and control MPT resource increases.  Footprint is a project under the direction of the Soldier Support Center, in support of Manpower and Personnel Integration (MANPRINT) objectives.  An integrated data base has been developed which will enable combat developers to quickly assemble pertinent MPT information early on in the weapon system acquisition process.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Automated Deficiency Tracking OR … “Open is a Four Letter Word”

Ruth E. Roppe, Test Assistant

Deputy for Training Systems

Wright-Patterson AFB

During development, production and deployment of training systems, an efficient manner of tracking the deficiencies discovered during test and evaluation to their satisfactory closure is needed in order to provide a training system that will serve the user to the fullest extent possible.  This paper covers the automated deficiency tracking system in effect and currently implemented in the Deputy for Training Systems at ASD.  This system utilizes the Information Central (Infocen) mainframe system which has a data base management software system that handles fields and data–Battelle’s Automated Searching & Indexing System (BASIS).

A real-time status is available during test by automating the deficiency data input in-plant as well as on site.  Through the use of read-only capability, all users of the data are able to tie into the system via a personal computer, utilizing a read-only password, and look at their respective areas on a real-time basis.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Training Systems Life Cycle Engineering Change Support at the Trainer System Support Activity

Gerald T. Taylor

Naval Air Systems Command

Robert L. Stiegler

Naval Training Systems Center

As the degree of sophistication of military weapon systems has increased, there has been a corresponding increase in the complexity of weapon systems training devices.  The most explosive increases in complexity have occurred in those training devices which are software intensive.  Increases in the amount and rate of change of weapons system software, coupled with increased trainer unique software, has resulted in inadequacies in trainer system configuration management and prime weapons system/training system concurrency.  Many of the Naval Aviation front line aircrew and maintenance simulators have fallen one to three years behind the configuration of the weapon system they were intended to support.  As a direct result, optimum utilization of these training systems has become difficult, eliminating or seriously reducing the Navy’s ability to improve fleet combat readiness on prime weapon systems through training system use.  After in depth analysis of practicable support options to solve these problems, the concept of providing on-site organic technical support for both the software and hardware of major weapons systems trainers was formalized.  This program has been recently implemented for the AV-8B and F/A-18 programs.  The on-site support organization is entitled the Trainer System Support Activity (TSSA).  This paper will focus on the role of the TSSA in Engineering Change Support.  This role includes providing: (1) a single point of contact on-site with technical knowledge of weapon system software/hardware as it relates to trainer systems; (2) rapid response to requests for trainer impact analysis, system engineering of proposed changes and cost-and-lead-time estimates; (3) timely design and installation of modifications to trainer systems; (4) trainer system configuration management and status accounting.  To examine the TSSA role in context with the weapon system it supports, this paper will also describe the interface between the Navy activities supporting the aircraft weapon system software, those supporting only the trainer and the relationships that exist on the trainer site.  The TSSA is located on site as is the Trainer Tactical Software Activity (TTSA).  Also involved is the operational software controlling laboratory called the Weapon System Support Activity (WSSA) and the Naval Training Systems Center (NAVTRASYSCEN) with its subordinate Regional Offices.  The involvement of the WSSA, NAVTRASYSCEN, TSSA, and TTSA provides a flow of information that is essential to implement aircraft software changes into trainers in a timely manner.  With the WSSA, TSSA and weapons system contractor operating together, the lag time between changes to the aircraft and the trainer is minimized and optimum utilization of the trainer is attainable.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Life Cycle Support for Marine Corps Multipurpose Range Complexes–Lessons Learned

Gordon Steven Dow

Naval Training Systems Center

The U.S. Marine Corps is procuring two Multipurpose Range Complexes (MPRC) for combined arms, tank, and armor vehicle training.  The need for both live and simulated fire capability ranges has increased dramatically due to a greater awareness of the need to train to standards, the costs of live ammunition, dangers inherent when using live ammunition during training, procurement of automated ranges was a new venture for the Marine Corps, with little in-house knowledge of such procurements.  In addition, interservice agreements for joint procurement (to effect economies of scale) for similar training equipment required procuring the MPRC using multiple contractual vehicles (equipment procurement, range construction, ILS data and supplies procurement, and operation and maintenance life cycle support services procurement).  The initial lack of definition of which parts of a range actually made up the training system added to confusion during this procurement effort.  This paper documents lessons learned in logistics planning for the MPRC’s.  This include the ILS elements which must be analyzed in the planning stage, unique ILS consideration discovered during procurement, and the operation and maintenance support strategy selected.  The Marine Corps MPRC’s are unique training systems with unusual (but not unsolvable) logistics support problems.  This paper documents the joint approach taken by the Marine Corps and the NAVTRASYSCEN in solving these problems.  This paper concludes that the modern automated range is experiencing a technical evolution and that the lessons learned in this procurement should be valuable to Marine Corps and Army range development and logistics personnel in the years ahead.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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RFP Requirement Definitions for CLS and Commercial Design

Robert Buss

Boeing Military Airplane Company

In recent years, there has been a growing trend toward including Contractor Logistics Support (CLS) option and commercial design requirements in acquisition contracts.  Both of these changes are being implemented to provide life cycle cost savings.  However, both changes are defined in Request for Proposals (RFPs) using previous military requirements.  This paper addresses potential additional cost savings concepts using alternate requirement definitions to accomplish the same tasks.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A-6F/F-14D Aircrew Trainer Suite Results of

“Buying Through the Prime”

Robert E. MacLeod

Grumman Electronics Systems Division

CDR William M. Jarrott, USN

NAVAIRSYSCOM

The topic of the acquisition of Aircrew Training Devices through the Weapon System Prime Contractor (“Buy Through the Prime”) has been addressed frequently in the past few years.  The intent of this paper is to provide an objective analysis of this concept by utilizing the Navy’s acquisition of the A-6F/F-14D Aircrew Trainer Suite (ATS) through Grumman as a case study.  The paper will present an integrated Navy/Grumman assessment of the acquisition planning process starting with the Training System Requirements Analysis, proceeding through the Specification/Procurement Package Development, Competitive Solicitation, and ATS Program implementation.  Special emphasis will be place on the primary program goals of achieving delivery of the ATS concurrent with the Fleet introduction of A-6F and F-14D aircraft, as well as maximizing hardware and software commonality throughout the ATS Program.  Other significant acquisitions issues relative to Weapon System Contractor Furnished Equipment, Weapon System technical data, pre-planned configuration updates, and Integrated Logistics Support will be addressed in detail.  The paper will compare the ATS Program progress to date versus both the initial acquisition plan as developed by Navy/Grumman and a projected acquisition plan that would have resulted if the ATS Program was being implemented by conventional non buy through the prime techniques.  The analysis will provide “Lessons Learned” for potential future program application.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Commercial Acquisition of an Air Combat Simulator

Dorothy M. Baldwin

General Dynamics/Fort Worth Division

Considerable emphasis is being placed on resolving cost and schedule problems associated with military procurements.  Commercial acquisition of military type equipment can often result in significant cost and schedule saving, with little or no compromise in performance.  This paper describes strategies which can be used to reduce risk, schedule and cost factors during a commercial acquisition.  Some of the techniques which will be discussed include: early communications of details of the requirements including extensive technical reviews prior to contract award; definition of acceptance test criteria prior to contract award, clear definition of the buyer/seller interface including all facility requirements; procurement of major subsystems separately; use of commercial quality rather than military standards, deletion of in-plant acceptance test, and utilization of proven systems.

The specific procurement of a dual-dome air combat simulator environment will be used as an illustration of the techniques discussed.  The acceptance testing for the first dome was completed thirteen months after contract award.  The acceptance testing for the full dual dome system was completed within twenty months after contract award or two months ahead of schedule.  No cost overruns occurred during this procurement.  Typical schedules for delivery of government procured Weapon System Trainers have been 36 to 48 months.  In the case described here, the simulator buyer was also the airframe manufacturer and therefore had strong economic and technical interest in the simulator procurement.  Also, the ownship cockpit simulation was done by the buyer.  The paper is written from the buyer’s perspective.

While all strategies employed in this commercial acquisition may not be applicable to government training system acquisitions, the author believes that a review of some of the pertinent details of this procurement may provide concepts of interest to simulation manufacturers, as well as to the government procuring agencies.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Concurrent Trainer and Aircraft Development

Michael A. Frankie

MCAIR Training Systems, McDonnell Douglas Corporation

The current requirements to deliver Aircrew Training Devices concurrently with aircraft weapon systems development has placed major issues in front of trainer manufacturers.  There are various documents (MIL-Specs, DIDs, Specifications, etc.) that describe the approach as to how training devices will be procured, however, implementation of these approaches is not as simple as it has been.  Previously, trainers were considered after the weapon system had been developed permitting several issues to have been resolved.  This paper will look at these issues from the contractor’s point of view and present some areas that the customer, contractor and weapon system prime need to be fully cognizant of during concurrent trainer and aircraft development.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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MIL-STD-1379:

Development of a Single Standard for Contract Training

Dr. Leonard Courchesne

Naval Air Systems Command

Dr. Richard Eddings

Naval Sea System Command

This paper discusses recent developments in the evolution of Department of Defense Standard 1379 (series) and associated data item descriptions.  The standard is used contractually to state requirements and the data item descriptions provide industry with format and content requirements for the preparation and delivery of training materials.

The military services previously have used a myriad of source documents, loosely developed around a nebulous instructional systems model, to contract for development of training materials.  Several inspector generals have stated that the instructional systems development process is too expensive and too subjective, MIL-STD-1379 (series), the Department of Defense “single” standard for development of training materials, recently has been promulgated in a new, interim revision, MIL-STD-001379C, for use by the Navy.  The emphasis of this paper is on the usefulness of the latest standard.  This new single standard and its successor, DOD-STD-1379D, should reduce the conflicts, redundancies, omissions, and inefficiencies of previous military training material.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Software Documentation on Magnetic Media and the Trainer Computational System

Steven R. Prince

AAI Corporation

As trainer systems become more complex, the amount of software required to implement these systems increases.  Consequently, the amount of documentation necessary to support the trainer software also increases.  It is now typical for initial trainer system documentation to number over 50,000 pages.  Over the life of the system, due to change activity and resubmittals, this number can increase ten-fold.  At the outset of the EF-111A Operational Flight Trainer (OFT) Program, the heavy burden that this paper volume could place on both contractor and customer was recognized.

A suggestion was made to maintain the EF-111A software documentation on the trainer computational system and deliver the documentation to the customer on magnetic media.  Both the customer and contractor determined that potential cost savings as well as capabilities not available under the present paper system were attainable.  Consequently, a change was incorporated into the contract to allow magnetic media delivery of software documentation, and modifications were made to documentation in such a way as to minimize the need for new tools, software, or hardware.

This paper describes the system that was developed to provide the creation, maintenance, and delivery by magnetic media of the software documentation on the trainer computational system.  The lessons learned, problems encountered, and successes realized from the effort are detailed.  Topics include methods used for documenting changes resulting from software element changes, incorporating methods used for documenting changes resulting from software element changes, incorporating subcontractor documentation, providing text editor capabilities to the customer, incorporating source file data into documents, interrogating configuration management files to determine software and documentation status, handling illustrations and special characters and maximizing resources.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Ada Compiler Project Management Issues

Wendy J. Hudson

Concurrent Computer Corporation

The use of the Ada language in a development project impacts the traditional approach to project planning.  The experience at Concurrent Computer Corporation in the development of an Ada compiler, written in the Ada language, showed that the design phase of the project was longer than anticipated.  The increased design time significantly decreased the system integration time.  In addition, the time spent learning coding rate was not unusual and the overall project schedule was only 10% greater than the original plan.  Initial results also indicate that the resulting product is more reliable when written in the Ada language.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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The JTCG-TSD-Organization, Interservice Products and Cooperation

Joseph T. Cianfrani

Naval Air Systems Command

Susan P. Cash

Navel Sea Systems Command

In 1976 the Joint Logistics Commanders formed a committee to foster interservice integration of trainer development projects; the Joint Technical Coordinating Group for Simulators and Training Devices (JTCG-STD).  The committee’s title was subsequently changed in 1986 to the JTCG for Training Systems and Devices (JTCG-TSD) to encompass the scope of complete training, rather than hardware components.

The committee initially met with only limited success but in the last two years it has renewed service enthusiasm.  Contrary to current management approaches, the enthusiasm has occurred by imposing an additional layer of oversight into the process.  This oversight is accomplished by a 0-6 level steering committee to review its efforts.  This additional tier of management, the steering committee, is composed of six members–the Army’s Program Manager to Training Devices, three Air Force members representing the Aeronautical Systems Division, the Logistics Command, and the Human Resources Laboratory.  The two Navy members are represented by NAVAIR’s Air Program Coordinator for Training and the Naval Training Systems Center’s Director.

Because of the right personal chemistry and commitment for real changes shared by the group and emphasized by its steering committee, the JTCG-TSD has been able to achieve extensive communication and cooperation between the services in the training arena.

The chartered mission of the JTCG-TSD is to maintain technical and management oversight of all activities within the four services which involve joint research and development and acquisition or support of training systems and devices.  A project must offer a pay-off to two or more services before it can be sponsored by the JTCG-TSD.

This paper will discuss the management structure of the JTCG-TSD and provide status on its products.

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Stone Age Training in a Space Age Environment

Lt. Col. Rowland H. Worrell, III

Air Force Space Command, Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado

Air Force Space Command was established in September 1982 to conduct operational missions in space.  The need to support those missions with well-trained personnel led to the creation of Undergraduate Space Training, an organization tasked with providing its graduates with a broad base of space fundamentals, and the 1013^th Combat Crew Training Squadron, a unit which provides system specific operational crew training.  The courses provided by both schools were designed using Instructional System Development technology and utilize a media mix which includes lecture, computer based training systems and simulation.  This paper addresses the problems of developing training programs and acquiring simulation capability to support training personnel stationed at more than 30 sites worldwide with missions that vary from flying satellites to warning of missile attack.  The paper also discusses the use of networked desk-top computers to provide space operations center simulation and explores the management decisions required to determine proper media mix.  It compares training results of the previous on-the-job training programs with new, full fidelity simulation.  The paper closes with comments concerning training programs and simulation as an integral part of new space system acquisitions.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Shuttle Mission Training Facility Upgrade

Kurt Frevert and Dr. Riley McCafferty

The Singer Company–Link Flight Simulation Division

The Shuttle Mission Training Facility (SMTF) consists of three Shuttle Mission Simulators (SMS) and several lesser training devices.  The SMTF Upgrade program is required to improve the capability of the SMTF to train shuttle flight crews and mission support personnel without impacting current capabilities.  In partial satisfaction of this requirement, the SMTF Upgrade Step 1 program will replace and upgrade the three SMS computer complexes and rehost the existing software to the new computers using off-the-shelf products where possible.  Fundamental to the Upgrade Step 1 task is the need to maintain the existing training capability until the computer upgrade concepts and implementation plan to show how current training capabilities are preserved during development.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ASAP & MANPRINT–Will the Marriage Last?

Anne S. Sicilia

Advanced Technology, Inc.

Over the years there has been a great deal of discussion about the length and quality of the acquisition process.  Plans have been developed to improve the management of this complex process, sharpen its focus, and shorten the time it takes to complete it.  Definitely  yes.

This article addresses recent attempts to improve the Army acquisition process, the problems associated with the current process, and suggests that methodologies exist that can improve the acquisition process.  These methodologies are the Army Streamlined Acquisition Process (ASAP) and the Manpower and Personnel Integration (MANPRINT) program.  The premise of this paper is that when properly used together, the result will be an abbreviated yet more efficient time line.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Determining the Implementation Costs and Benefits

of an Automated Training System:

Problems and Solutions

John J. O’Connor

VERAC, Inc.

Bergstrom Air Force Base, Texas

Capt. Martin W. Pellum

Air Force Human Resources Laboratory

Brooks Air Force Base, Texas

This paper addresses the cost-benefit dilemma encountered with the Air Forces’ Advanced On-the-job Training System (AOTS) prototype development effort underway at Bergstrom AFB, TX.  Since AOTS is a prototype computer based training system, there is much to be decided before a final operational deployment configuration can be derived. The dilemma involves the trade-off between alternative computer architectures and the resulting training benefits each alternative will yield.  The paper discusses the development of a microcomputer based cost model to assess alternative deployment scenarios of the AOTS into the operational Air Force.  A methodology to assess the benefits derived from an AOTS implementation is presented.  The description of the methodology includes a description of surveys and questionnaires that were administered to representative Air Force enlisted members at operational bases.

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Where Does CBT Fit In, Now That We Know So Much?

A Front End Analysis Study

Andrew W. Andrews and Mary Stoddard Trainor

Los Alamos National Laboratory

Computer-based training (CBT) has now been in existence for over two decades.  It has been implemented in both the private sector and government organizations at an exponential rate.  Nevertheless, many institutions, particularly educational institutions, have not yet introduced CBT.  Our knowledge of what works and what does not, as well as hardware and software advances, has greatly increased in the past few years.  This paper addresses many management considerations with respect to CBT.  First, we consider the generic environment in which CBT might be used and then issues that affect costs and benefits, including lessons learned by the Cognitive Engineering Design and Research Team (CEDAR) of the Los Alamos National Laboratory in its assessments.  The final section gives some “how-to” guidelines on increasing the probability of successfully introducing CBT into the training environment.  The underlying theme of the paper is that management should be guided by what we now know about costs and benefits in its decisions regarding CBT and fight the lure of “high tech” glitter.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Managing Training Development as a MANPRINT Element

Grace P. Waldrop

HAY Systems, Inc.

The Manpower and Personnel Integration (MANPRINT) initiative has generated numerous concerns and issues in all of the affected disciplines (human factors engineering, manpower, personnel, training, health hazard assessment, and system safety).  Unique technical approaches must be developed to integrate the multi-disciplinary data elements within traditional analytical procedures.  Equally important is the management of the initiative, between and within those elements.  Training and training devices (training systems), while an integral part of the MANPRINT program for the weapon system development, necessitate special consideration as a “system within a system.”  This consideration requires industry to carefully plan, manage, and integrate their approach to training system design as part of the overall weapon system design.  This paper will address the issues surrounding organization, planning, and management of training system development as a MANPRINT element.  Unique management approaches and examples will be provided rather than a technical review of training development.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Army Combat Training Centers Ten-Year Vision

Colonel Walter C. Zaremba

 US Army Training Support Center

Fort Eustis, Virginia

The Army’s Combat Training Centers (CTC) include the National Training Center (NTC) at Fort Irwin, California; the Combat Maneuver Training Complex (CMTC) at Hohenfels, Germany; the Joint Readiness Training Center (JRTC) at Fort Chaffee, Arkansas; and the Battle Command Training Program (BCTP) at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas.  Their purpose is to provide Army units the most realistic combat training possible.

The NTC opened in 1981 and since then has afforded Army units the opportunity to train in a realistic combat environment to include a live fire exercise area.  The CMTC, when completed, will provide a similar realistic, stressful training experience of a 4-day exercise for close combat heavy battalion task forces in Europe.  The CMTC will not have a live fire capability.  As a CTC, the JRTC will fill a void for training non-mechanized infantry battalions of the Active Army, Reserve Component, and National Guard.  This training will prepare units for war under low-to-mid-intensity combat conditions.

Directorate of Army Ranges and Targets (DART)/CTC, as the instrumentation acquisition manager for these CTC, develops acquisition plans and documents for instrumentation and manages the instrumentation procurement effort from concept to fielding.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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CATIES

An Innovative Solution to a Training Challenge

James B. Hollis, Jr., LTC, (Retired)

LB&M Associates, Inc.

Joseph R. Miller

Motorola, Inc., Government Electronics Group

Problem: U.S. ground combat forces currently have no way of rapidly and accurately simulating and assessing the effects of artillery and other indirect and area-effects weapons during training exercises.

Solution: The Combined Arms Integrated Evaluation System – (CATIES) simulates and helps measure the effects of conventional and tactical nuclear indirect fire support, nuclear – biological – chemical (NBC) contamination, and mine warfare.  CATIES was developed to meet the Army’s longstanding need for an indirect fire training device which would complement and interface with the direct fire Multiple Integrated Laser Engagement Simulation System (MILES).  It also has the potential to simulate the lethal and suppressive effects of Navy and Marine sea and air delivered munitions and Air Force munitions delivered during close air support and air interdiction missions.

Application: CATIES applies to all combined arms, force-on-force training from small unit exercises to major joint training exercises worldwide.  With CATIES, the total Army and Marine Corps forces – combat, combat support and combat service support units, will be able to train to doctrine in a more realistic indirect, as well as direct fire training environment.

Technical Approach: CATIES uses modern spread-spectrum radio frequency technology, employing pseudo-ranging, time-division multiplexing and surface acoustic wave signal processing techniques.  The system can simulate up to 50 different effects per second which allows the replication of a multitude of indirect battle field effects.  Variable “hit” and “near miss” area sizes and shapes, in conjunction with expected fractional damages and casualties from approved munitions effects manuals, and unique audio-visual effects, ensure realistic battlefield training.  Direct interface with MILES-type direct fire simulation systems provides an integrated solution to the indirect fire training problem.  CATIES consists of three basic elements; 1) a Master Station, which receives voice or digital data from a fire direction or support element and transforms it into digital timing and weapon data.  This data is transmitted to 2) Actuators which in turn retransmit this data at precise time intervals to 3) Appliques located on vehicles, personnel and/or terrain features.  The Player Detection Devices respond to the arrival time of the transmitted pulses, the weapon-munitions type, and the target type and size.  The capability to relay data through other Actuators and electronic line-of-sight technology assure wide area coverage, with optimal message routing determined by the Master Station

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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The New Technology of Large Scale Simulator Networking: Implications for Mastering the Art of Warfighting

Lt. Col. Jack A. Thorpe (Ph.D.), USAF

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

Advances in several core technologies, particularly local and long haul networking, open up a new area in simulation: Large scale simulator networking (SIMNET).  This has important implications for training warfighting skills as well as providing tools for other areas.  These are discussed along with a description of new capabilities and future directions.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Smarter Logistics to Meet the Challenge of Cls and COMS

Brian J. Williams

Burtek, Inc.

Contractor Logistic Support and Contractor Operation and Maintenance Support contracts are becoming widely used for the upkeep and maintenance of Government Training Systems, replacing traditional organic support maintenance methods.  Users are benefiting from this transition because of the increase in trainer availability that has resulted; but it has placed an extra responsibility on the manufacturer to provide the required support at a competitive cost.  The cost of support has become an evaluation factor in the procurement process, making it essential to properly evaluate and control all the factors that influence support costs from conceptual design to the development of the maintenance concept.  This paper discusses the role logistics plays in the design and how it is responding to the challenge of contractor supported programs, including the development and greater use of computer programs, and the influence these tools should play in future training system procurement programs.

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C-130 Aircrew Training System (ATS) Acquisition:

Using and Supporting Command’s Lessons Learned

(assuring the critical advantage)

Lt. Col. Ronald E. Dukes, USAF

Headquarters Military Airlift Command

Scott AFB, Illinois

Ms. Jo D. Voeller

Ogden Air Logistics Center

Hill AFB, Utah

As the number and complexity of training programs converting to total training systems increases, the role of the using and supporting commands in the source selection process is becoming larger and more vital than ever.  This expanded role is required as each training program has its own associated training objectives and integration requirements whose expertise resides in the operational and logistics management arena.  This is different than previous acquisitions where only equipment was being procured and the required expertise resided in the engineering arena within the procurement agency.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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The C-5 Aircrew Training System (ATS):

A User Perspective of the Advantages and Problems

Major Jonathan D. Baethge, USAF

Headquarters Military Airlift Command

Scott Air Force Base, Illinois

Military Airlift Command’s (MAC) first aircrew training system (ATS) becomes fully operational this year.  As we implement the C-5 ATS, we are keenly aware of the significant advantages of contractor provided training.  Best commercial practices provided MAC new FAA Phase II Weapon System Trainers ready for training 23 months after contract award and an integrated ATS with formal and continuation training (24 courses, from initial qualification through flight examiner) in less than three years.  Both acquisition and life cycle operation are at a substantial cost savings over in-hours methods.  As we begin training students, we can better define potential problem areas and user concerns.  Crew members and leadership alike need to understand the training system and the key role they play in life cycle feedback. Quality assurance evaluation plans must be drafted and coordinated early to assure Air Force and contractor plans complement each other.  Air Force procedures to approve, fund, and proceed with modifications must be streamlined to facilitate concurrency of the training system

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Embedded Training: The Army’s Dilemma

Captain Alvie Johnson

 Combined Arms Training Support Directorate

Fort Leavenworth, Kansas

The requirement to train in peace and war continues to exist.  Soldiers and units that deploy to combat with equipment which contains an embedded training capability will possess the tools necessary to sustain proficiency in conjunction with combat operations.  Further, peacetime constraints on individual and collective training caused by time, space and resource shortfalls are expected to continue.  Therefore, the Army must pursue the operational systems trainers in the development and product improvement programs for operational systems.  The acquisition of hardware systems that have an embedded training capability will offer the Army an opportunity to train at all echelons while in garrison or in the field.

This paper will examine how senior Army leadership/guidance has identified the need for embedded trainers in operational systems and will provide the insight into why this need has not been fulfilled.  Embedded training will then be defined from a military perspective, and will identify the four essential categories of embedded training that must be considered to ensure operational readiness can be maintained. The Army’s materiel acquisition process, and Training Developers role will be examined.

Finally, this paper will conclude with a listing of actions which must occur during the acquisition process.  The ultimate goal of this paper is to ensure embedded training becomes the first alternative for training by the materiel, combat and training developer.

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Future Training with THE Armored Family of Vehicles

MG (Ret) Robert J. Sunell, USA, and

MAJ (P) Thomas R. Rozman, USA

Armored Family of Vehicles Task Force

Fort Eustis, Virginia

The Armored Family of Vehicles (AFV) is programmed to replace the current fleet of armored vehicles beginning in the late 1990’s.  The AFV will consist of at least two chassis (medium and heavy) that will accommodate appropriate modules for combat mission requirements.  Significant features of the AFV are commonality and advanced technology which will provide a once in a lifetime opportunity to develop, test, and validate a mature and coherent training subsystem simultaneously with the new equipment.  This envisioned training subsystem offers a potential to maintain high training readiness at less cost than in the past.  As systems become more complex and costly, this objective becomes more critical.

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training systems:  the critical advantage for the army reserve components

Steven L. Funk

National Guard Bureau

Since the advent of the Total Force policy, the Army Reserve Components (Army National Guard and U.S. Army Reserve) have become a prime potential beneficiary of current and future technology applied to training.  The Total Force policy has significantly reduced the mobilization time for the Reserve Components while placing those forces in a combat environment of rapidly increasing intensity.  These conditions have converted the Reserve Components from a reserve army to an army in reserve.  In spite of the similarity in mission between the Active Component and the Reserve Components, the Reserve Component training environment little resembles that of the Active Component and is little understood by the Active Component or industry.  The Reserve Components’ widely dispersed and constrained in training time, terrain, facilities, and equipment.  Technology offers the potential to overcome many of these training difficulties.  However, for the Reserve Components to benefit from technological potential, both the Active Component proponents and industry must educate themselves about the uniqueness of the Reserve Component training environment and commit to new development and marketing strategies.

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USACMLS Training Devices and Simulations Program:

Training for the NBC Battlefield’s Tempo, Scope, and Uncertainty

Cpt. William R. Bowlin, Thomas F. Carroll, and Lee H. Hayslette

US Army Chemical School

Fort McClellan

The U.S. Army Chemical School (USACMLS) has initiated an innovative training device development program designed to revolutionize nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) training at both institutional and field levels.  This task-/mission-oriented training device program trains soldiers with cues (signals designed to trigger specific actions or reactions) expected to be experienced on actual NBC battlefields, and provides realistic simulation in an area of training heretofore neglected because of troop and environmental safety constraints.

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Vision Motion-Induced Sickness in Navy Flight Simulators: Guidelines

LCDR Michael G. Lilienthal

Naval Training Systems Center

Robert S. Kennedy, Ph.D. and Kevin Berbaum, Ph.D.

Essex Corporation

LT James Hooper

Naval Air Systems Command

Since 1982 the Naval Training Systems Center, with support from the Office of Naval Technology and the Naval Air Systems Command, has been investigating the occurrence of simulator sickness in Navy flight simulators.  Simulator sickness is defined as that group of symptoms experienced by crew members in connection with maneuvers in flight simulators which would not be experienced by those same crew members in aircraft.  Symptoms include nausea, dizziness, general discomfort, eyestrain, headache, disequilibrium, and pallor.  In rare cases there have been aftereffects (e.g., visual flashbacks and disorientation) that have occurred up to 12 hours after exposure to the simulators.  This paper reviews results of the Navy’s research and subsequent recommendations that have been provided to Navy trainer acquisition managers who formulate specifications for future flight simulators.  The rationale for these suggestions is derived from literature review, field observations, laboratory experimentation, and results of a biomedical panel convened to address the simulator sickness problem

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Challenges to the Joint Services

V-22 OSPREY Total Training System

Major Daniel C. Schultz, USMC

Commander Jerry M Owens, USN

Naval Air Systems Command

Lieutenant Commander Steven D. Harris, USN

Naval Air Test Center

The V-22 Osprey aircraft is envisioned as a versatile and complex weapon system that will offer unprecedented mission flexibility for the Army, Navy, Air Force and Marine Corps well into the next century.  The V-22 will incorporate advanced technology in its composite airframe, aerodynamics, avionics, and cockpit design, and will provide the United States with a highly mission capable aircraft.  Along with the system’s unique flight characteristics and advanced technology underlying its system construction and suite of mission systems, an expanded set of challenging new requirements for training system design is rapidly emerging.  The degree to which the services and the training industry can successfully anticipate, identify and address the requirements for optimal training will largely determine the ultimate effectiveness of the V-22.  This paper reviews major considerations in the V-22 training system development to date, examines some of the more salient training issues, and challenges the training systems community to develop innovative solutions that capitalize on advanced technology and maximize training effectiveness.

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The Strengths, Successes and Lessons Learned in the Use of Computer-Based Training by the S-3A, F/A-18 and F-14A

Naval Aviation Training Programs

Ellen M. LeVita, M.A.

ManTech Mathetics Corporation

Amanda M. Williams, Ph.D.

Logicon, Inc.

The role of computer-based training (CBT) is growing in support of high-technology aircrew training systems.  As the potential of CBT continues to grow, it is expected to play a more significant role in highly sophisticated training applications.  The advantages of CBT are many.  It is a medium for both cognitive and procedural training; it is currently the most flexible medium for maintaining concurrency with modern, rapidly changing aircraft and weapons systems; and it can be used as a vehicle to manage instruction.  The self-paced capabilities of the medium ensure that students meet criterion levels of performance even when used within the context of lock-step programs.

CBT is being applied in three Navy aircrew training programs.  It has been used in the S-3A and F/A-18 programs for several years and is currently being implemented to train F-14 aircrew.  Future programs, including the F-14D, A-6F, E-2C and SH-60F, will also use CBT in aircrew training systems.

This paper will describe the strengths, successes and lessons learned in the use of CBT by the S-3A, F/A-18 and F-14A programs and how the use of the CBT in these programs can serve the building blocks for new CBT and training system development.  The general conclusions of the authors is that a means to communicate these experiences will allow training of the authors is that a means to communicate these experiences will allow training systems managers and planners to build programs on a sound basis of experience.  In this age of rapid technological advancements, training systems designs based on experience will offer the critical advantage.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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