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I/ITSEC 1988 – 10TH
I/ITSEC
COMBAT TRAINING– THE NEXT FRONTIER OF AIR FORCE TRAINING TECHNOLOGY..
EMBEDDED TRAINING–A VIABLE SOLUTION TO OPERATIONAL READINESS.
A COMMON SENSE SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT AND MIGRATION PROCESS.
FEASIBILITY OF A GRAPHICAL DESIGN FOR AN ADA SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT..
OBJECT-ORIENTED SYSTEMS DESIGN WITH LOGICAL CPU’s.
BASELINE CORRELATION MATRIX– A MANAGEMENT TOOL THAT GOES THAT EXTRA
MILE..
SUPPORTABILITY DEMONSTRATION A CLOSER LOOK..
ASSESSING QUALITY OF TRAINING..
IN SEARCH OF A REUSABLE ADA AERODYNAMIC MATH MODEL..
CAN ADA CODE PERFORM AS WELL AS FORTRAN CODE?.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR EMBEDDED TRAINING COMPONENTS.
LESSONS LEARNED FROM CURRENTLY FIELDED NAVY EMBEDDED TRAINING SYSTEMS.
EMBEDDED SIMULATION FOR AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL TRAINING..
VISUAL SIMULATION FOR ADVANCED FIGHTER TRAINING..
USING AIRCREW COORDINATION TRAINING TECHNIQUES TO ENHANCE WARFIGHTING
CAPABILITIES.
MULTIPLE SIMULATOR NETWORKING (MULTISIM) THE WAY TO PROVIDE EFFECTIVE
COMBAT TRAINING TODAY..
PARALLEL PROCESSORS FOR MILITARY TRAINING SYSTEMS A LABORATORY
PROOF-OF-CONCEPT MODEL..
ROTORCRAFT FLIGHT SIMULATION IN THE
PARALLEL MICROPROCESSOR ENVIRONMENT..
NEW EMULATION TECHNIQUES IN THE TRAINING OF RAF TECHNICIANS.
PM TRADE CONCEPT FORMULATION–A METHODOLOGY FOR HUMAN FACTORS
ENGINEERING AND MANPRINT ANALYSIS.
THE CREATION OF COMPLEX TACTICAL TRAINING ENVIRONMENTS, AN UNCLASSIFIED APPROACH..
CONTRACT TRAINING SYSTEMS A TURNKEY, GROUND-UP APPROACH TO MILITARY
AIRCREW READINESS.
THE RETURN OF THE OLD HEADS– AN ASSESSMENT OF CONTRACTOR AIRCREW
TRAINING SYSTEMS.
COMPUTER BASED TRAINING–HIT OR MYTH?.
A LOW COST ROUTE TO HIGH COST EFFECTIVENESS.
UNIVERSAL AUTHORING SYSTEM–ROUND TWO–THE WEDGE..
USING FRACTALS TO CREATE REALISTIC, THREE-DIMENSIONAL TERRAIN FOR THE
TRAINING ENVIRONMENT..
MISSION REHEARSAL–ITS IMPACT ON DATA BASE TECHNOLOGY..
IOS DESIGN TRENDS FOR A FULL MISSION TRAINING DEVICE..
EFFECTIVENESS OF FLIGHT SIMULATION IN TRAINING KC-10 PILOTS IN RECEIVER
REFUELING..
IMPLEMENTATION AND MANAGEMENT OF A TRAINER SYSTEM SUPPORT CENTER (TSSC)
LIFE-CYCLE SUPPORT FOR MODERN TRAINNG SYSTEMS.
WARFIGHTING WITH SIMNET–A REPORT FROM THE FRONT..
C3I TRAINING–THE FIGHTING EDGE..
THE APPLICATION OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE IMAGERY TO FLIGHT
SIMULATION..
SCENE REALISM–THE SYNERGY OF DATA BASE TECHNOLOGY AND CIG HARDWARE..
VISUAL SIMULATION UTILIZING COMPUTER– RECONSTRUCTED IMAGES FROM SCENE
PHOTOGRAPHS.
GRAPHIC APPROACHES TO PROCEDURAL TRAINING..
INCREASING THE INSTRUCTIONAL AND COST EFFECTIVENESS OF COMPUTER-BASED TRAINING
BY GROUPING STUDENTS.
COMPUTER-BASED TRAINING (CBT)
COST ESTIMATING ALGORITHM FOR COURSEWARE (CEAC)
PLANNING THE SPACE STATION TRAINING FACILITY..
THE IMPACT OF REQUIREMENTS AND CONSTRAINTS ON TOTAL TRAINING SYSTEM
DESIGN–.
ELIMINATING FORCED TECHNOLOGY IN MILITARY TRAINING SYSTEMS– A
CONCEPTUAL MODEL..
THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL FIDELITY IN TRAINING SYSTEMS ACQUISITION..
THE EFFECTS OF FIELD-OF-VIEW ON PILOT PERFORMANCE IN THE C-130 WST..
LOW COST VISUAL FLIGHT SIMULATOR TESTBED..
IMAGE GENERATION FOR ROTARY WING APPLICATIONS.
DEVELOPING TROUBLESHOOTING EXPERTISE THROUGH INTELLIGENT
COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION..
KNOWLEDGE-BASED TECHNOLOGY FOR TRAINING SYSTEMS.
INTELLIGENT TUTORING SYSTEMS– IF THEY ARE SUCH GOOD IDEAS, WHY AREN’T
THERE MORE OF THEM?.
BEST COMMERCIAL PRACTICES IN ENGINEERING DATA FOR AIR FORCE TRAINING
SYSTEMS.
NEW IDF TRAINING MIL STANDARD FOR COST EFFECTIVE TRAINING CHOICES.
APPLICATION OF EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES TO INCREASE SHIPBOARD TRAINING
EFFECTIVENESS.
TRAINING EVALUATION DATA COLLECTION..
A UNIQUE SOLUTION FOR TRAINING AIR REFUELING TASKS IN AN OFT..
AN ANALYSIS OF TWO ROTOR DYNAMIC MODELING METHODS FOR FLIGHT SIMULATION..
DETERMINATION OF HELICOPTER SIMULATOR TIME DELAY AND ITS EFFECTS ON AIR
VEHICLE DEVELOPMENT..
A FLEXIBLE EXPERT SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE FOR TACTICAL TRAINERS.
THREAT SIMULATION–A COMPARISON OF TWO TECHNIQUES.
EXPERT SYSTEM AND INTERACTIVE VIDEODISC– A POWERFUL COMBINATION..
AN EFFICIENT RESEARCH PLAN FOR THE DETERMINATION OF COST-EFFECTIVE SIMULATION AND TRAINING..
THE SUBMARINE TRAINING MASTER PLANNING SYSTEM...
STRATEGIES AND STANDARDS–AN EVOLUTIONARY VIEW OF TRAINING DEVICES.
RESERVE COMPONENT DISTRIBUTED TRAINING: UNDERSTANDING UNIUE TRAINING
ENVIRONMENT KEY TO SUCCESS.
ECM MODELING TECHNIQUES FOR TRAINING SIMULATORS.
USE OF DIGITAL SIMULATION TECHNIQUES ENHANCES AUDIO COMMUNICATIONS
TRAINING..
SIMULATION OF SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADAR USING THE ADVANCED VISUAL
TECHNOLOGY SYSTEM...
A RESEARCH AGENDA FOR TEAM TRAINING AND PERFORMANCE– ISSUES,
ALTERNATIVES, AND SOLUTIONS.
PARALLEL COMPUTING–A COST-EFFECTIVE WAY TO ACHIEVE REAL-TIME SIMULATORS
AND TRAINERS.
DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: THE KEYS FOR INTERACTIVE TRAINING FOR
COMBAT READINESS.
LONG-HAUL NETWORKING OF SIMULATORS.
INTEGRATION OF A SHIPBOARD SENSOR TRAINER INTO A COMBAT SYSTEM TEAM
TRAINER..
QUICK RESPONSE DATA BASES FOR SIMULATORS.
PROLOG AND EXPERT THREAT SIMULATION..
|
THE
NEXT FRONTIER OF AIR FORCE TRAINING TECHNOLOGY Andrea J. Courtice,
Maj., USAF Deputy Director of
Training System Development Training Systems
System Program Office Wright-Patterson AFB With
the ongoing acceleration of significant advances in Soviet and Warsaw Pact
nation warfighting technology, more and more reference is being made to the
superior skill and capability of our warfighter as the force multiplier which
will insure success in time of national emergency. While a large body of historical data does suggest that our
pilots and crewmembers have consistently met this challenge, the complexities
of the combat task (regardless of arena or level of conflict) have consistently
eluded the application of objectively based training methodologies such as
the Instructional Systems Development (ISD) process. Without such a systematic, comprehensive
analysis of all required operational performance/training activity, modern
and evolving training technologies cannot be economically and accurately
applied, mediated training activity cannot be integrated into a training
effective continuum, and training objectives cannot be related to actual
mission readiness requirements. More
importantly, by these criteria, no training system in the Air Force today can
objectively account for the combat needs of the warfighter and thereby be a
reliable indicator and/or predictor of the warfighter’s ability to support
national military objectives. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website. EMBEDDED TRAINING–A
VIABLE SOLUTION TO OPERATIONAL READINESS Biagio B. Montello Former Naval Training
Systems Center Engineer Surface Warfare
Division Andrew K. Indseth Operation Intelligence
Specialist Naval Surface Warfare
Center U.
S. Naval operational forces have recently documented serious concerns
regarding reduced combat readiness.
Faced with an increasingly complex threat environment, technically
advanced system capabilities, and steady decreases in training funds, fleet commanders
are experiencing a widening gap between system capability and system
performance which can be attributed to inadequate operator proficiency. A
potential solution to this problem is to provide Embedded Training aboard
ship for the entire combat team. The
technology is here today and several current training systems demonstrate the
achievability of full team embedded training. These include Pierside Trainers stimulating operational combat
systems aboard ship and the Aegis training Systems already embedded. This
paper presents a low cost low risk approach to provide a significant embedded
training capability to improve fleet readiness near term and pace the way to
provide shipboard combat team training through total embedded training. The method presented capitalizes on Device
7B4 technology, scenario development capabilities, and will provide training
for cryptologic/EW operators that provide critical information to decision
makers that are responsible for posturing the entire battle group/defense
force to counter an impending threat. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website. NEW
EVIDENCE FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF TEAMWORK SKILLS DURING
OPERATIONAL TRAINING Albert S. Glickman and
Robert M. McIntyre Old Dominion
University Ben B. Morgan, Jr. University of Central
Florida Eduardo Salas Naval Training Systems
Center This
study was a part of the program of cooperative research on team development
and maturation involving the Center for Applied Psychology Studies of Old
Dominion University and the Naval Training Systems Center, Orlando,
Florida. In an effort to understand
the specific behavioral components comprising teamwork, 11 Combat Information
Center teams in an Anti-Submarine Warfare School, ranked according to an
independent final exam score, were observed over a week training period. Team instructors served as the source of
critical behavior data that were collected and analyzed. Results of the behavioral analysis
indicate that teamwork is behaviorally complex and evolves over time; that
teamwork skills contribute to the relative success of teams; and that
top-ranked teams display certain behavioral tendencies distinct from the
lowest-ranked teams. A sampling of
the lessons learned from this research and recommendations for interventions
to improve team performance and training are presented and discussed. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. A COMMON SENSE SOFTWARE
DEVELOPMENT AND MIGRATION PROCESS Lynn C. Thompson Engineering and
Training Simulation Department McDonnell Douglas
Helicopter Company Real
Time software configuration control continues to be a problem area despite
many guidelines, procedures, and regulations. Software traceability is particularly frustrating throughout
the development phase. This paper
will describe a “common sense” approach to software configuration management
and a process of software migration during product development. The concept is independent of languages,
compilers, and machine implementation. First,
a general classification scheme is developed, and controlling mechanisms are
discussed. Second, the author defines
a software development and migration process. This discussion will include software engineering development,
test and integration, and operational and baseline areas. Next, this “common sense” approach will be
related to MIL-STD 2167A. And last,
an implementation of the “common sense” approach with lessons learned is
presented. While
details of implementation must be developed for a specific configuration, the
concept provides for traceability and controlled development with few
constraints on the individual software engineer, a logical migration of
software to a deliverable product, and a high degree of confidence in having
“what you think you have.” This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. FEASIBILITY OF A
GRAPHICAL DESIGN FOR AN ADA SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT Pamela S. Woodard and William F. Parrish, Jr. Naval Training Systems
Center The
use of Ada for training system software requires that a greater emphasis be
placed on the design phase of a software development. The representation of an Ada design must
provide a means to describe a variety of components such as packages, procedures,
tasks and generics, and a means to specify the interconnection information
between all components. A graphical
design methodology is a promising technique, which may offer an effective
means to document an Ada design so that it can be quickly, and correctly
understood by programmers, project engineers and program managers. This paper describes the benefits of a
graphical design and presents four methodologies that are beginning to be
used to design training systems software.
Structured Analysis and Design Technique (SADT), Yourdon-DeMarco
Structured Analysis and Design (YDSAD), Process Abstraction Method for
Embedded Large Applications (PAMELA), and Object Oriented Design (OOD) are
discussed. Advantages and
disadvantages of the various techniques with respect to total life cycle
support are presented. Factors such
as ease of learning, ease of use, understandability, and automated support
are given prime consideration.
Evaluation results are presented in tabular form. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. OBJECT-ORIENTED
SYSTEMS DESIGN WITH LOGICAL CPU’s Michael Ash Staff Scientist Link Flight Simulation
Corporation Until
recently, object-oriented system design was used exclusively for software
solutions. However, logical
continuity is difficult to maintain if software solutions are insulated from
inflexible hardware architecture.
Cost/benefit constraints dictate that software topology should
motivate the creation of an adaptable hardware environment. For example, it is desirable to have an
aggregate of physical CPUs (PCPUs) behave like a single logical CPU (LCPU). Thus, varying performance requirements can
be addressed with the same software design methodology applied to the
unchanged, underlying hardware building blocks, and total system stability is
achieved. This paper examines how
aspects of objected-oriented software methodology can be applied to
underlying physical components, as well as software, so that a total system
solution can be created. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. A
MANAGEMENT TOOL THAT GOES THAT EXTRA MILE John O. Smith Chief Test and
Deployment Management Division Training Systems
System Program Office Wright-Patterson Air
force Base Baseline
Correlation Matrix (BCM) is a fairly new program management tool in the
acquisition business that provides traceability and comparison of the user’s
requirements, developer’s specifications, and operational tester’s evaluation
criteria. Its primary purpose is to
relate and align those requirements, specifications, and evaluation criteria
to ensure orderly system development and test. A major problem encountered in the test and evaluation arena
has been the agreement on the parameters selected for test evaluation. As an example, during the Initial
Operational Test and Evaluation (IOTE) of the EF-111A Operational Flight
Trainer (OFT), problems surfaced that obviously showed discontinuity on what
the developer specified. Because of
this disconnect, the Training Systems System Program Office (SPO)(ASD/YW),
Aeronautical Systems Division, Wright-Patterson AFB, researched the BCM concept
and developed a process for application to our training system programs. The paper will lie out the methodology
used to apply the BCM to training system programs. The areas of the BCM will be summarized with a short history
and how it was developed. The paper
will discuss the approach and criteria used for selecting specific training
programs for the BCM process and provide a guide for preparation and
approval. Future test management
objectives of the Training Systems SPO using BCM techniques will be outlined. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. A
CLOSER LOOK Russell Jones Acquisition Logistics
Resource Division Chief
Logistics Management
Specialist Training Systems
System Program Office (ASD/YW) Wright-Patterson Air
Force Base In
1985, using the Contractor Logistics Support (CLS) concept, the Air Force
decided to reallocate maintenance personnel to wartime jobs from organic
training systems maintenance jobs.
The Air Force’s move to CLS was similar to the Navy’s earlier decision
to transition to the CLS concept for maintenance of their training
systems. Under CLS, all maintenance
traditionally performed by Air Force personnel at the training sites and at
the depot were to be performed by contractors. These contractors were responsible for total logistics support
of the training devices. Responding
to using command needs, the Deputy for Training Systems, Directorate of
Acquisition Logistics originated the supportability demonstration
concept. This acquisition activity
was to serve, as a means for ensuring that/the contractor’s total support
system would be able to meet the CLS challenge. This
paper presents a review of the original planning and an analysis of the role
played by the supportability demonstration.
The authors present views of both opponents and proponents of the
supportability demonstration activity.
Three simulator programs, each of which took a different approach to
this issue, are presented as cases. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. William C. McDaniel,
Ph.D. Naval Training Systems
Center The
concept of the “guaranteed student” as a product of a training system is
beginning to blossom. The training community
has some conception of what a “guaranteed student” is; however, the issue of how
to determine the appropriate performance of the guaranteed student is
considerably more vague. The notion
of a highly reliable expert determining the level of student proficiency is
popular. Empirical findings in the
area of human judgment call into question the notion of a “highly reliable
expert.” Human judgment, even expert human judgment, is subject to errors
produced by biases and heuristic strategies employed in making judgments and
people do not integrate information well.
Mechanical models or decision aids have been clearly superior to the
human for combining information. This
paper presents a decision aid that can be used to more efficiently integrate
student performance data. This
decision aid has an additional advantage of controlling various types of
errors; i.e., declaring proficiency when proficiency has not been achieved or
declaring a proficient student as non-proficient. Data are presented that compare decision accuracy and
information requirements of expert human judgment and the decision aid. Results are presented to highlight human
judgmental problems in the training environment. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. IN
SEARCH OF A REUSABLE ADA AERODYNAMIC MATH MODEL John Hicks and Lynn
Stuckey Boeing Military Airplanes,
Simulation and Training Systems The
aerodynamic math models are one of the more important areas of a simulator
design. The simulation industry needs
a standard to use, not only for the data structure of the aerodynamic model,
but also for the aerodynamic coefficient build-up logic. If and when the Department of Defense
acquires a highly reusable aerodynamic math model, implementation of this
model will be more cost-effective and streamlined on future simulation
contracts. This would allow future combat
trainers to be fielded quicker at a lower cost to the taxpayer. The use of the Ada language directly
supports the creation of a reusable aerodynamic math model. One of the major goals in the development
of Ada was to promote software that could be applied to future designs, thus
making the reinvention of previous work unnecessary. Reusable components do not automatically
fall out from the use of Ada.
Reusability requires careful specification and design. Ada provides features such as packages, generics,
unconstrained array types, and others that allow easier construction of
reusable components. This paper
presents an approach toward the development of a reusable aerodynamic math
model for fixed-wing aircraft in the Ada language. This paper is available
on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. CAN
ADA CODE PERFORM AS WELL AS FORTRAN CODE? Wendy J. Hudson Concurrent Computer
Corporation The
coding of new training systems in Ada raises serious questions about the
performance of Ada code as compared to training systems previously written in
FORTRAN. When both the Ada compiler
and the FORTRAN compiler are using similar methods of code optimization, the
Ada code can perform as well as FORTRAN code. However, the Ada programmer must be careful in the selection of
Ada features used in the system. The
Ada language prevents the compiler from doing some optimizations and some of
the Ada features are expensive at run-time.
Examples of these features are given and benchmark results are used to
substantiate the conclusions. The compilation
system can also provide options and tools, which can be used to fine tune the
system performance. The Ada benefits
of easy integration, maintainability, and reliability can be achieved without
sacrificing performance. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. SOFTWARE ENGINEERING FOR
ADA-BASED TRAINING SYSTEMS– LESSONS
LEARNED FROM THE ADA SIMULATOR VALIDATION PROGRAM Michael Caffey Marshall Westerby BURTEK This
paper presents lessons learned from a Government funded research project to
investigate the impact of using Ada for flight simulators. The DOD directive requiring the use of Ada
for all mission critical software systems will cause a significant change in
the way software is deigned in the future.
In order to study the impact for using Ada and software engineering
techniques, the DOD funded the Ada Simulator Validation Program (ASVP). For the ASVP, simulation software
previously written in FORTRAN was redesigned using software engineering
methods and coded in ADA. The
software was fully integrated and tested to evaluate the usefulness of Ada
and software engineering practices. This
paper presents the lessons learned by Burtek while redeveloping the software
on the Ada Simulator Validation Program. The
four main topics that will be addressed are the design approach, computer
system support environment, software maintainability, and training. The discussion on the design approach will
address the use of object oriented design for designing real-time software,
the role rapid prototyping plays in the design process, and the benefits that
were derived from the rigorous design effort. The computer system support environment discussion will cover
APSE tools required for developing simulation software as well as the need
for operating systems that are specifically designed to support Ada. Software maintainability will be
addressed, and special emphasis will be placed on the needs for
maintainability to be the driving factor during design. Tradeoffs between maintainability and
efficiency are discussed, and a word of caution is given regarding the
haphazard use of Ada features.
Finally, a discussion on training will highlight the need for training
in software engineering as well as in Ada syntax. The importance of training in the area of application will also
be addressed. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. DESIGNN
CONSIDERATIONS FOR EMBEDDED TRAINING COMPONENTS J. Thomas Roth, Ph.D. Applied Science
Associates, Inc. Embedded
Training (ET) is now a realistic alternative in training systems design and
implementation. With the
proliferation of embedded computers in military and commercial systems, the
capability exists, at generally affordable marginal costs, to bring training
to the user in the workplace.
However, ET should not be thought of as a total training solution or
as a panacea. Not all training can or
should be supported by ET. Several
roles in the total training system are appropriate for support by ET,
however. A decision approach for
assigning ET to appropriate roles in the training systems is discussed in the
body of the paper. In order to attain
useful, functional ET, a close and continuous relationship is required among
training developers, requirement developers, material system developers,
logisticians, and users, for new systems, throughout the system design and
development process. The
paper addresses some issues, which are of paramount importance and concern in
this process. In addition to close
integration during system development, ET also requires life cycle support,
along with the remainder of the system.
Some specific issues concerning the logistical support of systems
containing ET components are discussed. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. LESSONS LEARNED FROM CURRENTLY
FIELDED NAVY EMBEDDED TRAINING SYSTEMS Richard E. Reynolds Leslie Weber
Fiedeldey* Naval Training Systems
Center Brenda J. Hoskin William F. Jorgensen Eagle Technology, Inc. *Appointed
to the research participation program in the Human Factors Division of the
Naval Training Systems Center (NTSC), administered by Oak Ridge Associated
Universities through an agreement between the U.S. Department of Energy and
NTSC. A
number of embedded training systems are currently in use or under development
by the U.S. Navy. Consequently, there
is a need to consolidate the experiences and findings of these embedded
training development efforts, to evaluate the effectiveness of various
high-level features of in-place embedded training systems and to assess the
applicability of those features to future embedded training systems and
sub-systems. This paper documents the
lessons learned from the development and use of 15 operational training
systems in the Navy. The choice of
systems to be studied was based upon accessibility of the systems, their
capabilities, general applicability, and technological and instructional
complexity. The instructional
features of the systems selected were identified and described and taxonomy
was created. Effectiveness evaluation
criteria were developed and on site interviewing users of in-place embedded
training systems and administering a standardized assessment instrument
accomplished collection of data. The
analysis and evaluation of these training systems found few systems, which could
be, considered true embedded training systems. Many systems made use of test target generators or data input
devices, which provide only rudimentary tools for training. Recommendations for the design of future
embedded training systems are presented.
These guidelines address the following areas of ET design:
configuration, training characteristics, support, and policy. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. EMBEDDED SIMULATION FOR
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL TRAINING Gary C. Sackett Technical Director,
AAS Trainer Systems Hughes Aircraft
Company Embedded
training, defined as the use of actual system equipment with specialized
training software, is being specified for more and more systems. The Advanced Automation System (AAS),
designed for the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) by Hughes Aircraft
Company, leads the way in the application of embedded training and embedded
simulation capabilities to solve a complex air traffic training problem. This paper addresses the approach taken by
Hughes to develop training system requirements, convert these requirements
into design requirements using embedded training/simulation capabilities, and
implement the design. Two specific
modes of embedded simulation capabilities will be described, system supported
and standalone training. These modes
take advantage of the system design, which uses a large, central computer for
certain, global or strategic functions and smaller common computers
distributed throughout the system for localized or tactical processing. System
supported training uses the entire air traffic control system to provide the
training capabilities. Consoles,
resident on the system local area network (LAN) and designated for training,
use a special simulation Computer Software Configuration Item (CSCI) in the
central computer which stimulates system software to provide an overall
simulation of the entire air traffic control environment. This full-scale simulation is designed to
train air traffic controllers to full proficiency. Standalone
mode uses single air traffic control consoles, detached from the system LAN,
controlled by an on-board computer.
These consoles execute a simulation CSCI that replaces part of the
console-resident software. This SCCI
interfaces with other unmodified operational software (a CSCI in a second
processor in the console) to fulfill its training mission: teaching
operational and maintenance procedures. This
paper shows how, through effective early design of training capabilities, the
overall system design was influenced to make the embedded training features
possible without adding substantial hardware and software cost to the
program. The final result is an
integrated approach to training, which maximizes use of existing resources to
provide critical training without impacting ongoing air traffic control
operations. This paper is available
on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. VISUAL SIMULATION FOR
ADVANCED FIGHTER TRAINING Major Gordon R. Booth,
USAFTAWC/TNS EF-111A Operational
Flight Trainer Program Manager Eglin Air Force Base This
paper examines the background of fighter aircraft visual simulation, training
requirements in support of realistic combat scenarios, present visual
simulation capabilities and, for the future, advanced visual tactical
training centers. Advances
in Soviet weapons technology is increasing the threat to aircrew survival and
mission success, thereby emphasizing the importance to train aircrews in a realistic
combat environment. Unfortunately,
combat related skills cannot be fully trained in the combat environment. Unfortunately, combat related skills
cannot be fully trained in the aircraft, due to limits of the training
environment. These limitations
include airspace, weather, safety, ordnance and cost. The increased threat and limited peacetime
training operations combine to place new and increasingly complex demands on
today’s tactical simulators. Currently,
limited visual training capability exists for fighter aircraft
simulators. However, today’s
technology is rapidly advancing to a state that future combat flight
simulators will be equipped with visual, sensor, electro-optical and radar
data bases, photographic in quality, that accurately replicate any location
in the world. These simulators will
be capable of providing mission scenarios that include all known threats,
tactical training centers and will train combat skills to tactical aircrews
realistically and effectively. This paper is available
on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. USING AIRCREW COORDINATION
TRAINING TECHNIQUES TO ENHANCE WARFIGHTING CAPABILITIES Neil C. Krey Military Operations Link Training Services
Corporation Dealing
with human performance topics such as judgment, decision making,
interpersonal communications, and stress management in a multi-crewmember
environment, ACT provides formal training and evaluation in human performance
skill areas not traditionally included in aircrew training programs. ACT
provides the platform to build comprehensive mission training programs, which
address team performance and the development of warfighting skills for almost
any combat team environment. Emerging
technologies, which allow simulation networking will provide additional
applications for team, oriented training, which supports successful mission
rehearsal, and combat training. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. MULTIPLE
SIMULATOR NETWORKING (MULTISIM) THE
WAY TO PROVIDE EFFECTIVE COMBAT TRAINING TODAY Gary R. George, Staff
Engineer Samuel N. Knight,
Staff Scientist Link Flight Simulation
Corporation Tomorrow’s
state-of-the-art training systems will be networks of high-fidelity
simulators coupled to provide aviator crews with advanced training as players
in combined-arms teams. In addition,
networked simulators will provide crews with an advanced facility to exercise
and enhance their air-to-air skills by allowing combat against equally
trained crews in a hostile environment.
To reach such training levels, tomorrow’s simulators can be specified
to incorporate designed-in network interfaces and system-to-system compatibility. There is, however, an alternative to
waiting for the development of next generation scheduled for fielding in the
near future. The Multiple Simulator
Networking Program (MULTISIM) is a research effort which has provided
proof-of-concept for this alternative.
This paper describes the MULTISIM prototype, the missions performed,
and insight gained relative to the potential of networking to change current
concepts of overall combat training. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. PARALLEL PROCESSORS FOR
MILITARY TRAINING SYSTEMS A
LABORATORY PROOF-OF-CONCEPT MODEL W. J. Rowan, D. M.
Kotick, M. W. Layton, C. E. Ruiz and C. N. Pope Naval Training Systems
Center Military
simulators require very large amounts of high-speed computational power. Traditionally, the need has been met by
assemblages of minicomputers. The
laboratory project described was undertaken to explore the feasibility of
employing low-cost microcomputers instead.
The paper details the considerations dictating the architectural
design, describes the partitioning tool used to assign modules to processors,
and discusses methods employed to overcome real-time synchronization
problems. Recommendations are
presented for system features, which would result in the flexibility and
expandability, required for this application. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. GUIDELINES
TO THE SELECTION OF ADA-BASED MULTIPROCESSOR
COMPUTER SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS
FOR USE IN TRAINING AND SIMULATION Don Law and Gary
Croucher Gould Inc., Computer
Systems Division Ada Development A
multiprocessor real-time Ada-based environment is becoming increasingly
necessary to support the growing class of complex simulation and training
applications. The Bare Machine Ada
runtime, or BMA, project at Gould C.S.D is an effort to produce such an
environment. The results of this
development effort are providing valuable insights into the mechanisms
required to adequately and efficiently support Ada on multiple processors. Variations
of a distributed real-time environment are evaluated with respect to very
tightly coupled processors running with a single (common) local memory,
tightly coupled processors equipped with a range of common memory, and
loosely coupled processors containing no common memory. Finally, we consider methods for obtaining
a processing system able to distribute Ada tasks freely over multiple
processors. Each processor in the
system maintains its own local memory, but entire ranges of local memories
shadow each other’s contents, forming a single common address range with a
minimum of contention. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. IN
THE PARALLEL
MICROPROCESSOR ENVIRONMENT Jeff McFarland* Don Monroe* Cindy Maher* Engineering and
Training Simulation Department McDonnell Douglas
Helicopter Company Our
multiple microprocessor approach to application processing provides an open
architecture that permits computing resources to be expanded and customized
to meet simulator/training requirements.
Migrating computing resources from the minicomputer to the
microprocessor environment results in enormous savings in simulation
costs. These savings are realized in
the initial hardware investment and again in the reduction of facility
requirements, including power, space and cooling. This was particularly evident in our parallel microprocessor
implementation of the rotorcraft flight model at McDonnell Douglas Helicopter
Company, Mesa, AZ, for engineering simulation. Our
rotorcraft simulation was migrated from the GOULD 32/9780 to the Motorola
68020 microprocessor environment. The
required frame rate exceeded the capabilities of a single
microprocessor. Therefore, the
rotorcraft simulation, previously running in serial, was divided into three
small models running in parallel on three microprocessors: the main
rotor/tail rotor and equations of motion, the stabilization systems, and the
engines. The VME bus was selected as
the backplane for the system because of high-speed data transfer capabilities
of this bus and the large selection of devices available for VME. The Motorola 68020 CPU was selected as the
target microprocessor. Development
was done on the Vax/VMS system using FORTRAN 77 and C cross-compilers for the
MC68020 target. Although it was
initially uncertain whether the flight model could remain stable running on
parallel processors, the parallel portage resulted in insignificant variance
from the serial model. Timing results
were easily within the required frame rate.
This paper discusses the advantages of the microprocessor approach
over the minicomputer approach for our rotorcraft flight simulation, the migration
of the serial flight model to parallel processing, and how this approach can
further enhance rotorcraft flight simulation. *
Member Technical Staff This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. NEW EMULATION TECHNIQUES
IN THE TRAINING OF RAF TECHNICIANS Charles J. Murton and Flight Lieutenant Patrick Beautement Headquarters Royal Air
Force Support Command Great Britain The
Basic Trade Training for Royal Air Force ground electronics technicians is
the subject of a total course redesign using the Integrated Job Performance
Training method. This has shown a
requirement for the students to carry out practical faultfinding exercises in
a way representative of operational methods.
The equipment which the new course is designed to cater for are the
modern, modular digital electronic equipment, which are extremely expensive
and inherently unsuited to deliberate fault insertion for training
purposes. Therefore a requirement has
arisen to provide a method of training which teaches many of the same skills
as would be learned using real equipment, but without the actual presence of
such equipment. This has given rise
to the concept of an “emulator”, a device that is capable of representing the
characteristics of a number of different real equipment for training
purposes. The paper discusses this
concept, together with the different ways in which it might be implemented. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. PM
TRADE CONCEPT FORMULATION–A METHODOLOGY FOR HUMAN FACTORS ENGINEERING AND
MANPRINT ANALYSIS Richard Neal Armstrong USAHEL Field Office
(PM TRADE) Rita L. Graham and
Kelly A. O’Brien Science Applications
International Corporation To
date, there is no standard methodology for applying the Manpower and
Personnel Integration (MANPRINT) initiative to the front-end analysis of
training device development. This
paper describes the approach used by the Project Manager for Training Devices
(PM TRADE) for integrating MANPRINT into Pre-concept and Concept Formulation
analyses. PM TRADE has developed a
measure of effectiveness (MOE) that combines Human Factors Engineering
analysis and MANPRINT analysis with training effectiveness, logistics, cost,
and reliability data to achieve an early assessment of manpower, personnel,
and training requirements for the proposed training device. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. THE
CREATION OF COMPLEX TACTICAL TRAINING ENVIRONMENTS, AN
UNCLASSIFIED APPROACH Andrew Morris Manager Tactical
Systems CAE Electronics Ltd. The
creation of complex tactical training systems has traditionally involved the
use of a large amount of sensitive data to enable representative simulation
models to be provided. The data involved
in the simulation of the tactical environment and in particular the targets
therein is often highly classified. The
following paper discusses a new approach to the generation of these types of
training systems, which allows the initially delivered trainer to have a much
lower level of security classification than is possible with current design
approaches. In this approach the data
used for modeling sensitive areas, such as targets, weapon systems, tactics,
etc., is created by the end user utilizing menu driven utilities
incorporating Expert Systems technology.
Use of this type of approach, apart from affording greater security
for the associated data, allows for a wider selection of potential
contractors to be solicited for any given program. The
paper describes the design approach which is being used by CAE Electronics
Ltd., both in its current form as applied to a P-3C Operational Tactics
Trainer and in its extended form as applied to an aviation research combat
simulator for the U.S. Army Research Institute. This
approach offers considerable potential benefits on the life cycle costs
associated with maintaining trainer concurrency because the user has full
control over the performance of the various features in the simulated
environment, and can readily make changes thereto. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. A
TURNKEY, GROUND-UP APPROACH TO MILITARY AIRCREW READINESS Timothy L. Kriebel Manager, Training
Technology Reflectone, Inc. James J. Riley E-6A CFCTS Program
Manager Naval Training Systems
Center Contract
Training Systems, once the “leading edge” innovation of the ‘80s, are now
routinely meeting the training needs of a variety of commercial and
government customers. Rising costs of
and increased confidence in contractors’ abilities created an opportunity for
training companies to provide services that were formerly in the customer’s
domain. Aircrew
training was previously accomplished through the piecemeal purchase and
integration of training aids, training devices, and traditional classroom
lecture and orientation. Contractors
provided initial training to m8ilitary and civil service personnel who then
became the instructional staff. This
approach generally resulted in the following: Initial knowledge was
frequently lost early in the program because of government personnel
turnover; under-utilization of training resources such as simulators became
commonplace; maintaining currency of the course syllabi with the aircraft was
difficult a “Training System” sense was never developed. This
paper discusses “ground-up” training system development and the special
problems presented in creating a contract training system while aircraft
design and operational employment issues are evolving. The U.S. Navy’s E-6A (TACAMO) Contract
Flight Crew Training System (CFCTS) will be used as the discussion model. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. AN
ASSESSMENT OF CONTRACTOR AIRCREW TRAINING SYSTEMS Richard J. Morrow Training Systems
Marketing Manager Richard G. Adams Marketing Publications
Manager Link Flight Simulation
Corporation During
the past eight years, the U.S. military services have begun implementing, on
selected Aircrew Training Systems (ATS), a revolutionary new approach:
turnkey civilian contractor operation.
These major contractor ATS programs, including the USAF’S KC-10, E-3,
C-5, C-130, and the USN’s E-6, have diverse missions and are in various
stages of maturation: from courseware development to simulator production to
actual day-to-day instruction. How successful
have these programs been in meeting contract-guaranteed throughput rates at
government-defined proficiency levels?
How do the military student flight crews view the civilian
instructors? And is the contractor
ATS concept saving the DOD money?
Through dozens of interviews with military and contractor program
managers, safety officers, and instructors, this paper analyzes how well
these five initial Aircrew Training Systems are satisfying expectations. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. COMPUTER BASED
TRAINING–HIT OR MYTH? Commander Jeffrey P.
Bond Royal Navy Directorate of Naval
Education and Training Support The
1981 Defense Review in the United Kingdom determined the need for increased
efficiency in training and the requirement to conduct more training on board
ships. As a result of recommendations
made by a civilian consultancy investigation in 1984 and an in-house Ministry
of Defense (RN) pilot project in 1985, Computer Based Training was considered
to be a medium with the potential for achieving progressive improvements in
the productivity and effectiveness of shore based training and for moving
substantial quantities of training afloat. The
initial pilot project involved a survey of training problems and training
requirements that had the potential either to be solved by CBT or was
conducive to CBT applications. From a
total of 47 submissions, 6 projects were selected as representing a suitable
range of training against which the effectiveness and efficiency potential of
CBT could be examined. These projects
were: a.
Rule
of the Road b.
Joint
Message Handling c.
Electronic
Warfare Principles d.
Passive
Sonar Principles e.
Morse
Training f.
Naval
Mathematics and English Test These
projects were put out to commercial tender for the supply of both hardware
and course software. By
the end of 1986 all material relating to the 6 projects had been procured and
officially accepted and the evaluation phase of the trial began. A common evaluation philosophy was drawn
up with the primary objectives being to assess the impact of CBT on trainee
performance, human-training resources and on the organization of
training. Secondary objectives were
to assess the impact of CBT on the operational job performance of CBT users;
the attitudes of staff and trainees; and on material resources. Finally the study was to investigate the
wider application of CBT materials ashore and afloat. The
presentation will describe the lessons learned from this study and will
indicate the way ahead for the Royal Navy in the future usage of CBT
strategies. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. A
LOW COST ROUTE TO HIGH COST EFFECTIVENESS Group Captain David E.
Priestley Squadron Leader Peter
Jacques Royal Air Force School
of Education and Training Support Royal Air Force Newton Th
Royal Air Force policy for microcomputer based training is aimed at solving
appropriate and identified training needs in the most cost-effective
way. This paper describes three
training aids, all developed in-house, which illustrate this policy in
practice. The first is an Air
Intercept Trainer, which is now in use with the air defense training and
operational units: it is a small real-time simulation with student replay
facility. The second is a part-task
trainer for use in navigation training/instrument interpretation on the RAF’s
new basic flying trainer; this again responds in real-time to students’
inputs and provides immediate feedback and replay facilities. The third aid aims to enhance the quality
of classroom instruction by the use of computer-generated controlled animated
displays of aircraft technical systems.
Finally the paper will argue, through the experience gained, the
merits of such in-house development. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. UNIVERSAL
AUTHORING SYSTEM–ROUND TWO–THE WEDGE Andrew E. Andrews,
Lois Spangenberg, and Mary S. Trainor Cognitive Systems
Engineering Group, A-6 Los Alamos National
Laboratory Recent
papers in the literature have proposed a universal authoring system. While these papers are valuable because
they stimulated debate and provided a baseline, pursuing a universal
authoring system at this time is a search for a solution before the
requirements and problems have been clearly identified. This paper explores several issues related
to the concept of a universal authoring system and concludes with an
alternative prescription both for users (customers) and vendors. The user prescription includes a clear
definition of requirements and establishment of internal standards. The vendor prescription includes working
with the users more closely to aid in system comparison. This task is very difficult now because of
nonstandard criteria used by the scores of vendors involved. A model for a “universal” authoring system
is presented to illustrate that the options are endless. Technical issues regarding the computer
medium are discussed to illustrate the inherent difficulties of achieving
universality of authoring without restricting progress in hardware. The authors agree that the plethora of
authoring systems on the market today inhibits courseware portability, but we
feel that our free enterprise system as well as more informed consumers will
help reduce the number of surviving authoring systems. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. USING
FRACTALS TO CREATE REALISTIC, THREE-DIMENSIONAL TERRAIN FOR
THE TRAINING ENVIRONMENT Jacquelyn Poplar Reed Whittington Rediffusion Simulation
Incorporated Previous
databases developed for flight simulators have used terrain created from
elevation gridpoint data provided by the Defense Mapping Agency (DMA). The horizontal spacing of the DMA data
usually provides enough resolution for high-speed aircraft. However, for a terrain-following vehicle
such as the Navy’s Landing Craft, Air Cushion, it is necessary to have a much
finer grid than DMA can provide. In
fact, the resolution of the grid must be smaller than the craft in order to
provide proper height-above-terrain feedback for realistic craft
dynamics. The problem is to create
undulating terrain of such resolution over an area too large to be
empirically designed. Fractal
geometry, a recent discovery in mathematics, lends itself well to solving
this problem. With a fractal
algorithm, sections of terrain can be created that exhibit the property of
self-similarity found in nature.
These sections can then be pieced together according to DMA data to
form a representation of a high-resolution terrain. This
paper reviews the development of the software used to generate terrain for
the LCAC visual database. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. Richard R. Hopkins and
Michael B. Cooper Honeywell Training and
Control Systems Division The
increasing fidelity of visual simulators has created a requirement for
realistic images of natural phenomena such as clouds. In the GBU15 part task trainer, cloud
images were used to simulate the obscuration of the sensor’s field of view during
simulated training missions. Obtaining
cloud images that met the fidelity requirements of the trainer was
difficult. The cloud images had to
look realistic, yet have a predefined distribution over a large area, and the
images could not contain a background.
Three methods for obtaining the cloud images were evaluated. The methods were photography, painting,
and Computer Image Generation because it allowed control of cloud
distribution, shape, and density, and it generated images at the required resolutions
and without a background. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. MISSION REHEARSAL–ITS
IMPACT ON DATA BASE TECHNOLOGY Robert W. Geer and
Darrell Dixon Evans & Sutherland
Computer Corporation Simulation Division Mission
rehearsal can be defined as the use of accurate, correlated databases,
generated or updated rapidly from a variety of sources, to simulate a mission
exactly as it will be executed. While
this operational definition of mission rehearsal is relatively
straightforward, its implementation is not.
Incomplete or incompatible data, as well as limitations in
state-of-the-art database processing and multi-sensor correlation, currently
inhibit the implementation of mission rehearsal in its truest sense. The ability of database tools and current
processing techniques to comply with mission rehearsal requirements must be
assessed. This paper discusses the
definition of mission rehearsal, describes current database processing
techniques, and identifies the subset of mission rehearsal that reflects the
current abilities and limitations in correlating visual-image and other
sensor simulators. Strategies are
proposed for closing the gap between current and desired capabilities. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. IOS
DESIGN TRENDS FOR A FULL MISSION TRAINING DEVICE M. J. Dunnam Dr. W. W. Hosler Link Flight Simulation
Corporation Houston Simulation
Operations Link
has recently applied state-of-the-art instructor operator station (IOS)
technology to an existing full mission-training device. An intelligent workstation, designed to
focus on the instructor’s specific needs for each training task, has been
added to an F-16 Full Mission Simulator, replacing an IOS representing an
earlier technology. This system was
conceived with the participation of the user, taking advantage of past
experience with F-16 training requirements and methodologies. The new IOS technology addresses the needs
of the instructor to accomplish specific training tasks by providing displays
and controls optimized for specific tasks.
Windows, color, icons, and merged text and graphics contribute
significantly to the system’s ability to support the instructor. Maintainability has been enhanced by decentralizing
the IOS software in commercial off-the-shelf workstations. Instructors using the system indicate that
it is meeting its training design goals, and that it is significantly more
effective than the earlier design. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. EFFECTIVENESS
OF FLIGHT SIMULATION IN TRAINING KC-10 PILOTS IN RECEIVER REFUELING McDonnell Douglas
Training Systems, Inc. This
study examines the transfer of training for pilots from the simulator to the
aircraft for the task of receiver refueling.
Receiver refueling requires the receiver pilot to position the
aircraft behind the tanker aircraft and maintain the position while taking on
fuel. This task is trained in the
KC-10 flight simulator (six degree-freedom of motion system and day/dusk/night
computer generated image visual system) during Pilot Initial Qualification
and Refresher training. The
investigation used student performance scores from both the simulator and
aircraft for like conditions. Pilots
completed critiques containing questions regarding the fidelity and usability
of the simulator visual and motion system as compared to the actual aircraft
and real-world refueling environment.
The results showed a positive transfer of training with implications
for the training of air refueling and the configuration of training devices. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. LEARNING
THEORY ANALYSIS DIRECTED AT ENHANCING INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT AND
IMPROVING PILOT SITUATION AWARENESS SKILLS TRAINING Clifford J. Craft,
Ph.D. Jeffrey D. Koehler Northrop Corporation A
pilot’s job is likened to a systems manager whose tasks involve flight path
control, system operation, and situation management–which encompasses the
“what and when to do it” aspects of mission performance vs. the
rule-following and procedural “how to do it” aspects of flying. Situation management (SM) skills consist
of the situation awareness, judgment, and decision-making attributes of the
pilot. Several complex cognitive
processes, such as selective attention skills, cognitive style, and analogical
reasoning, are significant variables in the SM decision process. This paper also discusses an approach
based on learning theory and mediated learning experiences, and describes a
set of guidelines which focus on the application of learning theory principles
within the Instructional Systems Development (ISD) planning process. This improvement in the ISD process will
lead to more effective approaches to front-end analysis and the training of
complex cognitive skills which may include using low-cost simulation training
devices. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. IMPLEMENTATION
AND MANAGEMENT OF A TRAINER
SYSTEM SUPPORT CENTER (TSSC) Steven R. Prince James R. Smith AAI Corporation Software Support Upon
delivery of an integrated computer system, the next task is to ensure it is
successfully utilized to its fullest capabilities. A Trainer System Support Center (TSSC) that encompasses
multiple functions directly related to the life cycle of the trainer system
provides the means for achieving this.
A TSSC provides system engineering of organic hardware and software
modifications, database generation and updates, documentation generation and
maintenance, and overall configuration management of design changes and
operational performance. When
implemented properly, this can be accomplished without impacting training or
operational capabilities. As
the heart of an operational system, the TSSC serves as an excellent
management/control device. A
management information system, contained with the TSSC, cal efficiently
process information to all cognizant personnel of a system, fulfilling a
critical need. Configuration
management and tracking capabilities within the TSSC are essential to
ensuring the system is reliable, maintainable, and supportable. This
paper will discuss methods for analyzing a system’s requirements and existing
resources; adapting these resources for implementing a TSSC; selecting
additional TSSC resources to suit the specific requirements of the system;
actually implementing the TSSC; utilizing the TSSC for maintenance and
operational tasks and utilizing the TSSC management and information
processing capabilities. Specific
TSSC implementations will be cited as well as unique requirements and lessons
learned in these implementations. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. AUTHORING INSTRUCTIONAL
MATERIALS (AIM) PROGRAM– AN
APPROACH TO EFFICIENT PRODUCTION AND LIFE-CYCLE MAINTENANCE SUPPORT OF
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS Timothy L. Tate AmSEC Jerry L. Vogt NPRDC AIM
(Authoring Instructional Materials) is an R&D project to automate the
design, development and maintenance of instructional materials. It is being conducted by Navy Personnel
Research and Development Center (NPRDC) and sponsored by OP-01. The initial software tools have been
developed using rapid prototyping techniques in close conjunction with, and
are being used by, a number of Navy training activities. The tools were intended for use by subject
matter experts to make the curriculum development process more efficient and
to standardize the products. They
provide the “proof of concept” necessary for funding support for development
of fully documented and supported software tools. The software programs support the Navy’s “single standard” for
curriculum development (MIL-STD 1379C) and thus decrease the expertise needed
to develop the management documentation supporting the development
process. AIM software is being
developed to the standards in CALS (Computer-aided Acquisition and Logistics
Support), the DOD-wide initiative to acquire technical information in
electronic form. AIM
is . . .. ·
an
R & D project to automate curriculum development for the Navy ·
conducted
by NPRDC and sponsored by OP-01 ·
designed
using rapid prototype techniques in conjunction with Navy users ·
supporting
the Navy single standard for curriculum development (MIL-STD-1379C and
MIL-HDBK292) ·
standardizing
the products and making curriculum development more efficient and effective ·
designed
to comply with DOD CALS standards ·
being
used by subject matter and educational experts for both text and graphics
materials ·
is
being strengthened to provide fully documented and supported software with
additional capabilities which will support full scale navy implementation This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. LIFE-CYCLE SUPPORT FOR
MODERN TRAINNG SYSTEMS Brian J. Williams Burtek Combat
readiness during the next decade will be, to a large extent, dependent on the
effectiveness of the training systems that are developed to support
front-line personnel. As training
fidelity continues to improve as state-of-the-art computer, visual and motion
systems are incorporated, their full potential will only be realized with
efficient maintenance and support over the full in-service life of the
equipment, which can be as long as twenty years, or more. Today’s training systems comprise a high
percentage of commercial off-the-shelf equipment, which necessitates a
different approach to the way logistic support is developed for the
system. In order to remain
competitive and to provide the necessary levels of support demanded by the
high availability requirements of today’s training systems, the prime
equipment supplier must not only exploit the latest technology developments
to provide the degree of reliability and maintainability required, but the
supplier must also guarantee economical support for the lifetime of the equipment. This
paper discusses developments in methods that should be considered to provide
cost-effective and low-risk support of modern training systems, and presents
the results of life-cycle cost analyses that were performed to examine the
cost benefits of a novel support concept. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. WARFIGHTING WITH SIMNET–A
REPORT FROM THE FRONT Lt Col (P) Jack A.
Thorpe, USAF (Ph.D.) Program Manager,
Information Science and Technology Office Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Advances
in simulation technology enable the military capability of producing high tech/low
cost simulators which can be connected or “plugged” into local area networks
and long haul networks to allow combat teams in ground, air and sea vehicles
to fight force-on-force in a graphically real time simulated world. It is now possible to determine to what
degree this simulated warfighting relates to real world warfighting. Can soldiers who become proficient in the
combat world created by large scale simulated networking (SIMNET being the
most developed example) use those skills to fight and win in combat? Does SIMNET improve the performance of
operational forces in critical, front line, and warfighting skills? Does SIMNET train commanders to organize
and control activities on the battlefield critical to successful
warfighting? How effective is this
technology in testing new weapons systems before they are prototyped? This paper synopsizes data collected over
the past year as well as projections for the future exploitation of SIMNET
technology. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. C3I
TRAINING–THE FIGHTING EDGE Peter Bonanni BMH Associates J. C. Williams BBN Systems and
Technologies Corporation Simulation and
Training Systems Division Command,
Control, Communications and Intelligence (C3I) elements play the leading role
in Airland Battle engagement doctrine.
These elements will provide synchronization of forces and are the key
to victory. Training to accomplish
effective synchronization of diverse force elements is the challenge. This paper will describe how technology in
the form of distributed networked simulation can open the door to superior
C3I Training. With this technology,
crucial C3I skills can be practiced and the strengths and limitations of
diverse forces and how to employ them on the modern battlefield for mission
effectiveness can be learned.
Technology applications involving long-haul networks simulated intelligent
forces and interactive simulators have made possible robust training
environments, which permit daily peacetime practice of C3I procedures. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. THE APPLICATION OF AERIAL
PHOTOGRAPHY AND SATELLITE
IMAGERY TO FLIGHT SIMULATION Dr. Richard Economy,
John R. Ellis and Robert L. Ferguson General Electric
Company Simulation and Control
Systems Department Photographic
texture has been a feature of Computer Image Generators for several
years. When applied to models such as
aircraft, trees and buildings, photographic texture has produced extremely
realistic results. Current methods of
applying texture to the terrain surface of a simulator data base use either
synthetic or self-repeating photographic texture patterns, nei8ther of which
produce the same degree of realism as that achieved with photo-textured
models. This
paper describes techniques, which have been developed to apply real imagery,
either from aerial photographs or satellite data, to the terrain surface of a
simulator database. A database, with
extensive photo texturing, has been built to demonstrate the results. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. SCENE REALISM–THE SYNERGY
OF DATA BASE TECHNOLOGY AND
CIG HARDWARE Howard Wilkerson Thomas C. Brown Evans & Sutherland
Computer Corporation Simulation Division Combat
readiness training for pilots in the next decade requires realistic
computer-image-generator (CIG) scenes that are correlatable to large
real-world gaming areas. Major
advances in hardware texture, memory, and polygon capacities by themselves
are insufficient to sustain the desired increases in training
effectiveness. Innovative data base
technologies can leverage improvements in hardware capacity, architecture,
and algorithms. This
paper describes how this synergy of software and hardware is achieved in
current CIG technology. The
availability of many thousands of texture maps makes possible the use of
high-resolution, remotely sensed image data to create Geo-Specific texture
over the entire gaming area. This
textured terrain has much higher fidelity because it contains small-scale
feature elements that correspond to real-world object. Geo-Specific texture reduces the number of
required ground polygons, which then permits increased density of
three-dimensional polygonal features.
The powerful data base compression techniques of instancing, previously
somewhat restricted in application mainly to terrain polygons and cultural
objects, is now extended (with an enhanced hardware architecture) to the
application of Geo-Specific texture with smooth shading. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. VISUAL SIMULATION
UTILIZING COMPUTER– RECONSTRUCTED
IMAGES FROM SCENE PHOTOGRAPHS Werner Kraemer, Staff
Scientist Thomas Moberg, System
Engineering Manager Link Flight Simulation
Corporation The
subject of this paper is a new visual system technology, which is based on
advances in image processing hardware and an innovative database
methodology. The system is designed
to reconstruct interactive images from digitized real-world photographs
utilizing a data-driven architecture and innovative algorithms, which generate
the database. The technique uses
digital terrain data and image classification to generate a range-encoded
image database. The digitized image
and the range overlay form a database with the quality of a full-color
digitized scene and the advantage of a pixel-by-pixel range. Such a data structure allows real-time
simulation of atmospheric conditions and insertion of special effects as a
function of range, and infrared sensor transformation as a function of both
range and image class, such as trees, meadows, houses, water, sky, etc. The results of an implementation of this
method are presented in a sequence of photographs taken from the display
monitor of a real-time system. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. GRAPHIC
APPROACHES TO PROCEDURAL TRAINING Frank A. Capuzzi,
Ph.D. Ford Aerospace
Corporation As
graphics production capabilities grow in sophistication, basic questions
about the use of graphics in CBT, especially in procedural training, remain
unanswered. This is particularly
critical in large-scale CBT efforts, in which the appropriate use of graphics
has an important role to play in the success or failure of a course. Specifically, what is the “best” way to
apply graphics in a mixed training environment, in which CBT supports, and to
some extent controls, electronic simulations? What are the underlying principles to guide graphics design and
development, and how can they be applied independently of the production
system? In the CBT project discussed
in this paper, some components of the real equipment proved to expensive to
reproduce for training purposes. When
components cannot be represented by the simulator at all, they must be
trained exclusively through CBT. The
challenge has been to devise a graphics approach adequate to meet these
varied requirements. This paper reviews
the critical issues facing instructional and graphic designers in this and similar
training situation. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. INCREASING
THE INSTRUCTIONAL AND COST EFFECTIVENESS OF COMPUTER-BASED TRAINING BY
GROUPING STUDENTS Theodore M. Shlechter,
Ph.D. U.S. Army Research
Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences USARI Field Unit-Fort
Knox David Mudrick Ford Aerospace
Corporation Computer-based
training, already well established as a means to improve primary training
while reducing its overall costs, may be made significantly more cost
effective by training students in small groups of two to four at a terminal
rather than one per terminal. In
studies performed at Fort Knox’s Training Technology Field Activity, grouping
led to better retention, better training of low ability students, decreased
times for completion of training, and reduced instructor/proctor
intervention, without any reduction in achievement. Grouping can relieve scheduling difficulties when terminals are
limited. Grouping can help instructors
deal with high ability students, who help their peers instead of finishing
early and making further military training, for both acquisition and
sustainment training. Special
preparation of materials or student assignments is not required. Therefore, grouping can be applied
immediately to existing training systems. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. COST
ESTIMATING ALGORITHM FOR COURSEWARE (CEAC) Ralph E. Schooley Space Applications
Corporation A
Computer-Based Training (CBT) Cost Estimating Algorithm for Courseware (CEAC)
is described. CBYT CEAC is comprised
of an input parameter, a database, and a calculation component. CBT CEAC’s database is comprised of a
table of values for the number of hours of development time per hour of
delivery time for each functional mode to be employed by productivity tool
class. Delivery time and productivity
tool class is determined by ancillary procedures, the form of which is
discussed from an approach perspective only.
The database contains cornerstone values. Other database elements were extrapolated using a productivity
model. The basis of this model is
presented. CBY CEAC’s calculation
component derives the total development time and price through interaction
with the other components. CBY CEAC
estimates are compared to project actuals.
Practical applications of CBT CEAC are noted. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. PLANNING
THE SPACE STATION TRAINING FACILITY Ankur R. Hajare MITRE As
part of the Space Station Program, the Space Station Training Facility (SSTF)
will be built at NASA Johnson Space Center at Houston, Texas. The SSTF will be the primary facility for
training Space Station astronauts and it will also support training of ground
systems personnel. It will contain a
number of trainers of different types as well as systems to develop and test
the trainers, and to efficiently operate and manage all resources within the
SSTF. In a987 a project team was
organized to develop operational concepts, functional requirements and a
conceptual design for the SSTF. The
project team is organized as a number of working groups directed by a
steering committee. There are two
tiers of working groups: tactical working groups and operational working
groups. Their activities are
described here. A baseline
configuration has been formulated for the SSTF and is described here. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. THE IMPACT OF
REQUIREMENTS AND CONSTRAINTS ON
TOTAL TRAINING SYSTEM DESIGN– “WHY
NOT PLAY WITH A FULL DECK?” Robert A. Bragaw SIMTEC, Inc. Lt. Col. Hans C.
Heinrich Chief, Operations
Division Air Force Institute of
Technology Wright-Patterson Air
Force Base The
management of a training systems is not limited to the development,
implementation, and operation of courseware, equipment, and personnel. For a training program to achieve
cost-effective performance that makes a measurable contribution toward
mission readiness, it is necessary that the total training system be designed
to accomplish that objective. It is
the nature of the instructional development processes used within the
Department of Defense that identified requirements and constraints form the
boundaries around the design of instructional programs. There is no specified process for
examination of the total training system design nor are there established
total training system performance criteria.
In addition to the efficiencies gained by the application of modern
instructional technologies, there is also a need to examine the potential for
improvement in the total system design.
Application of the concept discussed could result in better design
accountability and more cost-effective and mission effective training systems. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. ELIMINATING
FORCED TECHNOLOGY IN MILITARY TRAINING SYSTEMS– A
CONCEPTUAL MODEL Dr. Judy A. Oneal Oneal Brooks
Associates This
paper presents a conceptual model for determining functional training
requirements for training systems and for basing training system fidelity
decisions on these requirements. The
objective of this model is to provide a means of eliminating forced
technology in military training systems by insuring that training systems
employ only the minimum level of technology needed to impart the skills
required for job performance. This
topic is particularly timely given recent emphasis within the Department of
Defense (DOD) and Congress on simulator performance and procurement
practices. We are posing a very
fundamental question: how well are simulators performing their essential training
missions? At the same time, the services face severe requirements to justify
costly training system procurements.
Justification must be based on strict definition of training
requirements and identification of the minimum level of technology essential
to meet those requirements. The model
presented in this paper is aimed at providing that information to the
training systems acquisition and development community. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. “PARTS ARE PARTS” A
PERSPECTIVE ON THE PROBLEMS OF MAINTAINING THE
HUMAN COMPONENT OF ADVANCED WEAPON SYSTEMS Ronald G. Hughes,
Ph.D. Engineering and
Training Simulation Department McDonnell Douglas
Helicopter Company The
MANPRINT concept directs that training and human performance considerations
be addressed from the very outset of weapon system design. Although for many current and projected
weapon systems total system performance varies directly with the quality of
operator training, training and its associated costs are rarely considered on
a par with other system variables affecting system reliability, availability,
and maintainability. The present
paper argues that man should be objectively viewed as only one of many
alternative engineering solutions; that the capabilities of man (especially
the ability to maintain/sustain those capabilities over time) must be
thoroughly understood during engineering design; and that the full range of
costs associated with the procurement (selection), development (initial
training) and maintenance (continuation/sustainment training) of the human
component be identified. The paper
argues that the very decision to include man in the overall system design
must be seriously questioned, especially when data clearly point to an
inability to sustain effective operator performance over time. The paper suggests that training conducted
for the purpose of sustaining operator proficiency can be usefully
conceptualized as a system maintenance function performed in order to
maintain system readiness. In
essence, the present paper argues that MANPRINT will succeed only when we
adopt the position that “parts are parts,” that is to say, when we treat the
human component as no different in principle from any other component part of
the system. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL
FIDELITY IN TRAINING SYSTEMS ACQUISITION James R. Stonge Senior Instructional
Systems Engineer Grumman
Display/Trainer Products In
training system design and acquisition, some aspect of the procurement
addresses the fidelity of the training system. Normally, physical fidelity is the sole concern, although some
of the more sophisticated designs and acquisitions have also looked at the
concept of functional fidelity as being equal to or greater than that of
physical fidelity. This emphasis on
functional fidelity to two-dimensional simulation of the three-dimensional
systems. Experience has demonstrated,
however, that regardless of the quality of both physical and functional
fidelities, a substantial number of training systems are unused,
unappreciated, and unsuccessful for their planned training mission. This paper identifies a missing ingredient
in the study of training system fidelity, that of psychological
fidelity. Whereas physical fidelity
has to do with how closely something looks like the real thing, and
functional has to do with how well it acts like the real thing, psychological
has to do with how well it is perceived to train like the real thing. While related to user acceptance,
psychological fidelity is the environmental perception of the learner, not
the instructor. Users forget that
they are in training, and learn as if working with actual equipment. The elements associated with psychological
fidelity are identified.
Relationships between psychological fidelity and both physical and
functional fidelity are specified.
Directions for including psychological fidelity elements during the
fidelity analysis process are provided.
Finally, recommendations are given for a methodology for incorporating
psychological fidelity in training system acquisition in the next decade. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. THE
EFFECTS OF FIELD-OF-VIEW ON PILOT PERFORMANCE IN
THE C-130 WST 1st Lt.
Kevin W. Dixon Elizabeth L. Martin,
Ph.D. 2d Lt. Victoria A.
Rojas David C. Hubbard,
Ph.D., UDRI Air Force Human
Resources Laboratory Williams Air Force
Base In
order to provide a cost-effective simulator training environment, a number of
variables must be optimized to meet training requirements with minimum
cost. One such variable is the
field-of-view (FOV) of the visual display.
This study investigated the effect of field-of-view on pilot
performance for low level flight and an airdrop in the C-130 weapon system
trainer. The study was performed
using two different field-of-view configurations. The conditions were wide field-of-view that used all six
windows to provide a 160 H by 35 V visual field and a limited field-of-view
that used the forward four windows to provide a 102 H by 35 V visual field
from the left seat (pilot’s). The
tasks chosen by subject matter experts for the study were thought to be those
most likely to require information from the peripheral windows. Automated pilot performance measures and
eye position data were collected throughout the study. Twelve experienced C-130 pilots performed
four trials over two different routes under both field-of-view
conditions. The pilot performance
data showed no strong or consistent effects due to the field-of-view
manipulation. The eye position data
revealed an increased use of the front window and instruments in the limited
field-of-view condition and a decreased use of the window to the left of the
pilot. The study shows that the
peripheral windows may not be required for experienced pilots, but if present
are used, and if absent, alter visual behavior. Based on the results of the study, a preliminary conclusion
would be to provide a wide FOV when the training objectives include tasks
that use a large amount of peripheral information. Before any final conclusions can be reached regarding
field-of-view requirements, the use of the windows from the copilots position
should be addressed, as well as the value for skill acquisition for less
experienced pilots. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. LOW COST VISUAL FLIGHT
SIMULATOR TESTBED Thomas M. Longridge John A. Dohme U.S. Army Research
Institute Aviation R & D
Activity A
testbed program for the evaluation of low cost flight simulator image
generation systems is described, which employs a pragmatic approach based on
simulator to aircraft transfer of training within the formal curricula for
institutional flight instruction. The
results of the first research study with this testbed, utilizing an image
generation source which can reasonably be considered to represent a starting
point along the low cost continuum, are presented. The results were encouraging with respect to positive transfer
of training achievable with low cost technology. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. IMAGE GENERATION FOR
ROTARY WING APPLICATIONS Fred Bondzeit Robert E. Edwards McDonnell Douglas
Helicopter Company Engineering and
Training Simulation Department Historically,
computer image generators used in flight simulation have been designed for
fixed wing applications. The typical
fixed wing simulator is used for either traffic pattern, cross-country,
formation, air intercept, or ground attack training. Except when taking off and landing, most
flying takes place at relatively high altitudes. Even high speed nap-of-earth flight; minimum simulated
altitudes are several hundred feet AGL.
The typical rotorcraft flies at altitudes are several feet AGL. The attack helicopter remains below
treetop level for a good part of its mission. At these altitudes, at night, or in adverse weather, the
problem of simulating visual and sensor imagery becomes difficult. Due to the close proximity of the terrain,
culture, vegetation and moving objects (threats, weapons, friendlies), the
nature of required image generator calculations changes and becomes
increasingly complex. Written
from the user’s standpoint, this paper discusses image generator system
requirements for rotary wing vs. fixed wing applications. Typical unique problems presented by
rotary wing simulation are the need for richness in the surrounding
out-the-window (near) visual scene, coupled with the need to acquire and
combat threats at great distances (15-20 kilometers) via sensors. High fidelity collision/crash detection
models for mask/unmask operations in close quarters are required. A high fidelity landing gear model, to
provide height-above-terrain indications on uneven surfaces, must be
provided. These
and other specific topics are presented, with a focus on limitations in the
currently available image generation technology. Also discussed are current and future improvements, which must
be made in support of ever more complex rotorcraft missions. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. DEVELOPING
TROUBLESHOOTING EXPERTISE THROUGH INTELLIGENT COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION Thomas G. Holzman,
Ph.D. Lockheed Aeronautical
Systems Company The
present research and development study explores new techniques for developing
the aircraft troubleshooting generalists demanded for both
turn-of-the-century combat effectiveness and peacetime cost-control. An economical, computer-based
apprenticeship program is being developed that uses artificial intelligence
to provide the benefits of individual tutoring and expert-guided practice of
newly developing skills. The
computer realistically depicts both aircraft equipment and flightline
maintenance aids during troubleshooting simulations to improve transfer of
training from the classroom to the job.
Rigorous front-end analyses guided the instructional design. These analyses revealed commonalties in
equipment and troubleshooting procedures across different aircraft systems,
which form the focus of the skill generalization training. Likewise, distinguishing characteristics
of expert troubleshooters were identified and targeted as training
outcomes. Finally, a theoretical
framework has been developed to guide further efforts for improving
generalized maintenance problem solving skills. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. KNOWLEDGE-BASED
TECHNOLOGY FOR TRAINING SYSTEMS Dr. Matt Narotam Mr. Gary Hassett Burtek Expert
systems can potentially be used to reduce the cost of building and
maintaining training systems. As
expert system technology has grown, several tools have become available for
building expert systems. The tools
are hosted on low-cost workstations or personal computers and provide varying
degrees of sophistication for user interface and knowledge representation. Before,
we can rush out and mass-produce useful expert systems, factors that impact
the development of expert systems must be investigated. Some of these factors include determining
the steps involved in the knowledge engineering process, the qualification
criteria for knowledge engineers, performance and limitations of tools
available for developing the knowledge-based systems, and development of
strategies for integrating the expert systems in the engineering or produce
environment. These issues are
nontrivial and numerous. This
paper begins to attack the problem by presenting experience gained and
lessons learned from a project that involved building an expert system. The objective of the project was to focus
on issues relating to the knowledge engineering process, especially that of
knowledge retrieval. Therefore, the
expert system was developed to solve a relatively simple problem–determine
the cause of the malfunction of a modem system. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. IF
THEY ARE SUCH GOOD IDEAS, WHY AREN’T THERE MORE OF THEM? William B. Johnson Principal Scientist Search Technology,
Inc. Intelligent
Tutoring Systems (ITSs) have emerged as a potential enhancement to training
for the military, industry, business, and schools. While the ITS concept sounds good, the transition from
laboratories to training centers has been slow. However, changes in software, hardware, and development
approaches are making it possible to develop and deliver ITSs in a relatively
short time using a reasonable amount of personnel and fiscal resources. An example of one such system is
Microcomputer Intelligence for Technical Training (MITT). MITT, developed for the Air Force Human
Resources Laboratory in cooperation with the NASA Johnson Space Center,
provides intelligent tutoring on the diagnosis of problems with the space
shuttle fuel cell system. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. BEST COMMERCIAL PRACTICES
IN ENGINEERING DATA FOR
AIR FORCE TRAINING SYSTEMS Bruce J. Brooker Staff Engineering Data
Management Specialist Training Systems
System Program Office Deputy for Engineering Aeronautical Systems
Division Wright-Patterson Air
Force Base This
paper will discuss the Training Systems System Program Office (SPO)(ASD/YW)
in-process revolution in the procurement of engineering data for Air Force
training systems with Contractor Logistic Support (CLS) and Total Contractor
Training (TCT) concepts. On 7 May
1985, the Air Force directed CLS for its training systems through Program
Management Directive (PMD) entitled “Phase-out of the Aircrew/Missile
Training Device Career Field (AFSC 341XX).”
This PMD was the result of an Air Force study of the June 1982,
conversion of Navy training programs to CLS. (1) Prior
to 7 May 1985, the Training Systems SPO contractually applied engineering
data military standards onto training system design/integrating
contractors. Military standard
developed engineering data was the requirement of Air Force Logistics Command
(AFLC) personnel, at the Air Logistics Center (ALC), as they performed all
support tasks (such as logistics, configuration management, operations,
maintenance, parts control, modifications, the reprocurement/remanufacture of
replacement hardware and spare parts through recompetition) for the training
systems service life, upon Program Management Responsibility Transfer (PMRT)
from the Training Systems SPO. (2) After
7 May 1985, the PMD directed the assignment of many of these support tasks
onto the contractor. Training Systems
SPO acquisition contracts were to reflect provisions which made the CLS
contractor responsible and liable for its support tasks performance. Yet AFLC still maintains its requirement
for military standards in engineering data.
Training Systems SPO personnel and contractor counterparts express
their support for replacing engineering data military standards with Best
Commercial Practices. Additionally,
the need to reduce the application of military standards is Objective 13 of
the “Final Report, Simulator Cost and Leadtime Study.” This
paper will review the Training Systems SPO engineering data procurement practices,
prior to and after the 7 May 1985, PMD and current discussions concerning
military standards versus Best Commercial Practices. This paper determines which is the valid
requirement and then discloses the in-process revolution occurring in
Training Systems SPO engineering data procurement practices. This paper will then summarize and provide
an example of the future Training Systems SPO engineering data procurement
practices. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. I/ITSC PAPER SUBMISSION
TITLE CATEGORY– MANAGEMENT
DEVELOPMENT OF A GENERIC SPECIFICATION FOR AIRCREW SIMULATORS Joseph T. Cianfrani Naval Air Systems
Command This
is the era of acquisition streamlining, budget reductions, and increased
emphasis on government efficiency.
The need for one specification to embody all aircrew simulator
requirements is a prominent goal to achieve these ends. It is needed and has been tried before
but, thus far, has met with limited success.
In December 1986, the Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR), PMA-205,
responsible for procurement of all aircraft simulators, undertook this goal
once again. This
paper will present these generic specification efforts in three parts, the
first of whish is PMA-205’s initial philosophy of why the need to go to a
generic system/segment specification (an “A” spec). Based on this need PMA-205 formulated the “A” spec, issued it
through a Commerce Business Daily (CBD) announcement to one hundred and
thirty-five companies, and reviewed their responses. This
brings us to the second part of the paper: industry’s comments and reactions
to the draft specification that were requested in the CBD announcement. The replies from industry were received
and a summary of these comments will be provided, with the more advanced
concepts being discussed in detail. Subsequent
to industry’s response, discussions between the Naval Training Systems Center
and NAVAIR transpired. NTSC provided
PMA-205 with the idea of a slightly more detailed “A” specification; hence,
and “A+” or a “B-“ (less detailed B) type spec. With these innovations, NAVAIR arrived at what is the final
section of this paper: The “A” Spec’s evolution into a “modified” development
specification. As part of this final
section, a detailed discussion will be provided on trade-off approaches in
such areas as motion, visual, and computer systems, and uniting the
requirements analysis with the specification. This
paper will compare the specification streamlining that was evoked to previous
specifications, and the approach PMA-205 expects contractors to use in
responding to future Requests For Proposals. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. NEW
IDF TRAINING MIL STANDARD FOR COST
EFFECTIVE TRAINING CHOICES Avi Kedem, Manager Training R & D Israel Aircraft
Industries Training Plan Ben Gurion Airport Dr. Johnathan
Smilansky, Director Assessment, Training
and Development Practice Hay Management
Consultants Shimon Weiss Training R & D Israel Aircraft
Industries Training Plan Ben Gurion Airport This
presentation will describe a new training MIL STANDARD used by the Israeli
Defense Forces (IDF) to enable accurate specification of operator and
maintenance-training requirements related to new weapon systems acquisitions. Previous
attempts to use the ISD approach as in the MIL STANDARD 1379 proved extremely
cumbersome and did not enable the IDF to receive high quality training
programs and training aids. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. APPLICATION OF EMERGING
TECHNOLOGIES TO INCREASE SHIPBOARD
TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS Craig R. Bradenbaugh Gerald R. Pech AAI Corporation Historically,
Naval combat training has been provided in classrooms, shore-based simulators
and via at-sea exercises. Advances in
miniaturization and performance of computing and simulation equipment have,
in recent years, opened doors to realistic and cost-effective pierside, onboard
and embedded training for combat system teams on individual ships and groups
of ships, potentially to the battle force level. Simulation-driven shipboard training is now and integral
element in the entire combat training continuum. Enhancements to shipboard combat system team training capability
over the next decade will occur in two areas: (1) embedded, OBT and pierside trainers will become smaller,
more capable and less expensive, and (2) practical interfaces will be
developed to integrate the various trainer types for combined use. Pierside trainers need to interface to
more types of sensors and they need to be made smaller simpler and faster to
hood up for training, and require less pierside equipment such as the large
vans. OBT devices planned for ship
installation can be integrated with the pierside or embedded trainer system
scenarios to play to the entire combat system. Sensors with embedded training capability can also be
integrated with the scenario driven by pierside systems. Industry needs to utilize its
technological base to optimize the trade-off between cost, space, weight,
maintainability, and usability so that mission-specific training scenarios
and evaluation can be presented to entire combat teams on the maximum
possible number of US Navy ships.
Through the combined efforts of Government and industry, technological
advances can be turned into the tools we need to provide the surface Navy
with the best combat systems training ever. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. TRAINING EVALUATION DATA
COLLECTION Mark W. Coe Coe-Truman
Technologies, Inc. Robert Riggins U.S. Army Construction
Engineering Research Laboratory Interstate Research
Park The
acquisition of training evaluation data for inclusion in the Army’s
Integrated Training Management System (ITMS) generates great challenges. The nature and scope of the Army’s
training domain place new stresses on field acquisition devices. The volume of training data generated from
squad level up and its importance within ITMS dictate that an automated
acquisiton solution must be found.
Barcode scanning and voice recognition technologies are examined as
non-computational or “acquisition-only” field devices and are found to
provide advantages for many types of training activity, from garrison to
National Training Center. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. A
UNIQUE SOLUTION FOR TRAINING AIR REFUELING TASKS IN AN OFT David J. Kramer Reflectone, Inc. Upon
initiating the recent procurement of a new OFT for a Navy tactical aircraft,
NTSC was faced with a design problem: how to position the wide field-of-view
day visual system in order to provide effective training for
ground-referenced aircraft operations (takeoff, landing, enroute navigation,
maneuvering flight, spin recovery) and also provide training in air
refueling. The trainer’s manufacturer
developed a unique solution: install the trainee station cockpit on a
separate buffet platform capable of operation at two different pitch
attitudes, and mount the buffet platform on the motion base along with, but
separate from, the visual system.
Using this design, most flight training activities are conducted with
both the motion base and the buffet platform oriented horizontally. For air refueling training, the buffet
platform is pitched 10 degrees nose down while the motion base is pitched 10
degrees nose up, thereby repositioning the visual field-of-view along the
cockpit centerline 10 degrees upward.
Not only does this arrangement provide effective field-of view
coverage for all training tasks, but it substantially reduces the vibration
stress on the display components of the visual system by isolating them from
the high-frequency vibration and buffet cues which are now applied only to
the cockpit. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. AN ANALYSIS OF TWO ROTOR
DYNAMIC MODELING METHODS FOR
FLIGHT SIMULATION H. L. Jeffords and
Howard Landmann Reflectone, Inc. Today
there is several methods available to model helicopter rotor dynamics. The question facing helicopter simulator
users is which of these methods will provide the fidelity he requires and at
what cost? Fidelity us defined as the
ability of the simulator model to reproduce the response of the aircraft
throughout the flight envelope. Cost
can be broken down into three categories: 1) data required supporting the
model. 2) Computer speed and memory to execute the model in real time, and 3)
ease in which modifications can be made to the model in order to match
flight-test data. The purpose of this
paper is to compare fidelity and cost of two methods of rotor dynamic
modeling currently available: The Wheatley Bailey approach extended to
include blade dynamics, and a Blade Element approach. Wheatley Bailey makes numerous simplifying
assumptions to allow closed form integration of the blade motion, forces, and
moments. The blade element approach
solves the same equations but reduces the number of assumptions necessary to
do so. It accomplishes this by
dividing the blade up into several segments, “elements”, solving the forces
and moments on each segment for several azimuthal positions around the disc
and then sums all segments at all azimuths.
The blade element approach includes non-linear inertial and
aerodynamic effects applicable to high inflow rations and large blade angles. The comparison of these two methods is one
of a complex equation solved once per revolution to a simple equation solved
hundreds of times per revolution. Performance
tests were run using the Sikorsky SH-60F helicopter criteria data in order to
establish the major advantages and disadvantages of the two methods, and how
each model can be best applied based on the customer requirements. Performance test results are shown for
trim level flight, climbs, descents, and control power. This paper is available
on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. DETERMINATION OF
HELICOPTER SIMULATOR TIME DELAY AND
ITS EFFECTS ON AIR VEHICLE DEVELOPMENT John Woltkamp, Member
Technical Staff S. Ramachandran,
Ph.D., Chief Division Engineer Roger Branson, Section
Manager McDonnell Douglas
Helicopter Company McDonnell
Douglas Helicopter Company recently undertook a study to determine the actual
simulator hardware time delay in all the simulators. It also investigated the effect of time
delay on pilot performance and his aircraft evaluation in an engineering
design environment. This paper
describes the system architecture, techniques of measuring thruput delays,
and initial study results. The
average simulator delay was 87 milliseconds for the simulator with
conventional flight control with the host computer running at 60 Hz. The average simulator delay was 101
milliseconds for the simulator with digital flight control system with the
real time host executing at 30 Hz.
The first value is less than those reported in the open literature for
most of the engineering and training simulators while the second value is on
par with the state-of-the-art systems in the industry. The second phase of the study involved
systematically varying the simulator delays. Thus, data on the effect of time
delay could be collected and used as a useful parameter in aircraft/simulator
delays so that data on the effect of time delay could be collected and used
as a useful parameter in aircraft/simulator design. Pilot performance was recorded and subjective evaluations in
the form of Cooper-Harper ratings were also obtained. Analysis of pilot performance did not
provide any dramatic changes due to increased simulator delays but did show
that the pilot control activity increased in the low speed, high gain tasks. It was found that with increased time
delay the Cooper-Harper rating increased indicating degradation in perceived
handling qualities. However, for the
type of helicopter simulated, there was not a definite time delay at which
the ratings changed abruptly. This
indicates that for engineering design purposes while it is desirable to keep
the delay to the absolute minimum, there may be sufficient flexibility in the
design of the simulator to permit cost/capability trade-offs. However, this needs to be further
validated by additional tests that introduce pilot distractions (such as
gusts) and force the pilot to increase his closed loop gain. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. A FLEXIBLE EXPERT SYSTEM
ARCHITECTURE FOR
TACTICAL TRAINERS Daniel I. Katcher Sanders, A Lockheed
Company Information Systems
Division Tactical
training devices, which range from operational equipment containing embedded
training software to large classroom team trainers, will be significantly
enhanced by the inclusion of expert systems that can ease the burdens on
instructors and increase both the quality and efficiency of training. To achieve these goals, we present a
multi-layered architecture for an expert system, which is suitable for both
smart (intelligent threat and assist) platforms and surrogate students, to
replace missing teams or team members.
The architecture consists of asynchronous levels of tactical rules,
which reflect layers of functional intelligence, and is naturally extensible
to more complex layers of intelligence, including coordination between
multiple platforms. The design was
driven by a need to better address in the expert system how humans plan and
react in uncertain and time-constrained environments. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. THREAT SIMULATION–A
COMPARISON OF TWO TECHNIQUES Nathaniel R. League Electronic Combat
Operations AAI Corporation In
an Electronic Warfare (EW) training environment it is necessary to model
threat raiders and weapons systems in order to set up specific training
missions. These threats react to the
student’s actions throughout the training session. This paper discusses what threat reactions are and why they are
required. The paper then presents two
different techniques for controlling the threat’s reactions to student
actions in a training environment.
One technique is more complex but offers greater flexibility. The other technique is more generic and
less complex for the user but offers less flexibility. The
first techniques use an interpretive language that allows the user to program
the reactions of each threat in the training environment. Examples of how this language is used to
program threats are given. With this
technique, the threats are completely flexible. However, in addition to understanding EW systems, the user must
be a capable programmer in order to properly code and debug the threats. The
second technique uses generic threat reaction algorithms. Examples of these reaction algorithms are
presented. This technique is less
flexible than the first technique because is has a limited number of
algorithms which are utilized repeatedly to simulate all of the threats in
the training environment. However,
the user need only fill in the blanks on a preprinted CRT display in order to
define the threat reaction decision data.
This technique requires that the user have a basic understanding of EW
systems. But, the user does not need
to be a programmer. The
two techniques are presented individually, then compared to highlight the
differences in cost, lines of code, memory and CPU time. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. EXPERT SYSTEM AND
INTERACTIVE VIDEODISC– A
POWERFUL COMBINATION Dennis C. Hribar,
Ed.D. Training Program Developer John A. DiDuro,
Logistic Engineer Newport News Shipbuilding Newport
News Shipbuilding (NNS) has integrated videodisc media with expert system
(ES) technology to create an innovative method for the delivery of submarine
maintenance information. NNS has
developed and ES entitled Scrubber, which supports Navy efforts to modernize
the distribution and use of technical information. Scrubber delivers maintenance information about the Carbon
Dioxide Scrubber via menus or interactive dialogue. This videodisc-based ES can be easily adapted to facilitate
maintenance and diagnostics of any complex piece of equipment or machinery. This paper is
available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM. Order it from
I/ITSEC’s Website. THE SEA KING MK 5 FULL
MISSION SIMULATOR FOR THE ROYAL NAVY PROCUREMENT, PRODUCTION AND PERFORMANCE
IN SERVICE Barry Fairhead,
Principal Scientific Officer Directorate of Avionic
Equipment & Systems Procurement Executive,
United Kingdom Ministry of Defense John Tickle, Business
Development Ferranti Computer Systems Ltd.< |