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COMBAT TRAINING–

THE NEXT FRONTIER OF AIR FORCE TRAINING TECHNOLOGY

Andrea J. Courtice, Maj., USAF

Deputy Director of Training System Development

Training Systems System Program Office

Wright-Patterson AFB

With the ongoing acceleration of significant advances in Soviet and Warsaw Pact nation warfighting technology, more and more reference is being made to the superior skill and capability of our warfighter as the force multiplier which will insure success in time of national emergency.  While a large body of historical data does suggest that our pilots and crewmembers have consistently met this challenge, the complexities of the combat task (regardless of arena or level of conflict) have consistently eluded the application of objectively based training methodologies such as the Instructional Systems Development (ISD) process.  Without such a systematic, comprehensive analysis of all required operational performance/training activity, modern and evolving training technologies cannot be economically and accurately applied, mediated training activity cannot be integrated into a training effective continuum, and training objectives cannot be related to actual mission readiness requirements.  More importantly, by these criteria, no training system in the Air Force today can objectively account for the combat needs of the warfighter and thereby be a reliable indicator and/or predictor of the warfighter’s ability to support national military objectives.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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EMBEDDED TRAINING–A VIABLE SOLUTION TO OPERATIONAL READINESS

Biagio B. Montello

Former Naval Training Systems Center Engineer

Surface Warfare Division

Andrew K. Indseth

Operation Intelligence Specialist

Naval Surface Warfare Center

U. S. Naval operational forces have recently documented serious concerns regarding reduced combat readiness.  Faced with an increasingly complex threat environment, technically advanced system capabilities, and steady decreases in training funds, fleet commanders are experiencing a widening gap between system capability and system performance which can be attributed to inadequate operator proficiency.

A potential solution to this problem is to provide Embedded Training aboard ship for the entire combat team.  The technology is here today and several current training systems demonstrate the achievability of full team embedded training.  These include Pierside Trainers stimulating operational combat systems aboard ship and the Aegis training Systems already embedded.

This paper presents a low cost low risk approach to provide a significant embedded training capability to improve fleet readiness near term and pace the way to provide shipboard combat team training through total embedded training.  The method presented capitalizes on Device 7B4 technology, scenario development capabilities, and will provide training for cryptologic/EW operators that provide critical information to decision makers that are responsible for posturing the entire battle group/defense force to counter an impending threat.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TEAMWORK FROM TEAM TRAINING–

NEW EVIDENCE FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF TEAMWORK SKILLS

DURING OPERATIONAL TRAINING

Albert S. Glickman and Robert M. McIntyre

Old Dominion University

Ben B. Morgan, Jr.

University of Central Florida

Eduardo Salas

Naval Training Systems Center

This study was a part of the program of cooperative research on team development and maturation involving the Center for Applied Psychology Studies of Old Dominion University and the Naval Training Systems Center, Orlando, Florida.  In an effort to understand the specific behavioral components comprising teamwork, 11 Combat Information Center teams in an Anti-Submarine Warfare School, ranked according to an independent final exam score, were observed over a week training period.  Team instructors served as the source of critical behavior data that were collected and analyzed.  Results of the behavioral analysis indicate that teamwork is behaviorally complex and evolves over time; that teamwork skills contribute to the relative success of teams; and that top-ranked teams display certain behavioral tendencies distinct from the lowest-ranked teams.  A sampling of the lessons learned from this research and recommendations for interventions to improve team performance and training are presented and discussed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A COMMON SENSE SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT AND MIGRATION PROCESS

Lynn C. Thompson

Engineering and Training Simulation Department

McDonnell Douglas Helicopter Company

Real Time software configuration control continues to be a problem area despite many guidelines, procedures, and regulations.  Software traceability is particularly frustrating throughout the development phase.  This paper will describe a “common sense” approach to software configuration management and a process of software migration during product development.  The concept is independent of languages, compilers, and machine implementation.

First, a general classification scheme is developed, and controlling mechanisms are discussed.  Second, the author defines a software development and migration process.  This discussion will include software engineering development, test and integration, and operational and baseline areas.  Next, this “common sense” approach will be related to MIL-STD 2167A.  And last, an implementation of the “common sense” approach with lessons learned is presented.

While details of implementation must be developed for a specific configuration, the concept provides for traceability and controlled development with few constraints on the individual software engineer, a logical migration of software to a deliverable product, and a high degree of confidence in having “what you think you have.”

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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FEASIBILITY OF A GRAPHICAL DESIGN FOR AN ADA SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT

Pamela S. Woodard  and William F. Parrish, Jr.

Naval Training Systems Center

The use of Ada for training system software requires that a greater emphasis be placed on the design phase of a software development.  The representation of an Ada design must provide a means to describe a variety of components such as packages, procedures, tasks and generics, and a means to specify the interconnection information between all components.  A graphical design methodology is a promising technique, which may offer an effective means to document an Ada design so that it can be quickly, and correctly understood by programmers, project engineers and program managers.  This paper describes the benefits of a graphical design and presents four methodologies that are beginning to be used to design training systems software.  Structured Analysis and Design Technique (SADT), Yourdon-DeMarco Structured Analysis and Design (YDSAD), Process Abstraction Method for Embedded Large Applications (PAMELA), and Object Oriented Design (OOD) are discussed.  Advantages and disadvantages of the various techniques with respect to total life cycle support are presented.  Factors such as ease of learning, ease of use, understandability, and automated support are given prime consideration.  Evaluation results are presented in tabular form.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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OBJECT-ORIENTED SYSTEMS DESIGN WITH LOGICAL CPU’s

Michael Ash

Staff Scientist

Link Flight Simulation Corporation

Until recently, object-oriented system design was used exclusively for software solutions.  However, logical continuity is difficult to maintain if software solutions are insulated from inflexible hardware architecture.  Cost/benefit constraints dictate that software topology should motivate the creation of an adaptable hardware environment.  For example, it is desirable to have an aggregate of physical CPUs (PCPUs) behave like a single logical CPU (LCPU).  Thus, varying performance requirements can be addressed with the same software design methodology applied to the unchanged, underlying hardware building blocks, and total system stability is achieved.  This paper examines how aspects of objected-oriented software methodology can be applied to underlying physical components, as well as software, so that a total system solution can be created.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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BASELINE CORRELATION MATRIX–

A MANAGEMENT TOOL THAT GOES THAT EXTRA MILE

John O. Smith

Chief Test and Deployment Management Division

Training Systems System Program Office

Wright-Patterson Air force Base

Baseline Correlation Matrix (BCM) is a fairly new program management tool in the acquisition business that provides traceability and comparison of the user’s requirements, developer’s specifications, and operational tester’s evaluation criteria.  Its primary purpose is to relate and align those requirements, specifications, and evaluation criteria to ensure orderly system development and test.  A major problem encountered in the test and evaluation arena has been the agreement on the parameters selected for test evaluation.  As an example, during the Initial Operational Test and Evaluation (IOTE) of the EF-111A Operational Flight Trainer (OFT), problems surfaced that obviously showed discontinuity on what the developer specified.  Because of this disconnect, the Training Systems System Program Office (SPO)(ASD/YW), Aeronautical Systems Division, Wright-Patterson AFB, researched the BCM concept and developed a process for application to our training system programs.  The paper will lie out the methodology used to apply the BCM to training system programs.  The areas of the BCM will be summarized with a short history and how it was developed.  The paper will discuss the approach and criteria used for selecting specific training programs for the BCM process and provide a guide for preparation and approval.  Future test management objectives of the Training Systems SPO using BCM techniques will be outlined.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SUPPORTABILITY DEMONSTRATION

A CLOSER LOOK

Russell Jones

Acquisition Logistics Resource Division Chief

Laura Price

Logistics Management Specialist

Training Systems System Program Office (ASD/YW)

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

In 1985, using the Contractor Logistics Support (CLS) concept, the Air Force decided to reallocate maintenance personnel to wartime jobs from organic training systems maintenance jobs.  The Air Force’s move to CLS was similar to the Navy’s earlier decision to transition to the CLS concept for maintenance of their training systems.  Under CLS, all maintenance traditionally performed by Air Force personnel at the training sites and at the depot were to be performed by contractors.  These contractors were responsible for total logistics support of the training devices.

Responding to using command needs, the Deputy for Training Systems, Directorate of Acquisition Logistics originated the supportability demonstration concept.  This acquisition activity was to serve, as a means for ensuring that/the contractor’s total support system would be able to meet the CLS challenge.

This paper presents a review of the original planning and an analysis of the role played by the supportability demonstration.  The authors present views of both opponents and proponents of the supportability demonstration activity.  Three simulator programs, each of which took a different approach to this issue, are presented as cases.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ASSESSING QUALITY OF TRAINING

William C. McDaniel, Ph.D.

Naval Training Systems Center

The concept of the “guaranteed student” as a product of a training system is beginning to blossom.  The training community has some conception of what a “guaranteed student” is; however, the issue of how to determine the appropriate performance of the guaranteed student is considerably more vague.  The notion of a highly reliable expert determining the level of student proficiency is popular.  Empirical findings in the area of human judgment call into question the notion of a “highly reliable expert.” Human judgment, even expert human judgment, is subject to errors produced by biases and heuristic strategies employed in making judgments and people do not integrate information well.  Mechanical models or decision aids have been clearly superior to the human for combining information.  This paper presents a decision aid that can be used to more efficiently integrate student performance data.  This decision aid has an additional advantage of controlling various types of errors; i.e., declaring proficiency when proficiency has not been achieved or declaring a proficient student as non-proficient.  Data are presented that compare decision accuracy and information requirements of expert human judgment and the decision aid.  Results are presented to highlight human judgmental problems in the training environment.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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IN SEARCH OF A REUSABLE ADA AERODYNAMIC MATH MODEL

John Hicks and Lynn Stuckey

Boeing Military Airplanes, Simulation and Training Systems

The aerodynamic math models are one of the more important areas of a simulator design.  The simulation industry needs a standard to use, not only for the data structure of the aerodynamic model, but also for the aerodynamic coefficient build-up logic.  If and when the Department of Defense acquires a highly reusable aerodynamic math model, implementation of this model will be more cost-effective and streamlined on future simulation contracts.  This would allow future combat trainers to be fielded quicker at a lower cost to the taxpayer.  The use of the Ada language directly supports the creation of a reusable aerodynamic math model.  One of the major goals in the development of Ada was to promote software that could be applied to future designs, thus making the reinvention of previous work unnecessary.  Reusable components do not automatically fall out from the use of Ada.  Reusability requires careful specification and design.  Ada provides features such as packages, generics, unconstrained array types, and others that allow easier construction of reusable components.  This paper presents an approach toward the development of a reusable aerodynamic math model for fixed-wing aircraft in the Ada language.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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CAN ADA CODE PERFORM AS WELL AS FORTRAN CODE?

Wendy J. Hudson

Concurrent Computer Corporation

The coding of new training systems in Ada raises serious questions about the performance of Ada code as compared to training systems previously written in FORTRAN.  When both the Ada compiler and the FORTRAN compiler are using similar methods of code optimization, the Ada code can perform as well as FORTRAN code.  However, the Ada programmer must be careful in the selection of Ada features used in the system.  The Ada language prevents the compiler from doing some optimizations and some of the Ada features are expensive at run-time.  Examples of these features are given and benchmark results are used to substantiate the conclusions.  The compilation system can also provide options and tools, which can be used to fine tune the system performance.  The Ada benefits of easy integration, maintainability, and reliability can be achieved without sacrificing performance.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SOFTWARE ENGINEERING FOR ADA-BASED TRAINING SYSTEMS–

LESSONS LEARNED FROM THE ADA SIMULATOR VALIDATION PROGRAM

Michael Caffey

Marshall Westerby

BURTEK

This paper presents lessons learned from a Government funded research project to investigate the impact of using Ada for flight simulators.  The DOD directive requiring the use of Ada for all mission critical software systems will cause a significant change in the way software is deigned in the future.  In order to study the impact for using Ada and software engineering techniques, the DOD funded the Ada Simulator Validation Program (ASVP).  For the ASVP, simulation software previously written in FORTRAN was redesigned using software engineering methods and coded in ADA.  The software was fully integrated and tested to evaluate the usefulness of Ada and software engineering practices.  This paper presents the lessons learned by Burtek while redeveloping the software on the Ada Simulator Validation Program.

The four main topics that will be addressed are the design approach, computer system support environment, software maintainability, and training.  The discussion on the design approach will address the use of object oriented design for designing real-time software, the role rapid prototyping plays in the design process, and the benefits that were derived from the rigorous design effort.  The computer system support environment discussion will cover APSE tools required for developing simulation software as well as the need for operating systems that are specifically designed to support Ada.  Software maintainability will be addressed, and special emphasis will be placed on the needs for maintainability to be the driving factor during design.  Tradeoffs between maintainability and efficiency are discussed, and a word of caution is given regarding the haphazard use of Ada features.  Finally, a discussion on training will highlight the need for training in software engineering as well as in Ada syntax.  The importance of training in the area of application will also be addressed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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 DESIGNN CONSIDERATIONS FOR EMBEDDED TRAINING COMPONENTS

J. Thomas Roth, Ph.D.

Applied Science Associates, Inc.

Embedded Training (ET) is now a realistic alternative in training systems design and implementation.  With the proliferation of embedded computers in military and commercial systems, the capability exists, at generally affordable marginal costs, to bring training to the user in the workplace.  However, ET should not be thought of as a total training solution or as a panacea.  Not all training can or should be supported by ET.  Several roles in the total training system are appropriate for support by ET, however.  A decision approach for assigning ET to appropriate roles in the training systems is discussed in the body of the paper.  In order to attain useful, functional ET, a close and continuous relationship is required among training developers, requirement developers, material system developers, logisticians, and users, for new systems, throughout the system design and development process.  The paper addresses some issues, which are of paramount importance and concern in this process.  In addition to close integration during system development, ET also requires life cycle support, along with the remainder of the system.  Some specific issues concerning the logistical support of systems containing ET components are discussed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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LESSONS LEARNED FROM CURRENTLY FIELDED NAVY EMBEDDED TRAINING SYSTEMS

Richard E. Reynolds

Leslie Weber Fiedeldey*

Naval Training Systems Center

Brenda J. Hoskin

William F. Jorgensen

Eagle Technology, Inc.

*Appointed to the research participation program in the Human Factors Division of the Naval Training Systems Center (NTSC), administered by Oak Ridge Associated Universities through an agreement between the U.S. Department of Energy and NTSC.

A number of embedded training systems are currently in use or under development by the U.S. Navy.  Consequently, there is a need to consolidate the experiences and findings of these embedded training development efforts, to evaluate the effectiveness of various high-level features of in-place embedded training systems and to assess the applicability of those features to future embedded training systems and sub-systems.  This paper documents the lessons learned from the development and use of 15 operational training systems in the Navy.  The choice of systems to be studied was based upon accessibility of the systems, their capabilities, general applicability, and technological and instructional complexity.  The instructional features of the systems selected were identified and described and taxonomy was created.  Effectiveness evaluation criteria were developed and on site interviewing users of in-place embedded training systems and administering a standardized assessment instrument accomplished collection of data.  The analysis and evaluation of these training systems found few systems, which could be, considered true embedded training systems.  Many systems made use of test target generators or data input devices, which provide only rudimentary tools for training.  Recommendations for the design of future embedded training systems are presented.  These guidelines address the following areas of ET design: configuration, training characteristics, support, and policy.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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EMBEDDED SIMULATION FOR AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL TRAINING

Gary C. Sackett

Technical Director, AAS Trainer Systems

Hughes Aircraft Company

Embedded training, defined as the use of actual system equipment with specialized training software, is being specified for more and more systems.  The Advanced Automation System (AAS), designed for the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) by Hughes Aircraft Company, leads the way in the application of embedded training and embedded simulation capabilities to solve a complex air traffic training problem.  This paper addresses the approach taken by Hughes to develop training system requirements, convert these requirements into design requirements using embedded training/simulation capabilities, and implement the design.  Two specific modes of embedded simulation capabilities will be described, system supported and standalone training.  These modes take advantage of the system design, which uses a large, central computer for certain, global or strategic functions and smaller common computers distributed throughout the system for localized or tactical processing.

System supported training uses the entire air traffic control system to provide the training capabilities.  Consoles, resident on the system local area network (LAN) and designated for training, use a special simulation Computer Software Configuration Item (CSCI) in the central computer which stimulates system software to provide an overall simulation of the entire air traffic control environment.  This full-scale simulation is designed to train air traffic controllers to full proficiency.

Standalone mode uses single air traffic control consoles, detached from the system LAN, controlled by an on-board computer.  These consoles execute a simulation CSCI that replaces part of the console-resident software.  This SCCI interfaces with other unmodified operational software (a CSCI in a second processor in the console) to fulfill its training mission: teaching operational and maintenance procedures.

This paper shows how, through effective early design of training capabilities, the overall system design was influenced to make the embedded training features possible without adding substantial hardware and software cost to the program.  The final result is an integrated approach to training, which maximizes use of existing resources to provide critical training without impacting ongoing air traffic control operations.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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VISUAL SIMULATION FOR ADVANCED FIGHTER TRAINING

Major Gordon R. Booth, USAFTAWC/TNS

EF-111A Operational Flight Trainer Program Manager

Eglin Air Force Base

This paper examines the background of fighter aircraft visual simulation, training requirements in support of realistic combat scenarios, present visual simulation capabilities and, for the future, advanced visual tactical training centers.

Advances in Soviet weapons technology is increasing the threat to aircrew survival and mission success, thereby emphasizing the importance to train aircrews in a realistic combat environment.  Unfortunately, combat related skills cannot be fully trained in the combat environment.  Unfortunately, combat related skills cannot be fully trained in the aircraft, due to limits of the training environment.  These limitations include airspace, weather, safety, ordnance and cost.  The increased threat and limited peacetime training operations combine to place new and increasingly complex demands on today’s tactical simulators.

Currently, limited visual training capability exists for fighter aircraft simulators.  However, today’s technology is rapidly advancing to a state that future combat flight simulators will be equipped with visual, sensor, electro-optical and radar data bases, photographic in quality, that accurately replicate any location in the world.  These simulators will be capable of providing mission scenarios that include all known threats, tactical training centers and will train combat skills to tactical aircrews realistically and effectively.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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USING AIRCREW COORDINATION TRAINING TECHNIQUES TO ENHANCE WARFIGHTING CAPABILITIES

Neil C. Krey

Military Operations

Link Training Services Corporation

Dealing with human performance topics such as judgment, decision making, interpersonal communications, and stress management in a multi-crewmember environment, ACT provides formal training and evaluation in human performance skill areas not traditionally included in aircrew training programs.

ACT provides the platform to build comprehensive mission training programs, which address team performance and the development of warfighting skills for almost any combat team environment.  Emerging technologies, which allow simulation networking will provide additional applications for team, oriented training, which supports successful mission rehearsal, and combat training.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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MULTIPLE SIMULATOR NETWORKING (MULTISIM)

THE WAY TO PROVIDE EFFECTIVE COMBAT TRAINING TODAY

Gary R. George, Staff Engineer

Samuel N. Knight, Staff Scientist

Link Flight Simulation Corporation

Tomorrow’s state-of-the-art training systems will be networks of high-fidelity simulators coupled to provide aviator crews with advanced training as players in combined-arms teams.  In addition, networked simulators will provide crews with an advanced facility to exercise and enhance their air-to-air skills by allowing combat against equally trained crews in a hostile environment.  To reach such training levels, tomorrow’s simulators can be specified to incorporate designed-in network interfaces and system-to-system compatibility.  There is, however, an alternative to waiting for the development of next generation scheduled for fielding in the near future.  The Multiple Simulator Networking Program (MULTISIM) is a research effort which has provided proof-of-concept for this alternative.  This paper describes the MULTISIM prototype, the missions performed, and insight gained relative to the potential of networking to change current concepts of overall combat training.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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PARALLEL PROCESSORS FOR MILITARY TRAINING SYSTEMS

A LABORATORY PROOF-OF-CONCEPT MODEL

W. J. Rowan, D. M. Kotick, M. W. Layton, C. E. Ruiz and C. N. Pope

Naval Training Systems Center

Military simulators require very large amounts of high-speed computational power.  Traditionally, the need has been met by assemblages of minicomputers.  The laboratory project described was undertaken to explore the feasibility of employing low-cost microcomputers instead.  The paper details the considerations dictating the architectural design, describes the partitioning tool used to assign modules to processors, and discusses methods employed to overcome real-time synchronization problems.  Recommendations are presented for system features, which would result in the flexibility and expandability, required for this application.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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GUIDELINES TO THE SELECTION OF ADA-BASED

MULTIPROCESSOR COMPUTER SYSTEM

CONFIGURATIONS FOR USE IN TRAINING AND SIMULATION

Don Law and Gary Croucher

Gould Inc., Computer Systems Division

Ada Development

A multiprocessor real-time Ada-based environment is becoming increasingly necessary to support the growing class of complex simulation and training applications.  The Bare Machine Ada runtime, or BMA, project at Gould C.S.D is an effort to produce such an environment.  The results of this development effort are providing valuable insights into the mechanisms required to adequately and efficiently support Ada on multiple processors.

Variations of a distributed real-time environment are evaluated with respect to very tightly coupled processors running with a single (common) local memory, tightly coupled processors equipped with a range of common memory, and loosely coupled processors containing no common memory.  Finally, we consider methods for obtaining a processing system able to distribute Ada tasks freely over multiple processors.  Each processor in the system maintains its own local memory, but entire ranges of local memories shadow each other’s contents, forming a single common address range with a minimum of contention.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ROTORCRAFT FLIGHT SIMULATION

IN THE

PARALLEL MICROPROCESSOR ENVIRONMENT

Jeff McFarland*

Don Monroe*

Cindy Maher*

Engineering and Training Simulation Department

McDonnell Douglas Helicopter Company

Our multiple microprocessor approach to application processing provides an open architecture that permits computing resources to be expanded and customized to meet simulator/training requirements.  Migrating computing resources from the minicomputer to the microprocessor environment results in enormous savings in simulation costs.  These savings are realized in the initial hardware investment and again in the reduction of facility requirements, including power, space and cooling.  This was particularly evident in our parallel microprocessor implementation of the rotorcraft flight model at McDonnell Douglas Helicopter Company, Mesa, AZ, for engineering simulation.

Our rotorcraft simulation was migrated from the GOULD 32/9780 to the Motorola 68020 microprocessor environment.  The required frame rate exceeded the capabilities of a single microprocessor.  Therefore, the rotorcraft simulation, previously running in serial, was divided into three small models running in parallel on three microprocessors: the main rotor/tail rotor and equations of motion, the stabilization systems, and the engines.  The VME bus was selected as the backplane for the system because of high-speed data transfer capabilities of this bus and the large selection of devices available for VME.  The Motorola 68020 CPU was selected as the target microprocessor.  Development was done on the Vax/VMS system using FORTRAN 77 and C cross-compilers for the MC68020 target.  Although it was initially uncertain whether the flight model could remain stable running on parallel processors, the parallel portage resulted in insignificant variance from the serial model.  Timing results were easily within the required frame rate.  This paper discusses the advantages of the microprocessor approach over the minicomputer approach for our rotorcraft flight simulation, the migration of the serial flight model to parallel processing, and how this approach can further enhance rotorcraft flight simulation.

* Member Technical Staff

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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NEW EMULATION TECHNIQUES IN THE TRAINING OF RAF TECHNICIANS

Charles J. Murton

and

 Flight Lieutenant Patrick Beautement

Headquarters Royal Air Force Support Command

Great Britain

The Basic Trade Training for Royal Air Force ground electronics technicians is the subject of a total course redesign using the Integrated Job Performance Training method.  This has shown a requirement for the students to carry out practical faultfinding exercises in a way representative of operational methods.  The equipment which the new course is designed to cater for are the modern, modular digital electronic equipment, which are extremely expensive and inherently unsuited to deliberate fault insertion for training purposes.  Therefore a requirement has arisen to provide a method of training which teaches many of the same skills as would be learned using real equipment, but without the actual presence of such equipment.  This has given rise to the concept of an “emulator”, a device that is capable of representing the characteristics of a number of different real equipment for training purposes.  The paper discusses this concept, together with the different ways in which it might be implemented.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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PM TRADE CONCEPT FORMULATION–A METHODOLOGY FOR HUMAN FACTORS ENGINEERING AND MANPRINT ANALYSIS

Richard Neal Armstrong

USAHEL Field Office (PM TRADE)

Rita L. Graham and Kelly A. O’Brien

Science Applications International Corporation

To date, there is no standard methodology for applying the Manpower and Personnel Integration (MANPRINT) initiative to the front-end analysis of training device development.  This paper describes the approach used by the Project Manager for Training Devices (PM TRADE) for integrating MANPRINT into Pre-concept and Concept Formulation analyses.  PM TRADE has developed a measure of effectiveness (MOE) that combines Human Factors Engineering analysis and MANPRINT analysis with training effectiveness, logistics, cost, and reliability data to achieve an early assessment of manpower, personnel, and training requirements for the proposed training device.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE CREATION OF COMPLEX TACTICAL TRAINING ENVIRONMENTS,

AN UNCLASSIFIED APPROACH

Andrew Morris

Manager Tactical Systems

CAE Electronics Ltd.

The creation of complex tactical training systems has traditionally involved the use of a large amount of sensitive data to enable representative simulation models to be provided.  The data involved in the simulation of the tactical environment and in particular the targets therein is often highly classified.

The following paper discusses a new approach to the generation of these types of training systems, which allows the initially delivered trainer to have a much lower level of security classification than is possible with current design approaches.  In this approach the data used for modeling sensitive areas, such as targets, weapon systems, tactics, etc., is created by the end user utilizing menu driven utilities incorporating Expert Systems technology.  Use of this type of approach, apart from affording greater security for the associated data, allows for a wider selection of potential contractors to be solicited for any given program.

The paper describes the design approach which is being used by CAE Electronics Ltd., both in its current form as applied to a P-3C Operational Tactics Trainer and in its extended form as applied to an aviation research combat simulator for the U.S. Army Research Institute.

This approach offers considerable potential benefits on the life cycle costs associated with maintaining trainer concurrency because the user has full control over the performance of the various features in the simulated environment, and can readily make changes thereto.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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CONTRACT TRAINING SYSTEMS

A TURNKEY, GROUND-UP APPROACH TO MILITARY AIRCREW READINESS

Timothy L. Kriebel

Manager, Training Technology

Reflectone, Inc.

James J. Riley

E-6A CFCTS Program Manager

Naval Training Systems Center

Contract Training Systems, once the “leading edge” innovation of the ‘80s, are now routinely meeting the training needs of a variety of commercial and government customers.  Rising costs of and increased confidence in contractors’ abilities created an opportunity for training companies to provide services that were formerly in the customer’s domain.

Aircrew training was previously accomplished through the piecemeal purchase and integration of training aids, training devices, and traditional classroom lecture and orientation.  Contractors provided initial training to m8ilitary and civil service personnel who then became the instructional staff.  This approach generally resulted in the following: Initial knowledge was frequently lost early in the program because of government personnel turnover; under-utilization of training resources such as simulators became commonplace; maintaining currency of the course syllabi with the aircraft was difficult a “Training System” sense was never developed.

This paper discusses “ground-up” training system development and the special problems presented in creating a contract training system while aircraft design and operational employment issues are evolving.  The U.S. Navy’s E-6A (TACAMO) Contract Flight Crew Training System (CFCTS) will be used as the discussion model.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE RETURN OF THE OLD HEADS–

AN ASSESSMENT OF CONTRACTOR AIRCREW TRAINING SYSTEMS

Richard J. Morrow

Training Systems Marketing Manager

Richard G. Adams

Marketing Publications Manager

Link Flight Simulation Corporation

During the past eight years, the U.S. military services have begun implementing, on selected Aircrew Training Systems (ATS), a revolutionary new approach: turnkey civilian contractor operation.  These major contractor ATS programs, including the USAF’S KC-10, E-3, C-5, C-130, and the USN’s E-6, have diverse missions and are in various stages of maturation: from courseware development to simulator production to actual day-to-day instruction.  How successful have these programs been in meeting contract-guaranteed throughput rates at government-defined proficiency levels?  How do the military student flight crews view the civilian instructors?  And is the contractor ATS concept saving the DOD money?  Through dozens of interviews with military and contractor program managers, safety officers, and instructors, this paper analyzes how well these five initial Aircrew Training Systems are satisfying expectations.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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COMPUTER BASED TRAINING–HIT OR MYTH?

Commander Jeffrey P. Bond Royal Navy

Directorate of Naval Education and Training Support

The 1981 Defense Review in the United Kingdom determined the need for increased efficiency in training and the requirement to conduct more training on board ships.  As a result of recommendations made by a civilian consultancy investigation in 1984 and an in-house Ministry of Defense (RN) pilot project in 1985, Computer Based Training was considered to be a medium with the potential for achieving progressive improvements in the productivity and effectiveness of shore based training and for moving substantial quantities of training afloat.

The initial pilot project involved a survey of training problems and training requirements that had the potential either to be solved by CBT or was conducive to CBT applications.  From a total of 47 submissions, 6 projects were selected as representing a suitable range of training against which the effectiveness and efficiency potential of CBT could be examined.  These projects were:

a.                    Rule of the Road

b.                   Joint Message Handling

c.                    Electronic Warfare Principles

d.                   Passive Sonar Principles

e.                    Morse Training

f.                     Naval Mathematics and English Test

These projects were put out to commercial tender for the supply of both hardware and course software.

By the end of 1986 all material relating to the 6 projects had been procured and officially accepted and the evaluation phase of the trial began.  A common evaluation philosophy was drawn up with the primary objectives being to assess the impact of CBT on trainee performance, human-training resources and on the organization of training.  Secondary objectives were to assess the impact of CBT on the operational job performance of CBT users; the attitudes of staff and trainees; and on material resources.  Finally the study was to investigate the wider application of CBT materials ashore and afloat.

The presentation will describe the lessons learned from this study and will indicate the way ahead for the Royal Navy in the future usage of CBT strategies.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A LOW COST ROUTE TO HIGH COST EFFECTIVENESS

Group Captain David E. Priestley

Squadron Leader Peter Jacques

Royal Air Force School of Education and Training Support

Royal Air Force Newton

Th Royal Air Force policy for microcomputer based training is aimed at solving appropriate and identified training needs in the most cost-effective way.  This paper describes three training aids, all developed in-house, which illustrate this policy in practice.  The first is an Air Intercept Trainer, which is now in use with the air defense training and operational units: it is a small real-time simulation with student replay facility.  The second is a part-task trainer for use in navigation training/instrument interpretation on the RAF’s new basic flying trainer; this again responds in real-time to students’ inputs and provides immediate feedback and replay facilities.  The third aid aims to enhance the quality of classroom instruction by the use of computer-generated controlled animated displays of aircraft technical systems.  Finally the paper will argue, through the experience gained, the merits of such in-house development.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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UNIVERSAL AUTHORING SYSTEM–ROUND TWO–THE WEDGE

Andrew E. Andrews, Lois Spangenberg, and Mary S. Trainor

Cognitive Systems Engineering Group, A-6

Los Alamos National Laboratory

Recent papers in the literature have proposed a universal authoring system.  While these papers are valuable because they stimulated debate and provided a baseline, pursuing a universal authoring system at this time is a search for a solution before the requirements and problems have been clearly identified.  This paper explores several issues related to the concept of a universal authoring system and concludes with an alternative prescription both for users (customers) and vendors.  The user prescription includes a clear definition of requirements and establishment of internal standards.  The vendor prescription includes working with the users more closely to aid in system comparison.  This task is very difficult now because of nonstandard criteria used by the scores of vendors involved.  A model for a “universal” authoring system is presented to illustrate that the options are endless.  Technical issues regarding the computer medium are discussed to illustrate the inherent difficulties of achieving universality of authoring without restricting progress in hardware.  The authors agree that the plethora of authoring systems on the market today inhibits courseware portability, but we feel that our free enterprise system as well as more informed consumers will help reduce the number of surviving authoring systems.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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USING FRACTALS TO CREATE REALISTIC, THREE-DIMENSIONAL TERRAIN

FOR THE TRAINING ENVIRONMENT

Jacquelyn Poplar

Reed Whittington

Rediffusion Simulation Incorporated

Previous databases developed for flight simulators have used terrain created from elevation gridpoint data provided by the Defense Mapping Agency (DMA).  The horizontal spacing of the DMA data usually provides enough resolution for high-speed aircraft.  However, for a terrain-following vehicle such as the Navy’s Landing Craft, Air Cushion, it is necessary to have a much finer grid than DMA can provide.  In fact, the resolution of the grid must be smaller than the craft in order to provide proper height-above-terrain feedback for realistic craft dynamics.  The problem is to create undulating terrain of such resolution over an area too large to be empirically designed.

Fractal geometry, a recent discovery in mathematics, lends itself well to solving this problem.  With a fractal algorithm, sections of terrain can be created that exhibit the property of self-similarity found in nature.  These sections can then be pieced together according to DMA data to form a representation of a high-resolution terrain.

This paper reviews the development of the software used to generate terrain for the LCAC visual database.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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MAKING CLOUDS

Richard R. Hopkins and Michael B. Cooper

Honeywell Training and Control Systems Division

The increasing fidelity of visual simulators has created a requirement for realistic images of natural phenomena such as clouds.  In the GBU15 part task trainer, cloud images were used to simulate the obscuration of the sensor’s field of view during simulated training missions.  Obtaining cloud images that met the fidelity requirements of the trainer was difficult.  The cloud images had to look realistic, yet have a predefined distribution over a large area, and the images could not contain a background.  Three methods for obtaining the cloud images were evaluated.  The methods were photography, painting, and Computer Image Generation because it allowed control of cloud distribution, shape, and density, and it generated images at the required resolutions and without a background.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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MISSION REHEARSAL–ITS IMPACT ON DATA BASE TECHNOLOGY

Robert W. Geer and Darrell Dixon

Evans & Sutherland Computer Corporation

Simulation Division

Mission rehearsal can be defined as the use of accurate, correlated databases, generated or updated rapidly from a variety of sources, to simulate a mission exactly as it will be executed.  While this operational definition of mission rehearsal is relatively straightforward, its implementation is not.  Incomplete or incompatible data, as well as limitations in state-of-the-art database processing and multi-sensor correlation, currently inhibit the implementation of mission rehearsal in its truest sense.  The ability of database tools and current processing techniques to comply with mission rehearsal requirements must be assessed.  This paper discusses the definition of mission rehearsal, describes current database processing techniques, and identifies the subset of mission rehearsal that reflects the current abilities and limitations in correlating visual-image and other sensor simulators.  Strategies are proposed for closing the gap between current and desired capabilities.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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IOS DESIGN TRENDS FOR A FULL MISSION TRAINING DEVICE

M. J. Dunnam

Dr. W. W. Hosler

Link Flight Simulation Corporation

Houston Simulation Operations

Link has recently applied state-of-the-art instructor operator station (IOS) technology to an existing full mission-training device.  An intelligent workstation, designed to focus on the instructor’s specific needs for each training task, has been added to an F-16 Full Mission Simulator, replacing an IOS representing an earlier technology.  This system was conceived with the participation of the user, taking advantage of past experience with F-16 training requirements and methodologies.  The new IOS technology addresses the needs of the instructor to accomplish specific training tasks by providing displays and controls optimized for specific tasks.  Windows, color, icons, and merged text and graphics contribute significantly to the system’s ability to support the instructor.  Maintainability has been enhanced by decentralizing the IOS software in commercial off-the-shelf workstations.  Instructors using the system indicate that it is meeting its training design goals, and that it is significantly more effective than the earlier design.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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EFFECTIVENESS OF FLIGHT SIMULATION IN TRAINING KC-10 PILOTS IN RECEIVER REFUELING

McDonnell Douglas Training Systems, Inc.

This study examines the transfer of training for pilots from the simulator to the aircraft for the task of receiver refueling.  Receiver refueling requires the receiver pilot to position the aircraft behind the tanker aircraft and maintain the position while taking on fuel.  This task is trained in the KC-10 flight simulator (six degree-freedom of motion system and day/dusk/night computer generated image visual system) during Pilot Initial Qualification and Refresher training.  The investigation used student performance scores from both the simulator and aircraft for like conditions.  Pilots completed critiques containing questions regarding the fidelity and usability of the simulator visual and motion system as compared to the actual aircraft and real-world refueling environment.  The results showed a positive transfer of training with implications for the training of air refueling and the configuration of training devices.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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LEARNING THEORY ANALYSIS DIRECTED AT ENHANCING INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT AND IMPROVING PILOT SITUATION AWARENESS SKILLS TRAINING

Clifford J. Craft, Ph.D.

Jeffrey D. Koehler

Northrop Corporation

A pilot’s job is likened to a systems manager whose tasks involve flight path control, system operation, and situation management–which encompasses the “what and when to do it” aspects of mission performance vs. the rule-following and procedural “how to do it” aspects of flying.  Situation management (SM) skills consist of the situation awareness, judgment, and decision-making attributes of the pilot.  Several complex cognitive processes, such as selective attention skills, cognitive style, and analogical reasoning, are significant variables in the SM decision process.  This paper also discusses an approach based on learning theory and mediated learning experiences, and describes a set of guidelines which focus on the application of learning theory principles within the Instructional Systems Development (ISD) planning process.  This improvement in the ISD process will lead to more effective approaches to front-end analysis and the training of complex cognitive skills which may include using low-cost simulation training devices.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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IMPLEMENTATION AND MANAGEMENT OF A

TRAINER SYSTEM SUPPORT CENTER (TSSC)

Steven R. Prince

James R. Smith

AAI Corporation

Software Support

Upon delivery of an integrated computer system, the next task is to ensure it is successfully utilized to its fullest capabilities.  A Trainer System Support Center (TSSC) that encompasses multiple functions directly related to the life cycle of the trainer system provides the means for achieving this.  A TSSC provides system engineering of organic hardware and software modifications, database generation and updates, documentation generation and maintenance, and overall configuration management of design changes and operational performance.  When implemented properly, this can be accomplished without impacting training or operational capabilities.

As the heart of an operational system, the TSSC serves as an excellent management/control device.  A management information system, contained with the TSSC, cal efficiently process information to all cognizant personnel of a system, fulfilling a critical need.  Configuration management and tracking capabilities within the TSSC are essential to ensuring the system is reliable, maintainable, and supportable.

This paper will discuss methods for analyzing a system’s requirements and existing resources; adapting these resources for implementing a TSSC; selecting additional TSSC resources to suit the specific requirements of the system; actually implementing the TSSC; utilizing the TSSC for maintenance and operational tasks and utilizing the TSSC management and information processing capabilities.  Specific TSSC implementations will be cited as well as unique requirements and lessons learned in these implementations.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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AUTHORING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS (AIM) PROGRAM–

AN APPROACH TO EFFICIENT PRODUCTION AND LIFE-CYCLE MAINTENANCE SUPPORT OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

Timothy L. Tate

AmSEC

Jerry L. Vogt

NPRDC

AIM (Authoring Instructional Materials) is an R&D project to automate the design, development and maintenance of instructional materials.  It is being conducted by Navy Personnel Research and Development Center (NPRDC) and sponsored by OP-01.  The initial software tools have been developed using rapid prototyping techniques in close conjunction with, and are being used by, a number of Navy training activities.  The tools were intended for use by subject matter experts to make the curriculum development process more efficient and to standardize the products.  They provide the “proof of concept” necessary for funding support for development of fully documented and supported software tools.  The software programs support the Navy’s “single standard” for curriculum development (MIL-STD 1379C) and thus decrease the expertise needed to develop the management documentation supporting the development process.  AIM software is being developed to the standards in CALS (Computer-aided Acquisition and Logistics Support), the DOD-wide initiative to acquire technical information in electronic form.

AIM is . . ..

·         an R & D project to automate curriculum development for the Navy             

·         conducted by NPRDC and sponsored by OP-01

·         designed using rapid prototype techniques in conjunction with Navy users

·         supporting the Navy single standard for curriculum development (MIL-STD-1379C and MIL-HDBK292)

·         standardizing the products and making curriculum development more efficient and effective

·         designed to comply with DOD CALS standards

·         being used by subject matter and educational experts for both text and graphics materials

·         is being strengthened to provide fully documented and supported software with additional capabilities which will support full scale navy implementation

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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LIFE-CYCLE SUPPORT FOR MODERN TRAINNG SYSTEMS

Brian J. Williams

Burtek

Combat readiness during the next decade will be, to a large extent, dependent on the effectiveness of the training systems that are developed to support front-line personnel.  As training fidelity continues to improve as state-of-the-art computer, visual and motion systems are incorporated, their full potential will only be realized with efficient maintenance and support over the full in-service life of the equipment, which can be as long as twenty years, or more.  Today’s training systems comprise a high percentage of commercial off-the-shelf equipment, which necessitates a different approach to the way logistic support is developed for the system.  In order to remain competitive and to provide the necessary levels of support demanded by the high availability requirements of today’s training systems, the prime equipment supplier must not only exploit the latest technology developments to provide the degree of reliability and maintainability required, but the supplier must also guarantee economical support for the lifetime of  the equipment.

This paper discusses developments in methods that should be considered to provide cost-effective and low-risk support of modern training systems, and presents the results of life-cycle cost analyses that were performed to examine the cost benefits of a novel support concept.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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WARFIGHTING WITH SIMNET–A REPORT FROM THE FRONT

Lt Col (P) Jack A. Thorpe, USAF (Ph.D.)

Program Manager, Information Science and Technology Office

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)

Advances in simulation technology enable the military capability of producing high tech/low cost simulators which can be connected or “plugged” into local area networks and long haul networks to allow combat teams in ground, air and sea vehicles to fight force-on-force in a graphically real time simulated world.  It is now possible to determine to what degree this simulated warfighting relates to real world warfighting.  Can soldiers who become proficient in the combat world created by large scale simulated networking (SIMNET being the most developed example) use those skills to fight and win in combat?  Does SIMNET improve the performance of operational forces in critical, front line, and warfighting skills?  Does SIMNET train commanders to organize and control activities on the battlefield critical to successful warfighting?  How effective is this technology in testing new weapons systems before they are prototyped?  This paper synopsizes data collected over the past year as well as projections for the future exploitation of SIMNET technology.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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C3I TRAINING–THE FIGHTING EDGE

Peter Bonanni

BMH Associates

J. C. Williams

BBN Systems and Technologies Corporation

Simulation and Training Systems Division

Command, Control, Communications and Intelligence (C3I) elements play the leading role in Airland Battle engagement doctrine.  These elements will provide synchronization of forces and are the key to victory.  Training to accomplish effective synchronization of diverse force elements is the challenge.  This paper will describe how technology in the form of distributed networked simulation can open the door to superior C3I Training.  With this technology, crucial C3I skills can be practiced and the strengths and limitations of diverse forces and how to employ them on the modern battlefield for mission effectiveness can be learned.  Technology applications involving long-haul networks simulated intelligent forces and interactive simulators have made possible robust training environments, which permit daily peacetime practice of C3I procedures.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE APPLICATION OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND

SATELLITE IMAGERY TO FLIGHT SIMULATION

Dr. Richard Economy, John R. Ellis and Robert L. Ferguson

General Electric Company

Simulation and Control Systems Department

Photographic texture has been a feature of Computer Image Generators for several years.  When applied to models such as aircraft, trees and buildings, photographic texture has produced extremely realistic results.  Current methods of applying texture to the terrain surface of a simulator data base use either synthetic or self-repeating photographic texture patterns, nei8ther of which produce the same degree of realism as that achieved with photo-textured models.

This paper describes techniques, which have been developed to apply real imagery, either from aerial photographs or satellite data, to the terrain surface of a simulator database.  A database, with extensive photo texturing, has been built to demonstrate the results.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SCENE REALISM–THE SYNERGY OF DATA BASE TECHNOLOGY

AND CIG HARDWARE

Howard Wilkerson

Thomas C. Brown

Evans & Sutherland Computer Corporation

Simulation Division

Combat readiness training for pilots in the next decade requires realistic computer-image-generator (CIG) scenes that are correlatable to large real-world gaming areas.  Major advances in hardware texture, memory, and polygon capacities by themselves are insufficient to sustain the desired increases in training effectiveness.  Innovative data base technologies can leverage improvements in hardware capacity, architecture, and algorithms.

This paper describes how this synergy of software and hardware is achieved in current CIG technology.  The availability of many thousands of texture maps makes possible the use of high-resolution, remotely sensed image data to create Geo-Specific texture over the entire gaming area.  This textured terrain has much higher fidelity because it contains small-scale feature elements that correspond to real-world object.  Geo-Specific texture reduces the number of required ground polygons, which then permits increased density of three-dimensional polygonal features.  The powerful data base compression techniques of instancing, previously somewhat restricted in application mainly to terrain polygons and cultural objects, is now extended (with an enhanced hardware architecture) to the application of Geo-Specific texture with smooth shading.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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VISUAL SIMULATION UTILIZING COMPUTER–

RECONSTRUCTED IMAGES FROM SCENE PHOTOGRAPHS

Werner Kraemer, Staff Scientist

Thomas Moberg, System Engineering Manager

Link Flight Simulation Corporation

The subject of this paper is a new visual system technology, which is based on advances in image processing hardware and an innovative database methodology.  The system is designed to reconstruct interactive images from digitized real-world photographs utilizing a data-driven architecture and innovative algorithms, which generate the database.  The technique uses digital terrain data and image classification to generate a range-encoded image database.  The digitized image and the range overlay form a database with the quality of a full-color digitized scene and the advantage of a pixel-by-pixel range.  Such a data structure allows real-time simulation of atmospheric conditions and insertion of special effects as a function of range, and infrared sensor transformation as a function of both range and image class, such as trees, meadows, houses, water, sky, etc.  The results of an implementation of this method are presented in a sequence of photographs taken from the display monitor of a real-time system.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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GRAPHIC APPROACHES TO PROCEDURAL TRAINING

Frank A. Capuzzi, Ph.D.

Ford Aerospace Corporation

As graphics production capabilities grow in sophistication, basic questions about the use of graphics in CBT, especially in procedural training, remain unanswered.  This is particularly critical in large-scale CBT efforts, in which the appropriate use of graphics has an important role to play in the success or failure of a course.  Specifically, what is the “best” way to apply graphics in a mixed training environment, in which CBT supports, and to some extent controls, electronic simulations?  What are the underlying principles to guide graphics design and development, and how can they be applied independently of the production system?  In the CBT project discussed in this paper, some components of the real equipment proved to expensive to reproduce for training purposes.  When components cannot be represented by the simulator at all, they must be trained exclusively through CBT.  The challenge has been to devise a graphics approach adequate to meet these varied requirements.  This paper reviews the critical issues facing instructional and graphic designers in this and similar training situation.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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INCREASING THE INSTRUCTIONAL AND COST EFFECTIVENESS OF COMPUTER-BASED TRAINING BY GROUPING STUDENTS

Theodore M. Shlechter, Ph.D.

U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

USARI Field Unit-Fort Knox

David Mudrick

Ford Aerospace Corporation

Computer-based training, already well established as a means to improve primary training while reducing its overall costs, may be made significantly more cost effective by training students in small groups of two to four at a terminal rather than one per terminal.  In studies performed at Fort Knox’s Training Technology Field Activity, grouping led to better retention, better training of low ability students, decreased times for completion of training, and reduced instructor/proctor intervention, without any reduction in achievement.  Grouping can relieve scheduling difficulties when terminals are limited.  Grouping can help instructors deal with high ability students, who help their peers instead of finishing early and making further military training, for both acquisition and sustainment training.  Special preparation of materials or student assignments is not required.  Therefore, grouping can be applied immediately to existing training systems.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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COMPUTER-BASED TRAINING (CBT)

COST ESTIMATING ALGORITHM FOR COURSEWARE (CEAC)

Ralph E. Schooley

Space Applications Corporation

A Computer-Based Training (CBT) Cost Estimating Algorithm for Courseware (CEAC) is described.  CBYT CEAC is comprised of an input parameter, a database, and a calculation component.  CBT CEAC’s database is comprised of a table of values for the number of hours of development time per hour of delivery time for each functional mode to be employed by productivity tool class.  Delivery time and productivity tool class is determined by ancillary procedures, the form of which is discussed from an approach perspective only.  The database contains cornerstone values.  Other database elements were extrapolated using a productivity model.  The basis of this model is presented.  CBY CEAC’s calculation component derives the total development time and price through interaction with the other components.  CBY CEAC estimates are compared to project actuals.  Practical applications of CBT CEAC are noted.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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PLANNING THE SPACE STATION TRAINING FACILITY

Ankur R. Hajare

MITRE

As part of the Space Station Program, the Space Station Training Facility (SSTF) will be built at NASA Johnson Space Center at Houston, Texas.  The SSTF will be the primary facility for training Space Station astronauts and it will also support training of ground systems personnel.  It will contain a number of trainers of different types as well as systems to develop and test the trainers, and to efficiently operate and manage all resources within the SSTF.  In a987 a project team was organized to develop operational concepts, functional requirements and a conceptual design for the SSTF.  The project team is organized as a number of working groups directed by a steering committee.  There are two tiers of working groups: tactical working groups and operational working groups.  Their activities are described here.  A baseline configuration has been formulated for the SSTF and is described here.

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THE IMPACT OF REQUIREMENTS AND CONSTRAINTS

ON TOTAL TRAINING SYSTEM DESIGN–

“WHY NOT PLAY WITH A FULL DECK?”

Robert A. Bragaw

SIMTEC, Inc.

Lt. Col. Hans C. Heinrich

Chief, Operations Division

Air Force Institute of Technology

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

The management of a training systems is not limited to the development, implementation, and operation of courseware, equipment, and personnel.  For a training program to achieve cost-effective performance that makes a measurable contribution toward mission readiness, it is necessary that the total training system be designed to accomplish that objective.  It is the nature of the instructional development processes used within the Department of Defense that identified requirements and constraints form the boundaries around the design of instructional programs.  There is no specified process for examination of the total training system design nor are there established total training system performance criteria.  In addition to the efficiencies gained by the application of modern instructional technologies, there is also a need to examine the potential for improvement in the total system design.  Application of the concept discussed could result in better design accountability and more cost-effective and mission effective training systems.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ELIMINATING FORCED TECHNOLOGY IN MILITARY TRAINING SYSTEMS–

A CONCEPTUAL MODEL

Dr. Judy A. Oneal

Oneal Brooks Associates

This paper presents a conceptual model for determining functional training requirements for training systems and for basing training system fidelity decisions on these requirements.  The objective of this model is to provide a means of eliminating forced technology in military training systems by insuring that training systems employ only the minimum level of technology needed to impart the skills required for job performance.  This topic is particularly timely given recent emphasis within the Department of Defense (DOD) and Congress on simulator performance and procurement practices.  We are posing a very fundamental question: how well are simulators performing their essential training missions? At the same time, the services face severe requirements to justify costly training system procurements.  Justification must be based on strict definition of training requirements and identification of the minimum level of technology essential to meet those requirements.  The model presented in this paper is aimed at providing that information to the training systems acquisition and development community.

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“PARTS ARE PARTS”

A PERSPECTIVE ON THE PROBLEMS OF MAINTAINING

THE HUMAN COMPONENT OF ADVANCED WEAPON SYSTEMS

Ronald G. Hughes, Ph.D.

Engineering and Training Simulation Department

McDonnell Douglas Helicopter Company

The MANPRINT concept directs that training and human performance considerations be addressed from the very outset of weapon system design.  Although for many current and projected weapon systems total system performance varies directly with the quality of operator training, training and its associated costs are rarely considered on a par with other system variables affecting system reliability, availability, and maintainability.  The present paper argues that man should be objectively viewed as only one of many alternative engineering solutions; that the capabilities of man (especially the ability to maintain/sustain those capabilities over time) must be thoroughly understood during engineering design; and that the full range of costs associated with the procurement (selection), development (initial training) and maintenance (continuation/sustainment training) of the human component be identified.  The paper argues that the very decision to include man in the overall system design must be seriously questioned, especially when data clearly point to an inability to sustain effective operator performance over time.  The paper suggests that training conducted for the purpose of sustaining operator proficiency can be usefully conceptualized as a system maintenance function performed in order to maintain system readiness.  In essence, the present paper argues that MANPRINT will succeed only when we adopt the position that “parts are parts,” that is to say, when we treat the human component as no different in principle from any other component part of the system.

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THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL FIDELITY IN TRAINING SYSTEMS ACQUISITION

James R. Stonge

Senior Instructional Systems Engineer

Grumman Display/Trainer Products

In training system design and acquisition, some aspect of the procurement addresses the fidelity of the training system.  Normally, physical fidelity is the sole concern, although some of the more sophisticated designs and acquisitions have also looked at the concept of functional fidelity as being equal to or greater than that of physical fidelity.  This emphasis on functional fidelity to two-dimensional simulation of the three-dimensional systems.  Experience has demonstrated, however, that regardless of the quality of both physical and functional fidelities, a substantial number of training systems are unused, unappreciated, and unsuccessful for their planned training mission.  This paper identifies a missing ingredient in the study of training system fidelity, that of psychological fidelity.  Whereas physical fidelity has to do with how closely something looks like the real thing, and functional has to do with how well it acts like the real thing, psychological has to do with how well it is perceived to train like the real thing.  While related to user acceptance, psychological fidelity is the environmental perception of the learner, not the instructor.  Users forget that they are in training, and learn as if working with actual equipment.  The elements associated with psychological fidelity are identified.  Relationships between psychological fidelity and both physical and functional fidelity are specified.  Directions for including psychological fidelity elements during the fidelity analysis process are provided.  Finally, recommendations are given for a methodology for incorporating psychological fidelity in training system acquisition in the next decade.

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THE EFFECTS OF FIELD-OF-VIEW ON PILOT PERFORMANCE

IN THE C-130 WST

1^st Lt. Kevin W. Dixon

Elizabeth L. Martin, Ph.D.

2d Lt. Victoria A. Rojas

David C. Hubbard, Ph.D., UDRI

Air Force Human Resources Laboratory

Williams Air Force Base

In order to provide a cost-effective simulator training environment, a number of variables must be optimized to meet training requirements with minimum cost.  One such variable is the field-of-view (FOV) of the visual display.  This study investigated the effect of field-of-view on pilot performance for low level flight and an airdrop in the C-130 weapon system trainer.  The study was performed using two different field-of-view configurations.  The conditions were wide field-of-view that used all six windows to provide a 160 H by 35 V visual field and a limited field-of-view that used the forward four windows to provide a 102 H by 35 V visual field from the left seat (pilot’s).  The tasks chosen by subject matter experts for the study were thought to be those most likely to require information from the peripheral windows.  Automated pilot performance measures and eye position data were collected throughout the study.  Twelve experienced C-130 pilots performed four trials over two different routes under both field-of-view conditions.  The pilot performance data showed no strong or consistent effects due to the field-of-view manipulation.  The eye position data revealed an increased use of the front window and instruments in the limited field-of-view condition and a decreased use of the window to the left of the pilot.  The study shows that the peripheral windows may not be required for experienced pilots, but if present are used, and if absent, alter visual behavior.  Based on the results of the study, a preliminary conclusion would be to provide a wide FOV when the training objectives include tasks that use a large amount of peripheral information.  Before any final conclusions can be reached regarding field-of-view requirements, the use of the windows from the copilots position should be addressed, as well as the value for skill acquisition for less experienced pilots.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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LOW COST VISUAL FLIGHT SIMULATOR TESTBED

Thomas M. Longridge

John A. Dohme

U.S. Army Research Institute

Aviation R & D Activity

A testbed program for the evaluation of low cost flight simulator image generation systems is described, which employs a pragmatic approach based on simulator to aircraft transfer of training within the formal curricula for institutional flight instruction.  The results of the first research study with this testbed, utilizing an image generation source which can reasonably be considered to represent a starting point along the low cost continuum, are presented.  The results were encouraging with respect to positive transfer of training achievable with low cost technology.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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IMAGE GENERATION FOR ROTARY WING APPLICATIONS

Fred Bondzeit

Robert E. Edwards

McDonnell Douglas Helicopter Company

Engineering and Training Simulation Department

Historically, computer image generators used in flight simulation have been designed for fixed wing applications.  The typical fixed wing simulator is used for either traffic pattern, cross-country, formation, air intercept, or ground attack training.  Except when taking off and landing, most flying takes place at relatively high altitudes.  Even high speed nap-of-earth flight; minimum simulated altitudes are several hundred feet AGL.  The typical rotorcraft flies at altitudes are several feet AGL.  The attack helicopter remains below treetop level for a good part of its mission.  At these altitudes, at night, or in adverse weather, the problem of simulating visual and sensor imagery becomes difficult.  Due to the close proximity of the terrain, culture, vegetation and moving objects (threats, weapons, friendlies), the nature of required image generator calculations changes and becomes increasingly complex.

Written from the user’s standpoint, this paper discusses image generator system requirements for rotary wing vs. fixed wing applications.  Typical unique problems presented by rotary wing simulation are the need for richness in the surrounding out-the-window (near) visual scene, coupled with the need to acquire and combat threats at great distances (15-20 kilometers) via sensors.  High fidelity collision/crash detection models for mask/unmask operations in close quarters are required.  A high fidelity landing gear model, to provide height-above-terrain indications on uneven surfaces, must be provided.

These and other specific topics are presented, with a focus on limitations in the currently available image generation technology.  Also discussed are current and future improvements, which must be made in support of ever more complex rotorcraft missions.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DEVELOPING TROUBLESHOOTING EXPERTISE THROUGH INTELLIGENT COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION

Thomas G. Holzman, Ph.D.

Lockheed Aeronautical Systems Company

The present research and development study explores new techniques for developing the aircraft troubleshooting generalists demanded for both turn-of-the-century combat effectiveness and peacetime cost-control.  An economical, computer-based apprenticeship program is being developed that uses artificial intelligence to provide the benefits of individual tutoring and expert-guided practice of newly developing skills.   The computer realistically depicts both aircraft equipment and flightline maintenance aids during troubleshooting simulations to improve transfer of training from the classroom to the job.  Rigorous front-end analyses guided the instructional design.  These analyses revealed commonalties in equipment and troubleshooting procedures across different aircraft systems, which form the focus of the skill generalization training.  Likewise, distinguishing characteristics of expert troubleshooters were identified and targeted as training outcomes.  Finally, a theoretical framework has been developed to guide further efforts for improving generalized maintenance problem solving skills.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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KNOWLEDGE-BASED TECHNOLOGY FOR TRAINING SYSTEMS

Dr. Matt Narotam

Mr. Gary Hassett

Burtek

Expert systems can potentially be used to reduce the cost of building and maintaining training systems.  As expert system technology has grown, several tools have become available for building expert systems.  The tools are hosted on low-cost workstations or personal computers and provide varying degrees of sophistication for user interface and knowledge representation.

Before, we can rush out and mass-produce useful expert systems, factors that impact the development of expert systems must be investigated.  Some of these factors include determining the steps involved in the knowledge engineering process, the qualification criteria for knowledge engineers, performance and limitations of tools available for developing the knowledge-based systems, and development of strategies for integrating the expert systems in the engineering or produce environment.  These issues are nontrivial and numerous.

This paper begins to attack the problem by presenting experience gained and lessons learned from a project that involved building an expert system.  The objective of the project was to focus on issues relating to the knowledge engineering process, especially that of knowledge retrieval.  Therefore, the expert system was developed to solve a relatively simple problem–determine the cause of the malfunction of a modem system.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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INTELLIGENT TUTORING SYSTEMS–

IF THEY ARE SUCH GOOD IDEAS, WHY AREN’T THERE MORE OF THEM?

William B. Johnson

Principal Scientist

Search Technology, Inc.

Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITSs) have emerged as a potential enhancement to training for the military, industry, business, and schools.  While the ITS concept sounds good, the transition from laboratories to training centers has been slow.  However, changes in software, hardware, and development approaches are making it possible to develop and deliver ITSs in a relatively short time using a reasonable amount of personnel and fiscal resources.  An example of one such system is Microcomputer Intelligence for Technical Training (MITT).  MITT, developed for the Air Force Human Resources Laboratory in cooperation with the NASA Johnson Space Center, provides intelligent tutoring on the diagnosis of problems with the space shuttle fuel cell system.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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BEST COMMERCIAL PRACTICES IN ENGINEERING DATA

FOR AIR FORCE TRAINING SYSTEMS

Bruce J. Brooker

Staff Engineering Data Management Specialist

Training Systems System Program Office

Deputy for Engineering

Aeronautical Systems Division

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

This paper will discuss the Training Systems System Program Office (SPO)(ASD/YW) in-process revolution in the procurement of engineering data for Air Force training systems with Contractor Logistic Support (CLS) and Total Contractor Training (TCT) concepts.  On 7 May 1985, the Air Force directed CLS for its training systems through Program Management Directive (PMD) entitled “Phase-out of the Aircrew/Missile Training Device Career Field (AFSC 341XX).”  This PMD was the result of an Air Force study of the June 1982, conversion of Navy training programs to CLS. (1)

Prior to 7 May 1985, the Training Systems SPO contractually applied engineering data military standards onto training system design/integrating contractors.  Military standard developed engineering data was the requirement of Air Force Logistics Command (AFLC) personnel, at the Air Logistics Center (ALC), as they performed all support tasks (such as logistics, configuration management, operations, maintenance, parts control, modifications, the reprocurement/remanufacture of replacement hardware and spare parts through recompetition) for the training systems service life, upon Program Management Responsibility Transfer (PMRT) from the Training Systems SPO. (2)

After 7 May 1985, the PMD directed the assignment of many of these support tasks onto the contractor.  Training Systems SPO acquisition contracts were to reflect provisions which made the CLS contractor responsible and liable for its support tasks performance.  Yet AFLC still maintains its requirement for military standards in engineering data.  Training Systems SPO personnel and contractor counterparts express their support for replacing engineering data military standards with Best Commercial Practices.  Additionally, the need to reduce the application of military standards is Objective 13 of the “Final Report, Simulator Cost and Leadtime Study.”

This paper will review the Training Systems SPO engineering data procurement practices, prior to and after the 7 May 1985, PMD and current discussions concerning military standards versus Best Commercial Practices.  This paper determines which is the valid requirement and then discloses the in-process revolution occurring in Training Systems SPO engineering data procurement practices.  This paper will then summarize and provide an example of the future Training Systems SPO engineering data procurement practices.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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I/ITSC PAPER SUBMISSION TITLE CATEGORY–

MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT OF A GENERIC SPECIFICATION

FOR  AIRCREW SIMULATORS

Joseph T. Cianfrani

Naval Air Systems Command

This is the era of acquisition streamlining, budget reductions, and increased emphasis on government efficiency.  The need for one specification to embody all aircrew simulator requirements is a prominent goal to achieve these ends.  It is needed and has been tried before but, thus far, has met with limited success.  In December 1986, the Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR), PMA-205, responsible for procurement of all aircraft simulators, undertook this goal once again.

This paper will present these generic specification efforts in three parts, the first of whish is PMA-205’s initial philosophy of why the need to go to a generic system/segment specification (an “A” spec).  Based on this need PMA-205 formulated the “A” spec, issued it through a Commerce Business Daily (CBD) announcement to one hundred and thirty-five companies, and reviewed their responses.

This brings us to the second part of the paper: industry’s comments and reactions to the draft specification that were requested in the CBD announcement.  The replies from industry were received and a summary of these comments will be provided, with the more advanced concepts being discussed in detail.

Subsequent to industry’s response, discussions between the Naval Training Systems Center and NAVAIR transpired.  NTSC provided PMA-205 with the idea of a slightly more detailed “A” specification; hence, and “A+” or a “B-“ (less detailed B) type spec.  With these innovations, NAVAIR arrived at what is the final section of this paper: The “A” Spec’s evolution into a “modified” development specification.  As part of this final section, a detailed discussion will be provided on trade-off approaches in such areas as motion, visual, and computer systems, and uniting the requirements analysis with the specification.

This paper will compare the specification streamlining that was evoked to previous specifications, and the approach PMA-205 expects contractors to use in responding to future Requests For Proposals.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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NEW IDF TRAINING MIL STANDARD FOR

COST EFFECTIVE TRAINING CHOICES

Avi Kedem, Manager

Training R & D

Israel Aircraft Industries Training Plan

Ben Gurion Airport

Dr. Johnathan Smilansky, Director

Assessment, Training and Development Practice

Hay Management Consultants

Shimon Weiss

Training R & D

Israel Aircraft Industries Training Plan

Ben Gurion Airport

This presentation will describe a new training MIL STANDARD used by the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) to enable accurate specification of operator and maintenance-training requirements related to new weapon systems acquisitions.

Previous attempts to use the ISD approach as in the MIL STANDARD 1379 proved extremely cumbersome and did not enable the IDF to receive high quality training programs and training aids.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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APPLICATION OF EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES TO INCREASE

SHIPBOARD TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS

Craig R. Bradenbaugh

Gerald R. Pech

AAI Corporation

Historically, Naval combat training has been provided in classrooms, shore-based simulators and via at-sea exercises.  Advances in miniaturization and performance of computing and simulation equipment have, in recent years, opened doors to realistic and cost-effective pierside, onboard and embedded training for combat system teams on individual ships and groups of ships, potentially to the battle force level.  Simulation-driven shipboard training is now and integral element in the entire combat training continuum.  Enhancements to shipboard combat system team training capability over the next decade will occur in two areas:  (1) embedded, OBT and pierside trainers will become smaller, more capable and less expensive, and (2) practical interfaces will be developed to integrate the various trainer types for combined use.  Pierside trainers need to interface to more types of sensors and they need to be made smaller simpler and faster to hood up for training, and require less pierside equipment such as the large vans.  OBT devices planned for ship installation can be integrated with the pierside or embedded trainer system scenarios to play to the entire combat system.  Sensors with embedded training capability can also be integrated with the scenario driven by pierside systems.  Industry needs to utilize its technological base to optimize the trade-off between cost, space, weight, maintainability, and usability so that mission-specific training scenarios and evaluation can be presented to entire combat teams on the maximum possible number of US Navy ships.  Through the combined efforts of Government and industry, technological advances can be turned into the tools we need to provide the surface Navy with the best combat systems training ever.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TRAINING EVALUATION DATA COLLECTION

Mark W. Coe

Coe-Truman Technologies, Inc.

Robert Riggins

U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratory

Interstate Research Park

The acquisition of training evaluation data for inclusion in the Army’s Integrated Training Management System (ITMS) generates great challenges.  The nature and scope of the Army’s training domain place new stresses on field acquisition devices.  The volume of training data generated from squad level up and its importance within ITMS dictate that an automated acquisiton solution must be found.  Barcode scanning and voice recognition technologies are examined as non-computational or “acquisition-only” field devices and are found to provide advantages for many types of training activity, from garrison to National Training Center.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A UNIQUE SOLUTION FOR TRAINING AIR REFUELING TASKS IN AN OFT

David J. Kramer

Reflectone, Inc.

Upon initiating the recent procurement of a new OFT for a Navy tactical aircraft, NTSC was faced with a design problem: how to position the wide field-of-view day visual system in order to provide effective training for ground-referenced aircraft operations (takeoff, landing, enroute navigation, maneuvering flight, spin recovery) and also provide training in air refueling.  The trainer’s manufacturer developed a unique solution: install the trainee station cockpit on a separate buffet platform capable of operation at two different pitch attitudes, and mount the buffet platform on the motion base along with, but separate from, the visual system.  Using this design, most flight training activities are conducted with both the motion base and the buffet platform oriented horizontally.  For air refueling training, the buffet platform is pitched 10 degrees nose down while the motion base is pitched 10 degrees nose up, thereby repositioning the visual field-of-view along the cockpit centerline 10 degrees upward.  Not only does this arrangement provide effective field-of view coverage for all training tasks, but it substantially reduces the vibration stress on the display components of the visual system by isolating them from the high-frequency vibration and buffet cues which are now applied only to the cockpit.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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AN ANALYSIS OF TWO ROTOR DYNAMIC MODELING METHODS

FOR FLIGHT SIMULATION

H. L. Jeffords and Howard Landmann

Reflectone, Inc.

Today there is several methods available to model helicopter rotor dynamics.  The question facing helicopter simulator users is which of these methods will provide the fidelity he requires and at what cost?  Fidelity us defined as the ability of the simulator model to reproduce the response of the aircraft throughout the flight envelope.  Cost can be broken down into three categories: 1) data required supporting the model. 2) Computer speed and memory to execute the model in real time, and 3) ease in which modifications can be made to the model in order to match flight-test data.  The purpose of this paper is to compare fidelity and cost of two methods of rotor dynamic modeling currently available: The Wheatley Bailey approach extended to include blade dynamics, and a Blade Element approach.  Wheatley Bailey makes numerous simplifying assumptions to allow closed form integration of the blade motion, forces, and moments.  The blade element approach solves the same equations but reduces the number of assumptions necessary to do so.  It accomplishes this by dividing the blade up into several segments, “elements”, solving the forces and moments on each segment for several azimuthal positions around the disc and then sums all segments at all azimuths.  The blade element approach includes non-linear inertial and aerodynamic effects applicable to high inflow rations and large blade angles.  The comparison of these two methods is one of a complex equation solved once per revolution to a simple equation solved hundreds of times per revolution.

Performance tests were run using the Sikorsky SH-60F helicopter criteria data in order to establish the major advantages and disadvantages of the two methods, and how each model can be best applied based on the customer requirements.  Performance test results are shown for trim level flight, climbs, descents, and control power.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DETERMINATION OF HELICOPTER SIMULATOR TIME DELAY

AND ITS EFFECTS ON AIR VEHICLE DEVELOPMENT

John Woltkamp, Member Technical Staff

S. Ramachandran, Ph.D., Chief Division Engineer

Roger Branson, Section Manager

McDonnell Douglas Helicopter Company

McDonnell Douglas Helicopter Company recently undertook a study to determine the actual simulator hardware time delay in all the simulators.  It also investigated the effect of time delay on pilot performance and his aircraft evaluation in an engineering design environment.  This paper describes the system architecture, techniques of measuring thruput delays, and initial study results.  The average simulator delay was 87 milliseconds for the simulator with conventional flight control with the host computer running at 60 Hz.  The average simulator delay was 101 milliseconds for the simulator with digital flight control system with the real time host executing at 30 Hz.  The first value is less than those reported in the open literature for most of the engineering and training simulators while the second value is on par with the state-of-the-art systems in the industry.  The second phase of the study involved systematically varying the simulator delays. Thus, data on the effect of time delay could be collected and used as a useful parameter in aircraft/simulator delays so that data on the effect of time delay could be collected and used as a useful parameter in aircraft/simulator design.  Pilot performance was recorded and subjective evaluations in the form of Cooper-Harper ratings were also obtained.  Analysis of pilot performance did not provide any dramatic changes due to increased simulator delays but did show that the pilot control activity increased in the low speed, high gain tasks.  It was found that with increased time delay the Cooper-Harper rating increased indicating degradation in perceived handling qualities.  However, for the type of helicopter simulated, there was not a definite time delay at which the ratings changed abruptly.  This indicates that for engineering design purposes while it is desirable to keep the delay to the absolute minimum, there may be sufficient flexibility in the design of the simulator to permit cost/capability trade-offs.  However, this needs to be further validated by additional tests that introduce pilot distractions (such as gusts) and force the pilot to increase his closed loop gain.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A FLEXIBLE EXPERT SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

FOR TACTICAL TRAINERS

Daniel I. Katcher

Sanders, A Lockheed Company

Information Systems Division

Tactical training devices, which range from operational equipment containing embedded training software to large classroom team trainers, will be significantly enhanced by the inclusion of expert systems that can ease the burdens on instructors and increase both the quality and efficiency of training.  To achieve these goals, we present a multi-layered architecture for an expert system, which is suitable for both smart (intelligent threat and assist) platforms and surrogate students, to replace missing teams or team members.  The architecture consists of asynchronous levels of tactical rules, which reflect layers of functional intelligence, and is naturally extensible to more complex layers of intelligence, including coordination between multiple platforms.  The design was driven by a need to better address in the expert system how humans plan and react in uncertain and time-constrained environments.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THREAT SIMULATION–A COMPARISON OF TWO TECHNIQUES

Nathaniel R. League

Electronic Combat Operations

AAI Corporation

In an Electronic Warfare (EW) training environment it is necessary to model threat raiders and weapons systems in order to set up specific training missions.  These threats react to the student’s actions throughout the training session.  This paper discusses what threat reactions are and why they are required.  The paper then presents two different techniques for controlling the threat’s reactions to student actions in a training environment.  One technique is more complex but offers greater flexibility.  The other technique is more generic and less complex for the user but offers less flexibility.

The first techniques use an interpretive language that allows the user to program the reactions of each threat in the training environment.  Examples of how this language is used to program threats are given.  With this technique, the threats are completely flexible.  However, in addition to understanding EW systems, the user must be a capable programmer in order to properly code and debug the threats.

The second technique uses generic threat reaction algorithms.  Examples of these reaction algorithms are presented.  This technique is less flexible than the first technique because is has a limited number of algorithms which are utilized repeatedly to simulate all of the threats in the training environment.  However, the user need only fill in the blanks on a preprinted CRT display in order to define the threat reaction decision data.  This technique requires that the user have a basic understanding of EW systems.  But, the user does not need to be a programmer.

The two techniques are presented individually, then compared to highlight the differences in cost, lines of code, memory and CPU time.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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EXPERT SYSTEM AND INTERACTIVE VIDEODISC–

A POWERFUL COMBINATION

Dennis C. Hribar, Ed.D. Training Program Developer

John A. DiDuro, Logistic Engineer

Newport News Shipbuilding

Newport News Shipbuilding (NNS) has integrated videodisc media with expert system (ES) technology to create an innovative method for the delivery of submarine maintenance information.  NNS has developed and ES entitled Scrubber, which supports Navy efforts to modernize the distribution and use of technical information.  Scrubber delivers maintenance information about the Carbon Dioxide Scrubber via menus or interactive dialogue.  This videodisc-based ES can be easily adapted to facilitate maintenance and diagnostics of any complex piece of equipment or machinery.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE SEA KING MK 5 FULL MISSION SIMULATOR FOR THE ROYAL NAVY PROCUREMENT, PRODUCTION AND PERFORMANCE IN SERVICE

Barry Fairhead, Principal Scientific Officer

Directorate of Avionic Equipment & Systems

Procurement Executive, United Kingdom Ministry of Defense

John Tickle, Business Development

Ferranti Computer Systems Ltd.<