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EXPERIENCES IN WRITING READABLE AND UNDERSTANDABLE ADA

John Glaize, Staff Scientist

CAE-Link Corporation

A critical and much-publicized advantage of the Ada programming language is the potential for producing more reliable, maintainable software by enhancing program readability and understandability.  Many people in the programming community have wondered just how well this potential would be realized on a large-scale Ada project.  Is it really easier to read and understand Ada code?  The CAE-Link Corporation, utilizing the actual code developed on the B-2 Aircrew Training Device, has now been afforded the opportunity to investigate this question.  This paper presents some of the issues raised and the results discovered by this investigation.  A critical issue is the recommended naming of language components such as packages, subprograms, parameters, types, and objects, as well as how readability is affected by the various contexts in which the components can appear.  Other issues are program formatting, renaming of components, and the length and understandability of the Ada statements.  The system architecture, which defines the relationship and interconnection of program components, is very important for ensuring understandability of the systems as a whole.  Finally, the paper addresses the training that is necessary to educate engineers in the art of writing and of reading Ada programs.  The conclusion is that Ada programs are not inherently more readable and understandable, but that successful Ada development in this area requires special awareness of the issues and unique programming efforts.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ADA TYPES:  THE CORNERSTONE OF SIMULATION MODELS

David C. Gross and Lynn D. Stuckey, Jr.

Boeing Defense and Space Group

Missiles and Space Division

System simulation is the definition, control, and implementation of algorithmic models that replicate a system’s real world behavior.  Developing a useful simulation model requires a clear abstraction of the system.  Software engineering supports abstraction by imposing a consistent structure on objects.  One structural feature introduced by recent programming languages is strong [data] typing, aiming at two benefits: clarification of the design and enhancement of model verification.  Strong typing clarifies the design by controlling the characteristics of an object, and enhances model verification by revealing errors early in the design cycle.  Designers have traditionally viewed strong typing only as over-restricting the mixture of data units (e.g., meter versus degrees), an experience, which has left a bad taste in many mouths.  However, strong typing is a multifaceted tool, which can apply to a broad range of software design problems.  Simulation model designers can use Ada types to define, control, and implement models yielding:

1)       requirements consistency and traceability,

2)       interface definition/control,

3)       maintainability,

4)       reusability, and

5)       portability.

Because designers imagine and implement complex systems in parallel, projects can suffer from the fracturing effect of multiple visions of the final product.  Strong typing can unify the system design; however, strong typing is only a tool – the availability of which does not ensure its correct application.  The challenge is to successfully implement it.  This paper examines the successful use of Ada types for the design of simulation models, and points out the pitfalls of extreme approaches such as no typing and over-typing.  It presents Ada types as a scheme for enforcing a single system structure and as a foundation for generic simulation models.  Finally, the paper discusses how types impact the software’s lifecycle.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE CHALLENGES OF DEVELOPING A REAL-TIME ENVIRONMENT IN ADA

Walter E. Zink, Sr., and Jill M. Neebe

CAE-Link Corporation

With fewer and fewer exceptions, the Department of Defense is requiring Ada to be the sole programming language for all new software-related projects.  In addition, these new projects are expected to achieve higher levels of maintainability from a software perspective.  Experience shows that these seemingly unobtrusive requirements manifest themselves in a very large variety of unforeseen challenges and implicit requirements.  This paper overviews an Ada real-time flight simulation environment based on an implementation for the B-2 Aircrew Training Device (ATD) and the challenges encountered in going from concept to product.  Three areas of challenge are involved in building this environment.  The first concerns the control of software units distributed across processors and groups of processors.  Another area of concern is providing input/output services to all units in Ada, which even the operating system does not readily support.  The third area covers selected obstacles encountered in developing a pure Ada implementation of a system to support unit interfaces.  The resultant real-time environment represents an effective blend of Ada and traditional techniques.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DRLMS TECHNOLOGY–A CRITICAL ASSESSMENT OF THE

 STATE-OF-THE-ART

John D. Stengel, Jr.

Science Applications International Corporation

Thomas W. Hoog

United States Air Force/Aeronautical Systems Division

It was 20 years ago that the training community stopped to make an assessment of radar simulation fidelity and effectiveness.  An evaluation of analog systems, which had served well for many years, identified that many of the inherent limitations could be overcome if modern digital technology were applied.  Project 1183 and the acquisition of digital radar landmass simulation (DRLMS) systems for the Navy A-6E Weapon System Trainer and Air Force Undergraduate Navigation Training System helped make the transition from analog to digital radar training systems a reality.  During the last 10 years, radar simulation technology has been significantly impacted with the introduction of training requirements for high-resolution synthetic aperture radar (SAR) systems.  Now, in 1991, we are again at a time appropriate to reevaluate the progress we have made and the effectiveness of today’s DRLMS systems.  The objective of this paper will be to provide a brief history of radar simulation, make an assessment of the successes as well as specific problems and issues associated with the simulation of high resolution radar systems, identify an approach based on video processing of optical sources that could lead to satisfying many current and future radar simulation requirements, and introduce alternative approaches for specifying the performance of future DRLMS systems based on a more rigorous assessment of training needs and the benefits that might be anticipated.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ACTIVE SONAR CLASSIFICATION TRAINING USING RECORDED DATA

Dr. Leonard D. Healy

Naval Training Systems Center

M. Gette Beauvais

Applied Research Laboratories

The improved technology for quieting submarines has placed a renewed interest in the use of active sonar in Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW).  This increases the need for training ASW operators in the effective use of active sonar, particularly in the classification of an active sonar contact as either a target (submarine) or a non-target (e.g., a seamount or a school of fish).  Current trainers using synthetically generated contacts do not provide the realism needed for classification training.  Operators have very little change to practice using actual acoustic contact.

This paper describes two demonstration models of a trainer using recorded acoustic contacts for active sonar classification training.  The demonstration models were developed by Applied Research Laboratories, The University of Texas at Austin (ARL:UT), under the sponsorship of the Naval Training Systems Center (NTSC).  The first is DEC MicroVAX based and is compatible with the hardware available in the Passive Acoustic Analysis Trainers (Devices 21H14 and 14E40).  The second is personnel computer (PC) based and provides a much less expensive implementation.  Both models provide the CRT display and the audio signal available in the operational sonar.  The result is a trainer that provides the realism needed for classification training.  The low cost of these units should make them applicable to the full spectrum of operator training, from classroom training to on-board refresher training.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A LOW-COST/HIGH PERFORMANCE SENSOR SIMULATION

THE NEXT GENERATION

John Burkley and Andrew Gurcak

Loral Defense Systems-Akron

This paper describes a real time Sensor Simulation system that utilizes an array of processors organized in a fine-grain multi-instruction multi-data stream (MIMD) computer architecture.  The application described here is for a multi-mode radar simulation.  The software was developed using the structural model with coding in Ada.  The methodology for implementing a radar simulation on this architecture, database storage, and software development approaches will be discussed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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GUIDELINES FOR EMBEDDED TRAINING DECISIONS

Bob G. Witmer & Bruce W. Knerr

U.S. Army Research Institute

PM TRADE Field Unit

While Army policy requires training developers to consider embedded training (ET) first and foremost among training options, effective implementation of this policy has been hampered by the lack of specific procedures for determining what to embed early in prime system development.  This paper describes specific procedures that assist a user in making those early ET decisions.  Although task information has traditionally been the primary criterion used in selecting media for training, it is thought to be less important in deciding when to use ET than are the following factors:  policy; system availability for training; the technical feasibility of ET implementation; the effects of ET on system reliability, availability, and maintainability; the impact of ET on system manpower and personnel requirements; the need for training-specific interface hardware; safety; and cost-effectiveness.  These factors are incorporated in three sets of flowcharts, designed to be used in different stages of the acquisition process.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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APPLICATION OF A KNOWLEDGE COMPILATION MODEL OF INSTRUCTION TO EMBEDDED TRAINING

Thomas F. Carolan

University of Central Florida

Institute for Simulation and Training

Kent E. Williams

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

Management System Laboratories

Nina Chatham

ORAU Postgraduate Research

Participation Program

Naval Training Systems Center

Considerable research has been directed at understanding the processes involved in acquiring and using knowledge and skills.  One focus of this cognitive research is the application of formal models of learning and knowledge representation to the design of computer based instruction.  Advances in adaptive instruction and intelligent tutoring have been driven by implementing explicit models of the knowledge to be learned, and the strategies used to communicate that knowledge.  Two recent experiments, employing Navy personnel, have demonstrated the effectiveness of using a formal approach to instruction in an embedded training environment.

The design of the instructional material began with a fine grain analysis to determine the knowledge to be learned and to develop the basic structures upon which the adaptive processes operate.  There is evidence that curriculum content, which is generated from the results of an explicit cognitive analysis process enhances learning.  In the first experiment the effectiveness of using a cognitive analysis process to structure the information and an adaptive process to sequence the information was evaluated for domain naïve students.  In the second experiment the effectiveness of the knowledge compilation approach was evaluated using Navy instructors.  The results of this research are discussed in the context of the application of current cognitive learning research to embedded training.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SPEECH RECOGNITION IN REALTIME TRAINING

METHODS OF RECOGNITION RECOVERY

Lynne M. Pusanik

Logicon, Inc.

Tactical and Training Systems

In the last twenty years, speech technology has progressed from very small vocabularies spoken with isolated speech to very large vocabularies using continuous speech.  Since the field of speech technology is relatively new, the focus has been on achieving perfect recognition, the “expected” result.  Unfortunately, misrecognition and inappropriate commands produce “unexpected” results.  Identification and treatment of these results can be nearly as important during training as achieving the “expected” result.  “Unexpected” results inherent in using speech recognition can be used to enhance training.  This paper classifies different types of unexpected results and presents methods for dealing with them.  Emphasis is placed on optimizing the training environment versus optimizing the operational environment.  The rejection of recognition results with low confidence levels is discussed as well as its applications.  Examples from Logicon’s Tower Operator Training System (TOTS) and Advanced Shipboard ATC Training System/Shore Based Radar ATC Training System (ASATS/SATS) are presented.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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VIRTUAL REALITY–THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

Richard A. Thurman

Joseph S. Mattoon

Armstrong Laboratory

Aircrew Training Research Division (AL/HRAU)

The concept of virtual reality and the wave of research and development accompanying it are creating new forms of simulation that may lead to fundamental improvements in simulation-based training.  However, because virtual reality is a relatively new concept within the training community, there seems to be a few misconceptions concerning what virtual realities are, how they are created, and how they can be used.  In an effort to clarify readers’ understanding concerning virtual realities, this paper examines three dimensions that will describe virtual reality’s role and effectiveness in simulation-based training.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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FORWARD LOOKING INFRARED SIMULATION FIDELITY IN AIRCREW TRAINING DEVICES

Peter M. Crane

Armstrong Laboratory

Aircrew Training Research Division

Williams Air Force Base

Simulating FLIR imagery requires integration of visual simulation technology with IR modeling and prediction.  Analyses of simulated FLIR and consideration of training needs indicates that high fidelity simulation of all FLIR components is not required for many aircrew training applications.  The different components of FLIR simulation i.e., predicting IR exitance from surface features, modeling atmospheric attenuation, and simulating sensor effects, are independent and an appropriate level of simulation complexity for each component must be selected for a particular application.  Effective combinations of component fidelity for various training applications are described.  Simulating sensor and atmospheric effects on FLIR imagery will have a high training payoff for many applications at relatively low cost.  Developing a FLIR simulation system which will support thermally accurate IR predictions for any user specified mission scenario will require extensive development and data base support; the training applications which require such systems are limited. 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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RAPID-RESPONSE IMAGING SENSOR SIMULATION

Budimir Zvolanek and Erwin W. Baumann

McDonnell Douglas Training Systems

Simulation of infrared, radar, and other imaging sensors plays an important role in the planning and rehearsal of military missions and in the training of mission personnel.  The challenge is to develop technology that can use recently acquired intelligence information to quickly simulate cockpit sensor displays that accurately represent the real world while insuring correlation with the out-of-the-window displays and among the sensors.

This paper describes a novel, neural-network-based technique for infrared and radar image simulation directly from multi-spectral imagery.  Source imagery, its processing using neural networks, and infrared and radar image simulation results are presented.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SENSOR DATA BASE CORRELATION

Dale H. Fawcett

Loral Defense Systems-Akron

As modern aircraft become more dependent upon sensors, sensor correlation presents a growing challenge for modern mission rehearsal devices and multi-sensor training devices.  The crew members are learning to perform full mission functions using a variety of sensors.  These sensor displays must appear realistic and correlate correctly to provide for low level flight and sensor discrimination tasks.  This is especially important in crew coordination tasks in mission rehearsal devices.  The correlation problem can exist in training devices since sensor data bases are often procured from different vendors or generated from different source material.  Technology limits of the image generators compound this problem by reducing the number of features that can be represented in the scene.  Developers must construct sensor databases carefully, with certain compromises, to assure realistic training while maintaining sufficient correlation and accuracy.

This paper describes how Loral is applying this critical technology, learned on the F-15EWST, to the Special Operations Forces (SOF) Aircrew Training System (ATS).  Loral is generating a set of databases to support visual, EO/IR, and various radar sensor simulations with a high degree of correlation.  These databases also meet a high accuracy specification to the digital, map, and photo source data, while being produced in only 48 hours.  In addition, the interactive threat simulation entities correlate with all of these databases.  The result is highly realistic training and mission rehearsal devices, which overcome the sensor correlation problems. 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TRAINING IN BATTLEFIELD OBSCURANTS

Rudolph R. Gammarino

Loral Electro-Optical Systems

James W. Surhigh

U.S. Army, PM TRADE

A laser training system entitled Shoot Through Obscuration MILES (STOM) is being developed to operate with the Forward Looking InfraRed (FLIR) system during battlefield exercises.  The STOM system is capable of ranges in excess of 6 km and can penetrate battlefield obscurants such as fog-oil, smoke, and dust.  It is designed to complement the existing Multiple Integrated Laser Engagement System (MILES), which cannot successfully penetrate obscurants that limit visibility but can be penetrated by the FLIR.

STOM employs a rf excited CO2 laser which operates in the center of the FLIR’s spectral window at 10.6 um.  The laser is sealed, non-cooled, and can generate 9mJ laser pulses at relatively high repetition rates consistent with laser safety requirements.  The STOM system uses a newly developed non-cooled pyroelectric detector receiver.

A prototype STOM system has been tested with various battlefield obscurants through which hit(s) can be obtained on targets that are visually obscured but can be seen with a FLIR.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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STANDARD PROTOCOL DATA UNITS FOR ENTITY INFORMATION AND INTERACTION IN A DISTRIBUTED INTERACTIVE SIMULATION

L. Bruce McDonald, Ph.D. and Christina Pinon Bouwens

Institute For Simulation and Training

Ronald Hofer, Ph.D., Gene Wiehagen, and Karen Danisas

Army Project Manager for Training Devices

Colonel James Shiflett

OSD Defense Models and Simulations Office

PM TRADE and DARPA have funded the University of Central Florida Institute for Simulation and Training (UCF/IST) to develop a Draft Standard for the Interoperability of Defense Simulations at the protocol data unit level.  The second Draft of the standard was completed in February 1991.  The consensus of government and industry opinion was that the document represented a major step forward toward interoperability of dissimilar simulations.  Based on inputs from government, industry and academia at four workshops, IST has developed a final draft standard for submittal as a DOD standard.  This paper presents the contents of this standard, its intended use and its anticipated impact on the simulation and training industry.  Discussion of the standard’s contents includes the protocol data units, their intended use and the underlying communications architecture.  The paper also addresses future revisions of the standard and the attendant expanded capabilities.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE CAPABILITY OF THE DISTRIBUTED INTERACTIVE SIMULATION NETWORKING STANDARD TO SUPPORT HIGH FIDELITY AIRCRAFT SIMULATION

Edward P. Harvey

BMH Associates, Inc.

Richard L. Schaffer

BBN Systems and Technologies

How will U.S. tactical aviation forces train for future conflict?  The prevailing budgetary climate will force a reduction in the frequency of training operations using actual equipment for some time to come.  One cost-effective means for U.S. combat forces to conduct training is through the application of distributed simulation technology.  A large scale simulation network which is based on the new Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) draft military standard for simulator networking and is accessible by the components of all three services will be the likely medium for conduct of this type training.

DIS networking protocols evolved from ground vehicle networking protocols developed during the U.S. Army/DARPA SIMNET program.  It is therefore understandable that some misconceptions may exist over the capability of DIS to provide sufficiently accurate vehicle position and orientation data for high performance aircraft simulation.  High performance tactical aircraft simulation requires a high degree of vehicle position and orientation accuracy for conduct of fully effective training.  Operational community acceptance is dependent upon the capability of a DIS network to support all potential high performance aircraft combat interactions including air-to-air missile engagements and air-to-air gunnery.

This paper will quantitatively detail DIS vehicle position and orientation accuracies throughout the potential range of simulated aircraft maneuvering capability.  Entity State (position/orientation) Protocol Data Unit (PDU) transmission frequencies for differing order Dead Reckoning (DR) algorithms will be empirically derived for the F-16 fighter aircraft performing the dynamic Paris airshow flight routine.  Average Entity State PDU transmission frequencies will be presented as a function of dead reckoning algorithm threshold values.  This data will show the capability of the DIS networking standard to support high fidelity aviation training tasks, even those requiring precise real-time position updates such as air-to-air gunnery, while achieving significant network bandwidth reductions. 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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APPLICATION OF THE SIMNET UNIT PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT SYSTEM TO AFTER ACTION REVIEWS

Larry L. Meliza

U.S. Army Research Institute PM TRADE Field Unit

Seng Chong Tan

University of Central Florida Institute for Simulation and Training

Simulation Networking (SIMNET) provides a means to supplement collective field training, but research is needed to develop a SIMNET training strategy.  The U.S. Army Research Institute (ARI) and Perceptronics developed a prototype PC-based Unit Performance Assessment System (UPAS) to collect time-tagged data on firing events and vehicle status from the SIMNET network and display data summaries.  The UPAS is intended to assist in preparing unit performance summaries necessary to provide units with feedback during After Action Reviews (AARs) and conduct training research.  This paper describes a project by ARI and the Institute for Simulation and Training (IST) involving the design and software implementation of procedures for combining network data with non-network data within the UPAS to support the preparation of improved AAR aids.  These aids may be applied to future generations of networked simulators such as the Close Combat Tactical Trainer (CCTT).

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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OBJECT-ORIENTED ANALYSIS–THE TRANSITION FROM REQUIREMENTS ANALYSIS TO DESIGN

Jerry H. Hendrix

Boeing Defense and Space Group

Simulation and Training Systems

Software development in today’s complex technological society is becoming the “tentpole” for trainer program slides and cost overruns.  The Department of Defense has recognized this crisis and built stringent software standards such as DoD-STD-2167 and DoD-STD-2167A and required a common computer software language.  Contractor approaches are needed to minimize software development complexity and provide the training customer with a concise software development methodology to produce concurrent training equipment.  The next generation of training equipment, built concurrently with the aircraft, such as ATF and LH trainer programs, must provide a thorough software development approach to provide maximum reusability of software from the air vehicle to the training equipment.

This paper discusses an approach that allows simplicity when building software in a complex environment. It presents a way of allowing software contractors to develop simpler, more precise software specifications that map directly to preliminary software designs.  For many years, software developments have focused on the transition between design and implementation due to inadequate software development methodologies and software languages that don’t portray design understanding.  Specifications have been written too early in development, resulting in the loss of all mapping of requirements to design.  During implementation phases, developers lose sight of program and software requirements.  The use of object-oriented principles, automated tools, Ada, and flexible company standards can result in flexible, concurrent software projects.  Specifically, this paper will give a candidate approach to transition from object-oriented requirements analysis to object-abstracted design within the guidelines of DoD-STD-2167A principles.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SOFTWARE RELIABILITY MEASUREMENT ON THE B-2 AIRCREW TRAINING

DEVICE (ATD)

Bruce R. Bedford, Senior Staff Engineer

CAE-Link Corporation

As the developer of the B-2 ATD, CAE-Link was tasked with building a very complex, software intensive training device.  The development of the software was directly influenced by many leading edge technologies and philosophies.  The B-2 ATD was the first project at CAE-Link to use Ada, object-oriented design, DOD-STD-2167A, and modern software reliability techniques.  Specifically, our customer requested that we address software reliability measurement issues with creativity and innovative techniques.  We chose to use McCabe’s Cyclomatic Complexity Metric and Musa’s Basic Execution Time Model.  This paper covers the history of the B-2ATD startup with software reliability measurement, our research in the area, the plan that we employed, and our experiences as the plan was implemented.  It also includes data gathered through the use of automated tools, as well as remaining planned activity.  Complexity, testability, maintainability, mean time between failures, education, and practical application all impacted our first real experience with software reliability measurement and are included in this paper.  As the size and complexity of the software within aircrew training devices continue to grow, we must strive to find methods to measure its reliability.  This paper is presented, in the words of software reliability pioneer John Musa, “in order that others may stand on our shoulders, rather than our feet.”

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SOFTWARE METRICS, ADA, AND THE B-2 ATD

Paul E. McMahon, Staff Scientist

Dennis W. Meehl, Section Head

CAE-Link Corporation

Many believe the greatest benefit of Ada is that it encourages software engineers to explore new design appr5oaches leading to higher quality software.  However, Ada’s primary goal is to reduce the life cycle cost of software.  Furthermore, the relationship between cost and modern software techniques is not always evident.  This paper addresses the cost of Ada software.  How long does it take an engineer to develop software when using Ada and modern software engineering techniques?  How much computational capacity does Ada require?  This paper provides answers to these questions based on data from the B-2 Aircrew Training Device (ATD).  Lines of code, development time, and computational resources are provided for selected B-2 ATD software systems.  Key contributing factors include the cost of training engineers in modern software techniques and the impact caused by developing and using more modern software tools.  This paper identifies key factors found on the B-2 ATD to be influential in affecting today’s software cost and explains what we are doing to reduce this impact in the future.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC PROPAGATION MODELING FOR DISTRIBUTED SIMULATION

James J. Gonzalez

BBN Systems and Technologies

Advanced Simulation

Bolt, Beranek and Newman, Inc.

As the training industry converges on standards for Distributed Interactive Simulation, the next critical need is for better representations of electromagnetic propagation phenomena.  Realistic radio simulation is essential for proper representation of command, control and communication functions.  Accurate radar simulation is critical for the representation of various sensor and weapon systems for many types of platforms.  Electronic countermeasures and counter-countermeasures must also be incorporated to adequately reflect the growing complexity of the modern battlefield.

This paper describes some electromagnetic propagation models that have been implemented for simulations commissioned by the U>S> Army Communications-Electronics Command (CECP) and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and discusses the “lessons learned” from those efforts.  An approach for the efficient computation of radar intervisibility and target detection is described.  Finally the DIS protocol extensions that will be needed to support and extend these models are discussed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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PACKETIZED VOICE FOR SIMULATED COMMAND,

CONTROL, AND COMMUNICATION

Thomas L. Gehl

International Business Machines Corporation

To improve its military readiness in today’s budget environment, the Department of Defense needs advanced techniques that provide effective command control, and communication (C3) training of its personnel with fewer resources.  Government, industry, and academia are working to specify the distributed interactive simulation (DIS) environment, which consists of protocol data units (PDUs) that contain information about the simulated entities, a communication architecture that provides the necessary services for networked simulation, image generation databases to represent the physical environment, and performance measures for evaluation of both the simulation and training processes.  This paper discussed an innovative method of integrating voice for command, control, and communication into the DIS environment.  The radio communication and digitized voice characteristics that affect the C3 training architecture will be discussed.  A packetized voice architecture will be proposed that provides functional radio capabilities such as (1) selecting channels of a radio communication device, (2) receiving and listening to multiple voices on one radio channel, (3) selecting filters to emulate the radio communication signatures, and (4) providing environmental effects on voice communications.  The performance issues of prototyping the packetized voice architecture and a proposed DIS PDU for packetized voice will be presented.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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USING PARALLEL ADA IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF SIMULATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS

Gary Croucher and Don Law

Encore Computer Corporation

As simulation and training systems become more complex, vendors must rely on the ability of the target system to meet the processing needs of the application.  The ever-increasing complexity of today’s training systems has exceeded the processing capabilities of many single CPU systems.  As an alternative, more and more vendors are now considering multi-processor systems.

The Ada language is the logical choice as a software environment for developing these large-scale applications.  The Ada tasking mechanism can be extended to schedule and distribute tasks over multiple processors.  This resulting parallel Ada runtime is capable of executing Ada tasks in parallel, while upholding the rules of the Ada language.

The decision to migrate to a parallel Ada environment is an important one involving many important factors.  The intention of this study is to provide the applications developer with an insight into the specific features available in parallel Ada environments, and which features will be most useful throughout the life cycle of his application.  With this information, the decision-maker should be able to determine if a parallel Ada target environments provide the individual features most essential to the success of his application.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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EFFICIENCY AS A PART OF SOUND SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

DOES ADA NEED C?

Marc L. Howell and Lynn D. Stuckey, Jr.

Boeing Defense and Space Group

Missiles and Space Division

As high-level computer languages (e.g. FORTRAN) became the required standard for new software implementation, simulation contractors began to seek exceptions for certain high utilization procedures.  The contractors protested that they simply could not meet the customer’s execution efficiency requirements if the language requirement was rigidly enforced.  Customers frequently agreed to a marriage of convenience mixing FORTRAN and assembly language.  The resulting problems of language mix helped lead the Department of Defense to develop a next generation language as the basis for all embedded systems are even more stringent than real time simulation, one might have expected that Ada would fulfill the real time simulation speed requirements.  However, as Ada has become the required simulation language in recent years, new contractor complaints about execution speed and memory usage have arisen.  Contractors have sought waivers for these systems to implement certain procedures in the C language (the next generation assembly language) to improve efficiency. 

The accepted truism has been that since a low level language executes so much faster and requires less memory than high level languages, then the loss to the customer of the desired features of the high order language is worth the gain in efficiency.  Does this idea equally apply to applications using Ada?  Is an Ada-C marriage convenient, much less in the customer’s best interest?  This paper presents a contrasting experience in two software applications that have traditionally been targets for language waivers: low level interface drivers and multi-dimensional interpolations.  The paper discusses the specific benefits and costs of developing such applications in Ada and in C.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DO YOU SEE WHAT I SEE?

INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES FOR TACTICAL DECISION MAKING TEAMS

Janis A. Cannon-Bowers, Ph.D.

Eduardo Salas, Ph.D.

Catherine V. Baker, M.A.

Naval Training Systems Center

Military tasks often require the coordinated effort of a team of operators for successful execution.  In tactical decision making situations, team members must gather, integrate and communicate crucial information in support of decisions where an incorrect response can have catastrophic consequences.  Therefore, a viable goal of training for tactical decision making teams must be to improve the quality of teamwork and team coordination.  It has been argued recently that the nature of teamwork and coordination behavior can be understood in terms of mental model theory.  The notion of “mental models” has been invoked as an explanatory mechanism by those studying skilled performance and system control for a number of years.  With respect to training, several researchers have suggested that the goal of instruction should be to foster accurate mental representations of the task.  It is contended in this paper that the understanding the nature of teamwork.  Specifically, the ability of teams to coordinate activity and adapt to task demands in absence of overt communication opportunities may be hypothesized to be a result of shared mental models of the task and team among members.  A rationale for adopting the shared mental model hypothesis is presented, along with the implications of such a position for training design.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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INSTRUCTIONAL DISPLAY DESIGN FOR SUBMARINE TACTICS TRAINING

Dr. Thomas J. Hammell

Paradigm Associates

Dr. Robert H. Ahlers

Naval Training Systems Center

Instructional features, such as performance measurement and feedback, are widely accepted as integral elements of instructional systems, although their effectiveness is often compromised by inadequate use.  This investigation focused on the design of feedback displays used to convey information to students during debriefing following a team tactics training exercise.  Such feedback displays are essential components of tactics training but must be designed to motivate use.  Operational system displays and capabilities, which are familiar to instructors and students, were evaluated to determine if they could provide the basic mental model foundation on which to build instructional enhancements.  Feedback displays designed in accordance with instructor and student operation system mental models were found to facilitate user acceptance retrieval tasks performed by, twenty-one active duty submarine tactics instructors showed strong approval of the mental model feedback display design approach and superior information processing performance.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TACTICS AS DECISION MAKING–ISSUES IN TACTICAL TRAINING DEVELOPMENT

Jerome Bresee and Michael Naber

Delex Systems, Inc.

Military training system designs are typically optimized for the demonstration and practice of operational procedures, and seldom focus specifically on tactical decision making.  The normal approach for training systems design consistently suggests the maximum use of physical fidelity, while leaving the user to decide how to make use of that fidelity.  This is usually done by training the performance of tactical procedures in the environment that was used for the training of operating procedures.

This paper is based on the premise that training in tactical decision making has certain fundamental differences from procedural training and therefore different requirements for training strategies and media.  The paper offers som3e observations on the tasks that make up tactical decision making behavior, and identifies some related training requirements.  A set of guidelines for implementing these requirements is offered, followed by a description of some suggested training environments. 

Positions advanced in the paper are supported by experience gained through the development of tactical instruction and tactics-oriented training devices in naval submarine, surface and air warfare.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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INTEGRATED TRAINING AND REUSABLE SIMULATIONS

David G. Fish

Robert H. Harter

Loral Aerospace Corporation

Although electronic simulations are effective training tools for many different applications, they often exhibit two significant limitations: 1) they do not provide an integrated training environment; and 2) they are based on a concept that is not reusable for the implementation of additional systems.  During the development of courses used to train operators in the use of prime equipment, we developed an approach to overcome these limitations.  The approach involved a simulation methodology that would be reusable for different systems, in which each simulation would encompass features similar to those found in commercial computer-based training software.

A team of software engineers and instructional designers developed an environment in which students progress naturally from novice to advanced operator.  This progression is accomplished by providing the beginning student with many instructional prompts, helps, and supports; moving the student through incremental stages of less help and more independence; and ending the course with exercises are made possible by the use of table-driven data structures within the simulation software.  This technique allows instructional designers to create countless versions of a simulation exercise.

This paper describes the common limitations of training simulations, the methodology we used to overcome those limitations, and the table-driven data structures at the heart of the simulators we built for a DoD program called GUESTMASTER.  Additionally, we describe refinements we made after the initial implementation of this concept.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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APPROACHES TO AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL/AIR DEFENSE WORKSTATION SIMULATION AND TRAINING (CATEGORY: TECHNICAL)

Walter Sobkiw

A commonly desired approach to supporting air traffic control (ATC)/air defense (AD) embedded training and simulation activities is to provide the equivalent of a fielded system with additional hardware and software to support scenario generation and target generation functions.  The problem with this approach is that the ATC/AD workstations are costly subsystems and, during the later stages of the systems life cycle, organizations attempt to meet increasing training needs with low cost solutions that are not equivalent to the fielded systems.  Further, the training and simulation requirements of the organization tend to merge and simulators used for system upgrades and system studies are tasked with also providing training services.

This paper presents two contrasting approaches to providing generic ATC/AD training and simulation workstations.  The first approach was implemented by the FAA at the FAA Technical Center in the early 1980’s using workstations with removable bezels and shelves.  This was a hardware intensive approach with custom software to duplicate the existing En Route and Terminal Radar Approach Control (TRACON) ATC consoles.  The second approach is based on current technology using Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) workstations, Rapid Prototyping MMI Software, and variable function keys (buttons) on the monitor(s) to simulate the “knobology” of target workstations.  Both systems are contrasted from cost, complexity, and operational efficiency points of view.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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RECONFIGURABLE SIMULATORS FOR SPECIAL OPERATIONS FORCES MISSION REHEARSAL

Richard Vestewig

Perceptronics, Inc.

Carl Bergsneider

Loral Defense Systems

Capt Scott Richardson

ASD/YWSA

The Special Operations Forces Aircrew Training System (SOF ATS) is facing the challenge of providing Mission Rehearsal capability to SOF crews, for any complement of aircraft that the mission demands.  To meet this, SOF ATS is developing reconfigurable Mission Rehearsal Devices with the capability, through software and hardware changeout and modification, of providing simulators which look and act like any SOF aircraft.  The development of the reconfigurable MRDs required extensive analysis of aircraft commonality, mission requirements, and a unique concept of virtual displays coupled with working physical components.  The operational context for mission rehearsal in the SOF community is discussed.  Finally, research questions and how they may be answered in the SOF ATS mission rehearsal suite are addressed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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BATTLEFIELD SMOKE–A NEW DIMENSION IN NETWORKED SIMULATION

Rick D. Bess

Brian T. Soderberg

BBN Systems and Technologies Division

The use of atmospheric obscurants such as battlefield smoke to modern day tactics is critical.  Recent military activity in the Middle East Gulf Conflict has highlighted the impact of reduced visibility on manned vehicle and smart weapon system effectiveness.  Battlefield smoke is used for tactical cover and concealment, to silhouette targets, and to cause enemy disorientation and confusion.  The simulation of this feature will ensure faithful and comprehensive tactical team training for armor, and airborne vehicles.

The technical challenges presented by the simulation of volumetric atmospheric obscurants have hindered prior implementation of battlefield smoke in tactical trainers.  This paper considers technical limitations associated with simulation of visual effects of smoke using real-time computer image generation, as well as less obvious problems such as the effects of smoke on various sensors (e.g. thermal sensors).  Further, emphasis is given to challenges associated with creating a consistent and realistic simulation of smoke for trainers that are networked together in a distributed simulation environment.  Recent advances in real-time computer image generation and simulation system technology can now be applied to solutions for simulating battlefield smoke.

This paper provides an overview of the issues associated with the visual simulation of atmospheric obscurants (e.g., battlefield smoke) in tactical team training.  First, it reviews the training requirements for atmospheric obscurants in training systems by providing background on the tactical significance.  Secondly, the problems associated with simulating obscurants such as smoke in tactical trainers are discussed.  Finally, solutions to these problems are proposed.  Photographs and videotapes will be used to illustrate the benefits of proposed solutions.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ANTIALIASING WITHOUT SUPERSAMPLING

Walter Gish and Allen Tanner

Terabit Computer Engineering

Computer generated visual images can exhibit a variety of artifacts known collectively as aliasing.  These artifacts are distracting and counterproductive to the training process.  Thus removing these artifacts through antialiasing has become an important characteristic of every modern image generator.

While a variety of antialiasing techniques exists, image generator manufacturers have settled on a technique called supersampling.  Supersampling computes very high-resolution images and filters them down to match the resolution of the display.  The cost of computing these higher resolution images is significant.

This paper introduces a new approach to antialiasing that operates at the displayed resolution, without resorting to the added burden of generating a higher resolution image.  The ramifications for an emerging generation of compact, low cost display generators and visual simulators are discussed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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AN EVALUATION OF DOME DISPLAY SUITABILITY FOR SIDE-BY-SIDE CREWMEMBER VIEWING

Edward A. Martin

Aeronautical Systems Division

An evaluation was conducted to determine whether the distortions introduced when a dome display system is used with a cockpit configured for side-by-side seating would significantly impact the operational effectiveness of the simulator.  Specifically, the parallax and size distortion which arises due to the dome geometry were addressed.  Evaluators generally agreed that there are some problems involved in coping with the distortions produced in the dome display, but that they are not insurmountable.  All evaluators thought that the distortion presented to the pilot and copilot with the eyepoint set for the center position (midway between the pilot’s and copilot’s eyepoints; i.e., the flight engineer’s eyepoint when looking out the window) was acceptable.  On the other hand, the majority felt that the worst case situation, with the eyepoint set for the left seat (pilot) and viewed from the right seat (copilot), posed significant problems.  There were a number of reported symptoms of “simulator sickness” incidental to this evaluation efforts; these, and some possible reasons for their occurrence, are also presented.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A NEW CRT PROJECTOR WITH ISOTROPIC EDGE-BLENDING AND DIGITAL CONVERGENCE

Paul Lyon

Evans & Sutherland Computer Corporation

Evans & Sutherland have developed a new CRT projector for flight simulators.  The approaches used for edge blending, convergence, and geometry correction are different from those used for previous CRT projectors, providing a low-cost solution to multichannel wide-field-of-view display systems.  The projector uses impregnated-cathode nine-inch CRTs to achieve bright and very high-resolution rasters.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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WHY SIMULATORS DON’T FLY LIKE THE AIRPLANE – DATA

William G. Schweikhard and Daryl J. Schueler

Kohlman Systems Research

The hardware and software technology for simulators and flight training devices have advanced enormously over the past ten years.  We have been able to create very realistic visual scenes with high resolution, brightness and field of view; motion systems that provide the cues that give the feeling of actually flying in the airplane; high fidelity sounds that represent the operating environment inside the airplane; and computers that are capable of mathematically modeling the equations that represent the various components and systems being simulated.  The quality of the data that is used to mechanize the flight dynamics and systems of the airplane being simulated is lagging.  This paper focuses on the traditional approach for generating simulator design and verification data, and then describes a flight test approach for improving the quality of the data.  Data developed by the traditional approach are compared with data developed by the flight test approach.  Comparisons are made of simulated versus flight test 4restults for operational maneuvers, one employing traditional data and the other employing flight test generated data.  The need for high quality flight-test data that exceeds those of current Development Test and Evaluation (DT&E) and Operational Test and Evaluation (OT&E) results is emphasized.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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UTILIZING A BLADE ELEMENT MODEL FOR HELICOPTER PILOT TRAINING

Martin T. Jakub, Leonard Richmond, Allen Tracy

Eyring, Inc.

The simulation of rotorcraft flight is difficult.  One especially difficult challenge is to model the aerodynamics in the nonuniform wind environment near the ground.  The rotor map or rotor disc aerodynamic models must be replaced by a more sophisticated blade element model, and there needs to be a way of modeling the complex airflow around solid objects.  This paper shows a model of airflow around ship superstructures, which is important in pilot training for shipboard operations.  We show a method of describing the velocity field in the vicinity of the rotors, suitable for communication to dedicated blade element computer systems.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE CHALLENGES OF SIMULATING A HOVERCRAFT OCEAN ENVIRONMENT

Mark E. Donner

Hughes Training, Inc.

A critical part of the development of a hovercraft simulator is accurately representing an ocean environment.  Unlike traditional aircraft simulators, the dynamics of a hovercraft are driven by the forces produced by the sea medium in an ocean environment.  The importance of correctly depicting such ocean entities as a sea state, a plunging surf, and a support ship wake becomes evident when one considers that the methods used in modeling these environments directly affect the judgment and actions of the crew.   Not only must the details of these ocean entities by readily identifiable, but their dynamics must accurately represent the real world as perceived by the crew.  This was accomplished on the Landing Craft, Air Cushion Full Mission Trainer (LCAC FMT) which has the capability of displaying realistic ocean environments.  The objective of this paper is to present how sea states 0 to 4, dynamic surf and a support ship dynamic wake were modeled and how some of the limitations of these models were overcome.  By enhancing the characteristics of these models and developing creative methods of implementation, Hughes Training, Incorporated, is meeting the Navy’s need to provide a realistic ocean training environment.  This paper discusses some of the design considerations required to provide a real-world ocean environment as perceived by the users of the Landing Craft, Air Cushion Full Mission Trainer.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ADVANTAGES OF AN OBJECT-ORIENTED DESIGN APPROACH TO THE SIMULATION OF LEADSHIP EFFECTS

Jerome M. Weiss and Ruth E. Korba

CAE-Link Corporation

The B-2 Aircrew Training Device (ATD) employs object-oriented design (OOD) accompanied by the Ada programming language.  The task of choosing objects to simulate vortex, bow wave, and engine exhaust effects of a leadship on the B-2 is presented from an OOD perspective.  The B-2 software architecture of the leadship effects model created from an OOD approach is analyzed and compared to previously used software architecture at CAE-Link.  These comparisons are made against architectures used in other military trainers.  The trainers are evaluated in terms of maintainability and reusability.  Conclusions are drawn as to which architectures are most efficient from a data concurrency/subjective evaluation and future applications perspective.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SEMI-AUTOMATED FORCES–A BEHAVIORAL MODELING APPROACH

Hung T. Le, Ph.D., Stephen E. Phinney,  and Vernon C. Seward

IBM Corporation

This paper briefly reviews the problems and challenges faced by training communities in providing a realistic opponent for tactical training in a battlefield environment.  A functional model for simulating semiautomated forces (SAFOR) is defined.  Behavioral modeling using a motor schema approach is introduced for adversarial planning and navigation.  A mathematical formulation using ellipsoid model is described.  This is followed by a scenario developed for battlefield planning to reflect the applicability of motor schema instantiations for controlling semiautonomous agents.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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MODELING OF THE INTELLIGENT THREAT IN A DENSE TACTICAL TRAINING ENVIRONMENT

Stephen J. Hunter and H. Reed Puckett

AAI Corporation

The proper training of aircrews requires a wide variety of subsystems such as visual, radar, g-cuing, etc.  A subsystem gaining more and more emphasis in today’s trainers is the tactical training environment simulation.  Within that subsystem has emerged the realistic modeling of the intelligent threat.  The simulation required includes a representation of the threat including its platform, sensors, emitters, and its weapons plus the decision making process and intelligence of the threat operator.  Tradeoffs must be made between the need for high fidelity simulation and the computer resources available.  Some of the tradeoffs include threat simulation capacities and selection processes, weapon simulation fidelity, Electronic Warfare (EW) sensor simulation fidelity .  The degree of simulation of the threat’s decision making process and tactics is also important and may be accomplished in several ways.  In the A-6/F-14 Trainers, for example, a threat reaction algorithm process is used to simulate the actions and reactions of a threat to the total environment.  Such algorithms are used for each threat element such as the threat platform, sensors and weapons to create a composite overall interactive threat behavior.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A ROBOTIC SYSTEM CONCEPT FOR PARTIALLY AUTOMATING THE SECOND ECHELON OPPOSING FORCE AT THE NATIONAL TRAINING CENTER

Admiral S. Piper

U.S. Army

William F. Kraetz

Alliant Techsystems

The paper reports the results of feasibility study investigating the potential of applying robotics to partially automate the second echelon opposing force (OPFOR) at the National Training Center (NTC) at Fort Irwin, California.  A general robotic system concept approach is developed in the context of a generic unmanned robotic vehicle model.  Training Wheels, a particular implementation of the generic robotic system concept, is overviewed.  The Training Wheels System concept movement of multiple vehicle company convoys composed of multiple unmanned vehicles following the path set by a lead vehicle manned by 2 persons.  The concept appears to be technically feasible as it makes effective use of key operational constraints, operator personnel, and a supervised autonomous control schema for controlling the unmanned convoy vehicles.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A HIERARCHICAL RULE-BASED ARCHITECTURE FOR IMPLEMENTING INTELLIGENT ADVERSARIES IN A SIMNET ENVIRONMENT

Avelino J. Gonzales

Dan Mullally

Gilbert Gonzalez

University of Central Florida

The availability of intelligent adversaries in a training simulator environment can clearly enhance the training experience for students.  However, implementation of this capability into simulators has been slow as well as difficult.  The semi-automated forces presently available for SIMNET, although quite sophisticated, still represents a partial solution, as the name itself indicates.

Representation of tactical expertise in rules gives rise to the problem of encapsulating every possible scenario within simple rules.  This could lead to the need for a very large number of rules which, not only would have to be developed, but would also have to be efficiently executed in a real-time environment.  This represents an unacceptable situation.

Improvements could be made by grouping rules according to the mission being simulated, but the number of rules required would still be large, and there would be no benefit of reusing situational knowledge commonly required in different missions.

The approach described in this paper is to develop a hierarchical ordering of rules which, at the highest levels, can be used to recognize the general situation being faced by the adversary.  Examples of these situations are when an adversary needs to remain hidden from the student, or when it is appropriate to attack the student.  Recognition of this high level situation will activate a lower level set of rules which will attempt to implement the prescribed course of action within the context of the situation.  These will, in turn, activate another set of rules, which will carry out the low level implementation details of the action within the simulation software.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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12^TH I/ITSC-1990–SIMNET FIGHTER AIRCRAFT APPLICATION

Captain Brian K. Rogers

Clarence W. Stephens

Armstrong Laboratory, Human Resources Directorate

Aircrew Training Research Division

Alan B. Oatman

Bolt, Beranek, Newman Inc., Systems and Technologies Division

Williams AFB

This paper describes the preliminary investigation defining problems of expanding real-time simulation of fighter aircraft to a distributed simulation network.  The 12^th Interservice/Industry Training Systems Conference was selected as the test site to prove the concept.  I/ITSC provided an arena for linking simulators from several manufacturers and laboratories.  Six fighter aircraft simulators participated in the network along with a simulated ground control intercept (GCI) station and semi-automated forces providing threat aircraft.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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AN OBJECTIVE LOOK AT THE MODULARIZATION AND STANDARDIZATION OF TRAINING SYSTEMS

Gary M. Kamsickas

Boeing Defense and Space Group

Simulation and Training Systems

Trends indicate, and projections suggest, that the future focus of training system design is modularization, reusability, standardization, cost reduction and team or multiple cockpit training.  Several programs are in progress, which deal directly with these issues.   The Modular Simulator Design Program, a triservice program administered by the United States Air Force, deals with the modularization and standardization of a single weapons system trainer.  The Universal Threat Simulation System Program, administered by the United States Navy, is concentrating on the standardization and reusability of the threat and electronic warfare environment.  Project 2851, administered by the United States Air Force, has the goal of standardizing radar and visual databases.  In the team training environment, the Distributed Interactive Simulation program, administered by the United States Army, is attempting to provide a standard method of networking multiple training devices to allow for a cost effective team training environment.  How these programs interact with each other is crucial to obtaining the goals of standardization, modularization, reusability and the eventual cost reduction of training devices.  This paper provides an objective look at the interaction of these programs from a technical perspective.  Suggestions are presented for possible modification to these standards to allow for greater compatibility.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A MODEL FOR COMPUTER-BASED TRAINING QUALITY ASSURANCE

Michael Quattrociocchi

Linda Donegan

GE Aerospace

This paper details a Quality Assurance (AQ) plan for interactive Computer-Based Training (CBT) to ensure quality is an element inherent during all phases of production.  The cornerstone of the plan is comprised of quality assurance measures incorporated into all aspects of the CBT lesson production process extending from the very earliest stages of development to the point of final delivery.  Specific stages of production have been identified as effective times/places for auditing the actual process and are referred to as “QA Checkpoints.”  These checkpoints provide an opportunity to verify the product quality while checking for adherence to process.  Items examined include material tracking and control, documentation, and courseware availability for review by appropriate contractor or client parties.  This model plan can be a valuable instrument in producing an optimum product while controlling costs, and offers a foundation for varied applications across the CBT industry.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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U.S. ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND’S INTELLIGENT TUTORING SYSTEM TECHNOLOGY BASE PLAN

Williard M. Homes

U.S. Army Missile Command

Research, Development, and Engineering Center

Redstone Arsenal

Admiral Piper

Office of Project Manager for Training Devices

The Army Technology Base Master Plan identifies the emerging field of artificial intelligence as a technology with high potential to meet the Army’s changing needs for fixing, manning, and arming the forces into the next century.  In late 1990, the Army Materiel Command’s Deputy Chief of Staff for Technology Planning and Management directed a comprehensive master plan for artificial intelligence by developed.  This plan serves as a framework from which the Army Materiel Command can manage and execute AI technology development into the 21^st Century.  The AI Master Plan identifies 13 technology areas considered most relevant to the Army needs.  This paper addresses one technology area in the AI Master Plan, Intelligent Tutoring Systems.  This is a plan within the master plan and provides a vision and specific direction of closing the gap between today’s reality and tomorrow’s expectation for Army training systems.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A GENERIC MODEL FOR RAPID ESTIMATION OF CBT DEVELOPMENT TIME

Kurt W. Miles

Applied Science Associates, Inc.

A review of the literature on the amount of time it takes to develop an hour of computer based training (CBT) reveals that figures range from less than 50 hours of development per hour to over 800 hours of development per hour of CBT instruction.  An Instructional Systems Design (ISD) model is presented and related to a CBT development estimation model to provide a framework for the discussion of rapid estimation of CBT development time.  The estimation model discusses some of the variables that affect development time and offers a method of estimating CBT development times using a simple Job Aid (included) that can be modified to meet local conditions and parameters.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TRAINER TEST AND EVALUATION PROCESS REVIEW

CDR Paul S. Kenney, Paul R. Little, and R. Thomas Galloway

Naval Training Systems Center

This paper presents the results of a process review of the Naval Training Systems Center development test and evaluation procedures used in the majority of its current contracts.  Data were derived from a survey of project engineers, 79 completed contracts, interviews with 11 simulator manufacturers, and contacts with the National Simulation Evaluation Program (FAA) and local Defense Contract Management Command Area Office (DCMAO).  Recommendations are made for improved test planning, change to the contractor Preliminary Inspection process, interfaces to MIL-STD-2167A and general policy guidelines for test policy and practices.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TODAY’S NEED FOR VIABLE TRAINING MEASURES OF EFFECTIVENESS

Commander David C. Ray, USN

Office of Chief of Naval Operations

Total Force Training and Education Policy Division

Head, Air Training Assessment Section

This paper examines the requirement for viable Training Measures of Effectiveness (TMOE).  It addresses basic concept considerations for developing useful measures.  Today’s fiscally constrained environment forces us to defend our training resource proposals by quantifying what is gained in terms of warfighting readiness.  While overall warfighting readiness is made up of various components (personnel readiness, training readiness, supply readiness, and material readiness), it is training readiness which is most often equated to our defense capability.  Credited as our most potent force multiplier, training is, in fact, the hardest portion of our readiness “make-up” to quantify.  This helps explain why training programs are often the first to be axed when pitted against hardware resource requirements.   Adding to the problem of grasping training as a hard resource requirement is its complex make up.  When examined on a macro scale, warfighting training readiness is broken down into individual, team unit, and battle group training readiness components.  We in the training arena are working to develop measures of individual and team training performance.   However, the complexity of measuring unit and battle group operations often dictates the use of expert opinion as the yardstick with which to measure effectiveness.  While the merits of this method have satisfied budgeteers in the past, it is now being questioned more and more.  The bottom line is that we have yet to discover an acceptable method of linking training to readiness.  The successful thwarting of critics who ask, “How much training is enough?”, or “What return do the taxpayers get for their dollar?”, must be based on quantifiable units of measurement.  Baseline assessments of training systems have diminished importance if not based on quality data.  The future competitiveness of training versus hardware in the resource arena is based on the need for effective measures of effectiveness.

EMBRACING THE DEMONS OF TRAINING DEVICE ACCEPTANCE

TESTING–THE PROCESS IMPROVEMENT LEGACY

F.J. Winter, Jr., Director of Acquisition Support

Training Systems System Program Office

Aeronautical Systems Division

Under the auspices of Total Quality Management, a small group of Government and industry specialists examined the existing training device acceptance test process for potential improvements.  The agreed-to mission of this Air Force/Industry partnership was to identify and promote implementable approaches to minimize the cost and time required for acceptance testing while ensuring that validated performance supports the operational training requirements.   Application of a process improvement model focused on the customers and their requirements, analyzed how work was accomplished, and led to the identification and elimination of several non-value added components in current test practices.

Diverse technical and management approaches were blended into a single improved process know as Simulator Test 2000 (ST2000).  ST 2000 integrates timely, accurate, streamlined test documentation, provides safeguards for increased confidence in contractor verification testing, and improves on-time test milestone performance via an optimum balance of government/contractor specification performance validation procedures.  By testing at a functional level in lieu of detailed testing constructs, this customer oriented approach emphasizes operational checks to determine ability to satisfy training objectives and eliminates Government repetition of previously conducted contractor tests.  ST 2000 methodologies have been melded into both new and ongoing Air Force training initiatives.  Further improvement highlights are those for contractor test performance incentives and commercial-type warranties.

To significantly reduce the number of Government test requirements, the joint Air Force/Industry team has formulated a total of 27 complimentary recommendations surrounding the test process.  These improvements are estimated to save in excess of 40 percent of Government test time without compromising test objectives.  This paper describes the development of these training device acceptance test improvements and the status/results of their implementation.

INTEGRATED AIRCREW TRAINING MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS–AN ORGANIZATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

Robert T. Nullmeyer

Philip D. Bruce

Armstrong Laboratory

Aircrew Training Research Division

Marty R. Rockway

University of Dayton Research Institute

The trend in the United States military services is to design training programs as total systems rather than as collections of courses or blocks of instruction.  This trend has highlighted the need to design an integrated aircrew training management information system (ATMIS) to ensure the cost-effective operation, maintenance, and evaluation of the total system throughout its life cycle.  For the past several years, the Aircrew Training Research Division of the U.S. Air Force Armstrong Laboratory has been engaged in a field research program to identify the functional characteristics and information/data requirements of ATMISs.  A number of military and contractor aircrew training systems have been reviewed and analyzed.  The purpose of this paper to discuss some of the findings and to propose a systematic approach for the design of ATMISs, with particular emphasis on the identification of comprehensive, multi-user information requirements.  This approach is presented in the context of a new, contractor-designed and supported aircrew training system, which is intended to replace an existing Air Force system.  The composition and use of representative multi-user working groups, a baseline analysis of the existing ATMIS, and procedures for determining the information requirements posed by the new system are discussed.  These information requirements are developed from an organizational perspective.  It is suggested that the entire sequence of ATMIS design, development, and operation by subjected to a rigorous test and evaluation process, including an assessment of its impacts on organizational performance.

A DISTRIBUTED TRAINING SYSTEM FOR LARGE TRAINING MANAGEMENT ENVIRONMENTS

Craig W. Shier

International Business Machines Corporation

Management of the training process from requirement definition through evaluation of graduates in the field is a complex process encompassing many specialists and organizations.  A comprehensive training system is required which produces management information without increasing workload.  The U.S. Air Force recognizes this requirement is developing the Advanced Training System (ATS) to support every aspect of the Air Training Command’s technical training mission.  ATS will provide an integrated training environment across six Air Force bases with a potential for 35,000 user workstations and 175,000 students per year.  ATS provides computer-assisted Instructional System Development and support for delivery of instruction for all media types.  Computerized data collection supports timely access to student resource, and evaluation information.  New processor, software, and communications technologies provide a distributed training system with low administrative overhead.  Configuration options allow equipment to be selected to meet the functional needs of individual users.

THE MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS OF THE MODULAR SIMULATOR CONCEPT

James Brown and William Tucker

Boeing Aerospace and Electronics

The Air Force has, with Tri-service support, contracted for research, development and demonstration of the modular simulator concept known as HAVE MODULE.  Reactions to the concept, as developed by this program, have ranged from frank disapproval to open acceptance, but the most common is “What can HAVE MODULE do to help me with my problems?”  In this paper, an attempt is made to answer this question.  A dream of an ideal simulator development program is contrasted to often-dismal realities.  The contributions of the modular simulator concept that help achieve the ideal are discussed from a practical point of view, with emphasis on subcontracting.  Some problems are described that the concept can help avoid and some that it will not.  Lessons learned from the application of the concept to the demonstration, which was 75% subcontracted, and other projects in the specification stage are discussed.  Recommendations are made for the future HAVE MODULE based programs.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

Order it from I/ITSEC’s Website.

EMPOWERMENT–A MODEL FOR MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTABILITY

Dr. Graydon Dawson

STREAMLINED SOURCE SELECTION

or

WRITE YOUR OWN SPEC!

A.      Edward Dietz

                                                       AAI Corporation

Recently several agencies have applied Total Quality Management (TQM) principles to new contract starts and requests for proposals (RFP).  One form of solicitation is called streamlined Source Selection.  This paper explores the costs, benefits and problems associated with the Streamlined Source Selection approach from a contractor point of view.  Is the source selection process improved?  Is the feedback from industry really used by the agencies?  Is the government evaluation process more equitable, easier, better or cheaper with this streamlined approach?  Are the total pre-award costs reduced, increased or merely shifted from one place to another?  Are contracts awarded more quickly?  Does the specification better represent what is needed or what will be produced or both?  Is the resulting contract of high quality?  Does the government get a better bargain?  Are contracts completed more quickly or with fewer changes or fewer cost problems?  In short, are the expected TQM benefits obtained?

CTASC-II TRAINING – KEEPING PACE WITH AN NDI ACQUISITION

George (Chip) S. Peratino, Jr.

Robert M. Cowell

EER Systems Corporation

This paper will discuss development and implementation of training systems that must be fully operational in an abbreviated development period due to the rapid deployment of a non-developmental item (NDI) system.  The requirement is to develop the training curricula and associated training aids/devices in sufficient time to train individuals/crews to operate and maintain the operational systems as they are fielded.  Specifically, this paper will address the training system developed for the Army’s Corps/Theater ADP Service Center – Phase II (CTASC-II).  This paper will explore how the schedule of the operational system impacts upon the development of the Training System and the associated training system cost and schedule.

Typical DoD system acquisitions span four to seven years from concept formulation to fielding of the system.  NDI acquisitions can be accomplished in less than three years.  Therefore, the training system concept, development, and implementation time for NDI systems is significantly reduced.  While developing this training system to meet the objective of producing a trained crew to accompany the fielding of the first system in less than three years, decisions must be made regarding how and when to accelerate certain developmental steps; i.e., tailor the Systems Approach to Training (SAT).  This paper will address which developmental steps can or cannot be omitted or accelerated and the results of doing so.

In discussing this developmental process, the paper will address the intrinsic training benefits that are available to training developers when using NDI equipment, such as immediate access to technical documentation and reduced acquisition cost of training devices.  It will also discuss the various difficulties that are encountered when developing training systems for an NDI system; e.g., data rights that are proprietary to each hardware vendor.

NDI, in today’s environment of shrinking DoD budgets, will be used to produce operational systems wherever possible.  Therefore, it is essential that training developers learn how to be responsive in this type of environment.  The training system development, which was accomplished in support of CTASC-II training, is one successful way.

TRAINING ANALYSIS–PANACEA OR PLACEBO?

THE US ROYAL AIR FORCE EXPERIENCE

Wing Commander R M Prothero MRAes MBIM RAF

Royal Air Force

In the mid-80s, the need for structured analyses of training needs prior to military training system acquisition became generally accepted.  In 1988, the US Ministry of Defense endorsed a policy statement that made it mandatory for the RAF to conduct a Training Analysis (TA), or Training Needs Analysis (TNA), for all future equipment projects.

Based on the apparent success of TAs conducted for other Forces, the RAF expected a great deal from the early studies set in hand.   These included studies of the training needs for the EFA, the Tornado (Night Attack Variant), the Sea King helicopter, the Hawk and Jetstream visual system requirements, and a CBT project.  Two of these TAs were let out to two contractors at the same time so the results could be compared.

Having received the results of all but one of the studies, it is apparent that none actually provides the Staffs with what was expected – a clear statement of the training organization and strategy needed (where appropriate), and the training devices required to meet the training needs identified.

The reasons for this vary, some of the root causes are complex, but neither industry not the RAF were at fault – what was lacking was case experience.  However, the studies were not totally wasted.  This paper will examine each of the TAs to extract the lessons learnt.  Based on the Author’s experience, it is believed that TAs are better conducted by non-military agencies under most circumstances, and it is essential that contractors have clear and agreed Terms of Reference for the studies.  It is also essential for the military to provide full time Subject Matter Experts (SME) for major studies, and for the military training management to maintain a continuous overview of the progress of the study in relation to project assumptions.  In addition, regardless of formal contract timescales, it must be accepted that it is better to accept a contract overrun without penalty, or take an iterative approach to the study, and get it right, rather than get it wrong.

Finally, it is expected that new lessons will be learnt from each TA in the future.  The RAF expects to commission 6 major weapon system TAs in the early 90s.  The scale of investment in synthetic training devices makes it essential that the refining of the TA procedure is a continuing process, and that the necessary feedback mechanisms are established amongst project personnel to enable this to be done.

This paper does not necessarily reflect the views of the UK Ministry of Defense.

DESERT STAARS–SUSTAINMENT TRAINING FOR ARMY AVIATION READINESS THROUGH SIMULATION

Parker R. Goodwin and Samuel Knight

CAE-Link Corporation

Binghamton, New York

CW4 Robert Monette

U. S. Army

As last year’s I/ITSC papers were being written the prospects for world peace were having significant effects on military strategies and priorities.   Many analysts, however, were cautious.  Their concerns were based primarily on the potential for low-intensity and regional conflicts.  A paper proposing the need for advanced mission training and rehearsal (Monette, et al.) noted that “while uncertainty surrounds the perception of a diminished threat of world war, there is little question that there exists an inevitable threat of armed conflicts with radicals, revolutionaries, terrorists and drug cartels.  It can also be anticipated that the severity of these conflicts will continue to increase…” As described in that paper, the non-conventional nature of such conflicts has resulted in increased war fighting emphasis on timeliness and precision.  To support training in these skills, new concepts were proposed, including a recommendation for integrated mission training and rehearsal facilities.  These facilities would employ advanced simulation technologies and specialized training programs, which would be dedicated to enhancing the mission readiness of aviation crews.  By the time I/ITSC ’90 commenced, events in the Middle East had significantly reinforced the need to pursue such advanced training capabilities.

The previously referenced paper also noted that it would take teamwork to meet the changing military training environment for the 1990’s-teamwork between users, military planners, analysts, and industry.  This year’s paper is intended to discuss such a team and the program implemented by that team to develop the sustainment and mission-similar training capabilities proposed in the 1990 paper.

QUICK-RESPONSE TRAINING SYSTEM MODIFICATION AND ITS IMPACT ON ARMY AVIATION SUSTAINMENT TRAINING

CW3 Charles Fullmer

AH-64 Standardization Instructor Pilot

U. S. Army

Ron Matusof and Victor Polkowski

CAE-Link Corporation

“Train like we fight, fight like we train” is an age-old axiom of military training.  It is a training concept that is easy to grasp and makes sense.  However, this training concept presupposes that we do, in fact, know how we are going to fight.  In the last two years, the world has undergone significant political, social, and economic upheaval.  The military community has had to evaluate the identity and nature of the threat, develop an appropriate set of countermeasures to the threat, and then temper the plan with the fiscal realities of shrinking defense budgets.  All of this has meant a change in many mission requirements, which must be reflected in the training of the military.  This paper discusses the issues of providing sustainment training for aircrews in the face of rapidly changing mission requirements.  It discusses the role of political, economic, and technological impacts upon the definition of the threat and of the mission.  It then discusses the differences between mission rehearsal and sustainment training and suggests the concept of quick-response modification of existing training systems for sustainment training.  Finally, it discusses an actual implementation of the quick-response modification to support rapidly changing sustainment training requirements for Army Aviators.

TRAINING AND MISSION REHEARSAL FOR DEPLOYED

NAVY AND MARINE AVIATION

CDR Paul Miles

Office of the Chief of Naval Operations

Currently, a family of shore-based training devices is available to train flight crews to safely operate and fully employ their weapons systems.  Weapons System Trainers (WSTs) are used extensively to provide mission training and to build and maintain proficiency.  This capability is not available at forward-deployment locations for the Navy or Marines, and is not available aboard ship.  Additionally, recent operations have disclosed the absolute need for deployed tactical aviation mission rehearsal capability.  As a result, the Navy is pursuing the development of a family of training devices designed to serve remotely located tactical aviation units, under the overall program title of “Deployed Tactical Aircraft Training System (DTATS).”

“OK, kid.  Before you can fly, you’ve got to go down to the seventh deck and get your simulator hop.  I’ll see you there in fifteen minutes.”  Long-standing Navy practical joke played on new carrier pilots.

VIRTUAL REALITY–A PRIMER

A DISCUSSION OF DEFINITIONS AND POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS FOR MILITARY TRAINING SYSTEMS

Dr. George C. Barcus

NAVTRASYSCEN

Mrs. Theresa T. Barcus

NAVTRASYSCEN

Mr. Richard R. Dunn-Roberts

Institute for Simulation and Training Technology

This paper reviews the latest developments in and traces the background of the “new” technology of Virtual Reality.  Concepts covered will include the AIP cube, physical and geometric modeling, dead reckoning and behavioral modeling.  Intended as a primer, through this article the reader will be introduced to the field of Virtual Reality by explaining common terms, theoretical concepts, enabling technologies and by presenting present and future applications of virtual environments.

INVESTIGATING THE SUITABILITY OF SPEECH RECOGNITION FOR TRAINING SYSTEMS

Robert Rejent

Catherine Meyn

Logicon, Inc.

Tactical and Training Systems

Speech recognition can promote enhanced training procedures and reduce operating costs in training systems.  For this reason, the incorporation of speech technology into training systems is becoming more prevalent.  Many users of these training systems, however, are unaware of the technical capabilities of speech recognition, and therefore have unrealistic expectations, which affect trainer acceptability.  To prevent this, it is important for the user and developer of any training system to probe the question:  “Is speech recognition appropriate for this training application?”  Logicon has integrated speech technology into air traffic control training systems for nearly 15 years.  In transitioning from research and development systems to fully operational trainers, experience has been gained regarding this fundamental question.  This paper identifies the issues associated with determining the suitability of speech recognition for a particular training application.

WATERFRONT TRAINERS–LESSONS LEARNED FROM AN EXPERIMENT

IN REMOTE TRAINING DELIVERY

Mary L. Sheppe

Naval Training Systems Center

William A. Hayes

Naval Education and Training Program Management Support Activity

In an effort to lower training costs, the Navy has initiated a policy to reduce shore based training when the training can be conducted as effectively in an operational environment.  To help implement this policy, the Chief of Naval Education and Training (CNET) converted two 30’ x 8’ trailers to mobile waterfront trainers.  It was anticipated that moving the trainers to various sites convenient for ships could reduce the cost of training both in terms of time away from the job and in actual dollars spent on travel and per diem.  Each trainer has the capability for delivering training via four types of media: computer based instruction (CBI), interactive videodisc (IVD) programs, videotape (VT), or slide/sound instruction.  Training programs cover a wide variety of topics including firefighting, damage control, navigation, safety, reading, math, engineering management, and technical skills.  This paper addresses lessons learned from the design, implementation, and operation of this program.  Elements discussed include the design of the trainer, the role of instructors, the importance of promotion and advertising to potential users, costs associated with the program, and user acceptance of the concept of providing training in the operational environment.

DOES THE FLIGHT SIMULATOR USER KNOW WHAT HE HAS GOT?

Wing Commander R M Prothero MRAeS MBIM RAF

Royal Air Force

The object of this paper is to make Users, Managers and the Synthetic Training Industry, think again about the utility and employment of modern flight simulators.  Does the simulator User really know what he has got?  Flight simulators have a long pedigree as training devices, and they make a very significant contribution to safe and cost-effective training.  As a consequence, it is not surprising that they are firmly labeled as “training” devices.  However, as technology has given the User ever more capable machines, it is suggested that simulators have outgrown the “training” image.  Modern advanced simulators are now so capable that they rank on a par with their parent flight machines.  Regarding simulators in this light opens up a new concept for their use as flight experience developing machines.  This would be of particular benefit to the military, but even the civil community could accelerate crew experience gathering if the will to do so were present.  Such a change in the concept of employment of advanced flight simulators would open up further avenues for their use, and could affect the design specification for future advanced simulators.  The growing acceptance of simulators as an essential and integral part of initial flying training, and the concept of Mission Rehearsal, indicates that the User even now almost accepts that simulators provide experience as well as training.  Now the User should look again at the basic concept of employment of modern advanced flight simulators to ensure that the true capability of the machines is fully exploited.  This paper represents the views of the Author, and does not necessarily represent the views of the UK Ministry of Defense.

THE ADVANCED AMPHIBIOUS ASSAULT FRONT END ANALYSIS PROCESS–AN APPROACH TO BALANCE DESIGN AND OWNERSHIP REQUIREMENTS

Dr. David J. Daly, Mr. Mack Perry, Dr. Charles A. Beagles

Naval Training Systems Center

LtCol James Feigley

U.S. Marine Corps

One of the primary goals of any major acquisition program is to achieve the best possible balance between performance, risk, schedule, and cost.  Early consideration of life cycle cost and manpower, personnel and training (MPT) issues is critical to the achievement of this objective.  Historically, operating and support (O&S) and MPT support requirements have not been adequately considered during the early phases of weapon system development.  Consequently, O&S requirements have become the unaltered by-products of initial engineering decisions and in some cases has become a logistics support/MPT burden on the user community.

This paper presents one promising technique for the incorporation of O&S forecasts into the engineering requirements analysis process.  This design to ownership approach requires concurrent and interdependent front-end analysis.  O&S predictions are generated by economic modeling of baseline and new system concepts.  These early O&S forecasts lead to the generation of engineering design approaches and specific design rules to offset future support requirements.

AIR NATIONAL GUARD PART TASK TRAINERS A FLEXIBLE,

COST-EFFECTIVE ADDITION TO FIGHTER PILOT TRAINING

Major Brent Marler

National Guard Bureau

Requirements and Development Office

Technology advances have made fighter aircraft cockpits increasingly complex, adding significantly to the requirements for training pilots in systems operation and “cockpit management” tasks.  Fortunately, these same technology improvements have enabled new approaches to meeting these training challenges.  In the Air National Guard (ANG), there are particular challenges associated with maintaining and honing the combat skills of traditional guardsmen who serve part-time as pilots in operational units from Hawaii to Cape Cod.

To meet these particular needs, the ANG embarked on an acquisition program for training systems that capitalize on the improvements in computer technology, designed around low cost commercial systems capable of mission procedures training in a dynamic flight environment.  The product – specialized trainers for specific procedures.  These trainers are designed primarily for use by a single pilot, though there are provisions for an instructor.  The flight simulation is not intended to match the high fidelity simulation levels found in current, full system simulators.  However, the devices, called “Air National Guard Part Task Trainers” (ANG PTT) do provide a training capability previously unavailable to ANG pilots.

This paper describes the ANG PTT program from the first steps of evaluating available technology through requirement definition, Request for Proposal (RFP) development, source selection, and contract award.  Applying lessons learned as a user of systems acquired through other agencies, the ANG designed this program along Total Quality Management (TQM) principles which support from Headquarters Air Force, Air Force Systems Command, Tactical Air Command, and industry.

INTEGRATING A FORCE-LEVEL SIMULATION SYSTEM INTO SHIPBOARD COMBAT SYSTEMS

Barry B. Morton

Computer Sciences Corporation

This paper discusses the goals, challenges, and lessons learned from integrating an established shore-based, force-level simulation system into the shipboard combat system environment.  The results of this effort were demonstrated at the Fleet Combat Training Center (FCTC), Pacific, and the Tactical Training Group, Pacific (TACTRAGRUPAC) in May 1990.  Real training platforms included Aegis, Spruance, and Perry class ship mockups.  Simulated platforms included enemy and friendly submarines, fixed and rotary aircraft, and surface vessels all operating in a war-at-sea scenario.

EMBEDDED TRAINING FOR ARMORED SYSTEMS MODERNIZATION

Lester D. Curless, Traci A. Jones, Richard A. Copeland, Jr.

Department of the Army

Project Manager for Training Devices

Research & Engineering Management Division

In an effort to reduce training costs for sustaining soldier proficiency in deployed units, the U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) has identified embedded training as the preferred alternative to be considered for development of training systems used to prepare and sustain future armored vehicle crew members.  Prior to full-scale development, the demonstration/validation portion of the vehicle acquisition process must investigate the optimum implementation of embedded training for the next generation of armored combat vehicles.  This paper reviews the general goals, and some of the challenges involved, for embedded training within the six future vehicle systems planned for the Armored Systems Modernization program. The paper focuses primarily upon the present efforts directed for developing embedded gunnery and tactical simulation into the electronics of two of these vehicles, the Block III tank and the Advanced Field Artillery System (AFAS).

ELECTRONIC WAREFARE CONTINUUM ASSESSMENT PROGRAM FOR NAVAL AVIATION

Maureen L. Bergondy and Katrina E. Ricci

Naval Training Systems Center

The need to document warfighting readiness and training effectiveness is a major concern for warfare sponsors, operational commands and training system developers.  The Electronic Warfare Continuum Assessment Program (EWCAP) is a low cost method for rapid evaluation of electronic warfare (EW) readiness and training effectiveness across the careers of Naval Aviation personnel.  EWCAP provides documentation of EW performance and training deficiencies, and recommends solutions to identified training deficiencies.  To produce a snapshot view of EW knowledge and skills, microcomputer-based tests have been developed and administered to the EA-6B, E-2C, F/A-18, and A-7 communities, and are in development for the S-3, A-6 and F-14 communities.  Repeated testing of each platform determines whether changes implemented in the training cycle significantly impact operational performance.  Each test is carefully constructed to offer maximal training benefits through the use of extensive instructional feedback.  Fleet response to the EWCAP for both training and testing has been overwhelmingly positive.

THE USER’S ROLE IN SOURCE SELECTION

Lt Col Ray Willcox

SMSgt Gary Lewis

Tactical Air Command

The user’s major role and contribution are getting to source selection rather than participation in source selection.  The role begins by articulating the requirement and continues through developing the statement of work (SOW), system specification, and evaluation plan.  The user may also plan a major role in providing clarification of requirements if a draft Request for Proposal (RFP) is issued, and may also provide clarification at the pre-bidder conference.

The user’s involvement in getting to source selection may have influenced several trends in RFPs which appear to be emerging.  First, there seems to be a preference to reduce risk by specifying proven commercially available technology rather than emerging technology.  Second, there is a desire to require equipment demonstration during the RFP evaluation process.  Similarly, the record of past performance by bidding contractors appears to be gaining emphasis in the evaluation process.  Finally, the reality of Contracted Logistics Support casts the user as the on-site contract monitors.  Consequently, the various aspects of life-cycle support such as spares support equipment, tech data, and quality assurance plans are of greater interest to the user in developing the RFP.

The user’s involvement during the actual source selection is influenced by the perception that there are two fundamental requirements that all training devices must meet.  First, they must be concurrent.  That is, they must be delivered at the same time, and in the same configuration, as the system they support.  Additionally, concurrency means that the training devices can be modified to continue to support training as the weapons system changes or evolves.  Second, the devices must be available when needed.  Bidders who understand these baseline requirements and are sensitive to emerging trends should be in a strong position to respond to future RFPs.

TACTICAL MISSION TRAINING

DESIGNING THE VISUAL SYSTEM TO PILOT PERCEPTUAL REQUIREMENTS

Richard J. Heintzman

Heintzman Associates

James E. Brown

Aeronautical Systems Division

USAF

Rick B. Jones

JWK International

To determine visual requirements for ground-based tactical trainers, it is necessary that system designers understand how the aircrew perceives the real world in a tactical situation including what and how various cues are used to accomplish the mission.

Visual simulation system performance requirements are often based purely on visual perceptual data collected under laboratory conditions.  Such data tends to overstate the requirement since it has no real world or training need modulation and does not reflect the effects of the aircraft and mission environment on human performance.  It also does not address factors such as target obscuration or occulting or how supplementary pointer cues and avionics may be used to locate a target.  Data is also needed as to where a pilot looks within the field of view during each element of a mission in order to define field of view requirements of the display.

It is important that the system designer understands the missions and likely conditions and environment that affect the pilot in the real world so that the simulation can reflect these conditions.  He must also understand the cues used by the pilot to detect targets, waypoints, SAMS, etc., in order that the database reflects the proper conditions and supporting cues. 

This paper briefly addresses the visual trade process, vision requirements, and the process of collecting and applying pilot perception data to support visual simulation requirements for tactical training in a USAFE type of environment.