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A Prototype of a Simulation Network Using the Distributed Interactive Simulation Network  Standard

Grace C. Mak-Cheng and Kenneth Doris

Grumman Corporation

Frank Zinghini, Jr.

Applied Visions, Inc.

With the emergence of technical standards for networking defense simulations, a means to evaluate the applicability of the new DIS PDU’s and the draft DIS networking requirements to joint services applications is needed.  This paper describes a rapid prototyping testbed, which was developed to network two simulating devices using a fiber distributed data interface (FDDI) local area network (LAN).  A Distributed Interactive Simulation Interface Unit (DIU) was developed to interface each simulating device to the FDDI LAN.  The intent of the DIU was to off-load the host processor and to minimize the changes to existing trainers as a result of networking.  The DIU performed the dead reckoning and translation of the data from (to) the DIS PDU protocol to the host computer format.  The DIU was developed using both Ada and C and the simulating devices were developed in Pascal.

The DIS PDU protocol was also used as the communication protocol between the simulating device and the DIU.  Thus, this prototype implemented the DIS PDU protocol in three different languages.  The “lesson learned” from this DIS implementation and suggestions to undeveloped areas, such as Simulation Management and Electronic Warfare, in the DIS standard are discussed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Communication Architecture Issues for Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS)

Amy Vanzant-Hodge and Dr. Bruce McDonald

Institute for Simulation and Training (IST)

Karen Danisas

Simulation, Training and Instrumentation Command (STRICOM)

The standards for the Interoperability of Defense Simulations, also known as the distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) standards, have been under development since 1989 and currently define a set of protocol data units (PDUs) by which dissimilar simulators and simulations can communicate in a networked environment.  A series of workshops have provided the forum for industry, government, and academia to develop these standards.  The communication architecture/Security Subgroup (CASS) of these workshops is responsible for defining the communication architecture to be used for networking dissimilar systems together.  This paper will present issues that have been brought to the surface by CASS in the process of defining the communication architecture for DIS.

The government mandate for the use of government Open systems Interconnection Profile (GOSIP) for all communication architectures has driven the DIS requirements.  The concept of distributed simulations requiring interaction has led to the definition of service requirements, which must be met, by the communication architecture.  Two of these, real-time and multicast, are not provided for by GOSIP at this time.  Another issue is the need for reliable communications within the real-time multicast setting.  These issues are examined, the objective of interoperability among systems leads to the use of existing standards, where available.  This paper will address the role of communication architecture in DIS, service and security requirements, requirements for interfacing dissimilar systems, the use of existing standards, and the overall CASS approach for defining communication architecture for DIS.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DIS and the Transition to OSI–A Coexistence of Standards

Margaret L. Loper and David T. Shen

University of Central Florida

Institute for Simulation and Training

M. Bassiouni

Department of Computer Science

University of Central Florida

Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) is an emerging simulation system requiring start-of-the-art communication services and protocols.  The communication services identified by the DIS Communication Architecture and Security subgroup (CASS) fall into two classes, interim and long-term.  DIS has two choices for Commercial-Off-The-Shelf communication protocols, Internet or Open system Interconnection (OSI) standards.  Both protocol suites meet interim requirements; however, neither protocol suite can meet the full range of multicast requirements.  Work has begun in national standards organizations to develop these protocols, and this work is based on the OSI/GOSIP architecture.  This SIS interim architecture will be based on Internet standards but, if DIS is to comply with the GOSIP mandate, a strategy for the transition to OSI must be devised.  This paper develops a transition plan, which addresses GOSIP compliance and a strategy for meeting long-range multicast requirements.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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The Use of an Environment Server Function to Improve Interoperability in Networked Simulation

Roy Latham

Computer Graphics Systems Development Corporation

Players A and B in a networked simulation exercise may have differences in their visual simulator databases which result in player A having visual line-of-sight to player B, while at the same time, player B’s view of A is blocked by vegetation or terrain that was modeled differently in B’s database.  Due to viewpoint-dependent scene management mechanisms that control levels-of-detail, this inconsistency may occur even if both simulators are identical and run the same database.  A potential solution lies in having each simulator refer to a common environment server function to determine common “ground truth” answers to questions of intervisibility.  Each simulator must subsequently find a mechanism to display the required degree of concealment required to its user.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Adapting  a Distributed Representation System to the Distributed Simulation Environment

Alan R. Dickens

BBN Systems and Technologies

The Simulation Networking (SIMNET) program demonstrated the feasibility of conducting tactical training a combat development in a distributed simulation environment.  As other programs build on the success of SIMNET, the number of types of vehicles simulated will continue to increase dramatically.  In a distributed interactive simulation system, every vehicle is displayed by other manned vehicle simulators in several ways:  visually, aurally, and with infrared, radar, sonar, and other sensors.  Currently, every manned simulator must keep a set of representations for every other type of vehicle.  Unfortunately, this means that whenever a new type of vehicle is added to the network, all other entities on the network must be updated to include representations of the new vehicle.

Alternatively, each simulator could bring with it a generic representation of itself which could be distributed to other entities on the network.  Such an approach is referred to as a distributed representation system.  This paper discusses a set of extensions to the Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) protocols that would be necessary to implement such a system.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Using the MH-53J Weapon System Trainer/Mission Rehearsal System–Initial Assessments and Lessons Learned

Philip D. Bruce, Captain Michael T. Conquest, and Robert T. Nullmeyer

Armstrong Laboratory, Aircrew Training Research Division

Lt. Col. Edward T. Reed

542d Crew Training Wing, 542d Operations Group

The MH-53J Weapon System Trainer/Mission Rehearsal System (MH-53J WST/MRS) was developed by the Aerospace Division of General Electric and delivered to the Air Force in 1990.  During an initial assessment of system capabilities, it was used to support mission preparation for a joint 155^th Combat Crew Training Wing/U.S. Army Special Operations Forces training exercise that was then executed at White Sands Missile Range, NM.  The exercise was designed to simulate a strike mission to recover critical avionics equipment from a remote research facility in a hostile third-world nation.  An existing training database was enhanced to provide additional detail in the areas of operation for this exercise.  This enhanced database was used for both crew rehearsals and development of products for inclusion in aircrew mission planning folders.  Questionnaires were administered to aircrews at the conclusion of rehearsal and after completion of the mission.  Crew reactions to this simulation-based rehearsal were very positive.  These data were supplemented by direct observations of database enhancement, planning, and rehearsal activities and by extensive interviews with participating aircrews, planners, and intelligence personnel.  This paper describes the MH-53J WST/MRS, the use of the device to support preparation for this joint training exercise, and an initial assessment of system capabilities to support rehearsal.  It also discusses implications and lessons learned.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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The E2C-Part Task Trainer in a Real Time Distributed Simulation Environment–Can Distrubted  Protocols Work for All?

James Panagoe

Loral Western Development Laboratories

John Morrison

MaK Technologies

Distributed Interactive Protocols (DIS) promise that any simulator “speaking” the protocol can link up to a network without major modification.  This paper will consider this premise in the light of a case study of connecting the E2C Part Task Trainer to Simnet.  We postulate that, although some changes do need to connect to a distributed network, they can be categorized and organized to independent software that can interface to the network and minimize disturbance to the simulator.  We hope that this study can guide future conversion efforts to distributed simulation.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Computer  Supported Embedded Training Systems for the Strike/Fighter Aircrew of Tomorrow– “Is It Live, or Is It Memorex?”

Major Mark F. McKeon

Defense Training and Performance Data Center

The multi-mission data processing capability of today’s fourth generation fighters has attained an unprecedented level.  To elevate the tactical level of aircrew thought, the Aircrew Coordination Support System (ACSS) of tomorrow’s Strike/Fighters will process and display even more Fighter/Attack information.  The vast capabilities of the ACSS will generate new group task analysis and tasking requirements.  To be successful in the dynamic environment of multi-mission combat sorties, more sophisticated integrated aircrew coordination must be obtained.  Problems, however, have already arisen in the orchestration of this process and will continue to present themselves.  Many of the aircrew coordination problems can only be solved through the employment of on-board computer supported embedded training systems.  This presentation will address the demands that drive the development and employment of airborne embedded training systems.  Also addressed will be the required training support that these systems must provide the aircrew.  Finally, the importance of embedded training systems in addressing multi-mission aircrew coordination problems will be presented.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Improved  Instructor  Station Design

Joyce J. Madden

Naval Training Systems Center

In the past decade, both the United States Navy and Air Force have conducted a number of investigations into the requirements for and design of instructor stations.  These efforts have revealed several important aspects to the design and development process.  This paper deals with two of these - the design of the user-system interface (USI) and the training provided for instructors in the use of the instructor station.

The USI design is an important aspect that determines how effectively instructors will interact with their instructor stations and, consequently, with the training system.  Survey data collected by the Naval Training Systems Center pointed out several specific problem areas within the USI area that are reducing the effectiveness of instructors.  Design principles which could help eliminate these problems will be discussed with example designs described.

Instructor training was also pointed out by the survey as a problem area needing change.  Specific problems derived from the survey will be discussed with possible solutions utilizing job aids, on-line help and tutorials.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Applying  Artificial  Intelligence (AI) to Training  Air  Combat Maneuvering–the  Potential, the  Pitfalls, the   Products

Richard A. Thurman, Ph.D.,

Air Force Armstrong Laboratory, Aircrew Training Research Division

Williams Air Force Base, Arizona

While nothing in the foreseeable future appears capable of replacing the requirement of actual aircraft flight in developing Air Combat Maneuvering (AVM) proficiency, the technology is now available to augment actual flight hours with meaningful training from computer-based simulations.  At the Aircrew Training Research Division of the Armstrong Laboratory we have been developing several Artificial Intelligence (AI) based approaches to augmenting pilot training in simulation-based ACM.  Because air-to-air combat is such a fast moving, complex task, automating (through AI) such tasks as performance measurement and assessment can provide a very important enhancement to a simulation.  In addition, using AI techniques to create “smart bogeys” can provide a real boost in the training capabilities of a simulation.  In this paper we describe our efforts to create three AI systems (two based upon rule-based production system technology and one based upon artificial neural systems technology) and detail their strengths and weaknesses in providing pilot training in ACM.  Particular emphasis is given to the lessons we have learned in applying AI in this rich, fast moving, and complex task environment.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Instructor Job Simplification  in Existing Trainers  Through Artificial Intelligence (AI) and  Performance  Assessment Capability

James J. Crouch

6^th ADA Brigade, Fort Bliss, Texas

Richard P. Gagan

Raytheon Company

In a current cost savings and capabilities upgrade program the Air Defense (AD) community is incorporating embedded trainers developed for field training into the student subsystem of a classroom trainer, the PATRIOT Conduct of Fire Trainer (originally Operator/Tactics Trainer).  Reintegration of training system hardware and software during this major upgrade represents an opportunity to simultaneously add other improvements.  One prospective improvement is simplification of the instructor’s job by automating selected instructional functions.  The automation approach being investigated involves new technology derived from Army Research Institute projects, including artificial intelligence techniques demonstrated in an Intelligent Training System for PATRIOT operators, and a performances assessment capability developed over a series of studies aimed at perfecting PATRIOT operator proficiency metrics.  This paper reviews the applicability of the derived methods and techniques in the context of today’s AD training objectives and projected instructor personnel shortages.  The challenge of combining the separately developed technologies, and then retrofitting the result into the structure of existing systems is addressed.  Discussion of the current project’s technical aspects includes an analysis of the instructional functions to be automated, how they interact with each other and with the embedded trainers, and the refinements which are necessary for overall functional compatibility and integration.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Training  Development  Software Tools to Support System Acquisition Missions

Chia-jer Tsai, Ph.D.

Southwest Research Institute

Development of the training systems for a major defense system generates a tremendous workload for systems acquisition and training professionals.  Inadequate management and development for the supporting training systems hinder the deployment and operation of a defense system significantly.  The armed services and the software industry have developed software tools to assist systems acquisition and training professionals.  This paper reports the results of evaluating selected tools including GTET (Guidelines for Transportable Education and Training System), TRACES (Training Cost Estimator Systems), TASCS (Training Analysis Support Computer System), and JS ISD/LSAR DSS (Joint Service Instructional Systems Development/Logistic Support Analysis Record Decision Support System).  The functions of the tools and considerations for making adoption decision are described.  A global comparison matrix of the tools’ functions is presented, and recommendations for improving the tools are provided.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A Design Tool for  Interactive  Courseware

Ken Fearn

Marconi Simulation

Interactive Courseware applications are now much larger and more ambitious than in the past.  This increase in size has mandated a more controlled approach to design and development such as indicated by MIL-STD-1379D (Military Training Programs).

Any move to tie the design process more closely to the development process is likely to result in benefits in the realms of quality, cost and time scale.  If this can be supported by a design tool which also produces all the necessary documentation and provides assistance in managing the project, then those benefits are likely to be large.

Traditional authoring systems have majored on the development process but have tended to ignore the design, documentation and management issues.  This paper describes a design tool which provides support for design, development, documentation and management of an interactive courseware application.

The design tool is a development of an authoring system which is in service with the US Navy on a major project which will produce over 800 hours of courseware over the next three years.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Authoring  Instructional  Materials (AIM)–A  New  Standard for Automated Training  Materials   Development  AND Maintenance Tools

Mark Birch and James Ferrall

ManTech Technical Services Corporation

The Navy has recently implemented the AIM program as its standard automated tool for development and life-cycle maintenance of technical training materials.  This program, while developed for the Navy’s specific needs, also provides major functionality to training program mangers in other services, non-DOD agencies, and large commercial concerns.  During an extensive prototyping period, AIM users demonstrated significant productivity improvements (compared to manual, paper-based methods) in both development and maintenance of training materials.  In addition to productivity generated curricula.  AIM users can also review approved materials for impacts of technical manual changes far faster and more accurately than with manual techniques. AIM is a key element in the on-going Joint Services A-TEAM Project to develop a DOD standard set of automated tools for training analysis, development, and management.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Use of Case Tools in the Software Acquisition Management Process

Douglass J. Classe, Aimee A. Murray, Barbara J. Pemberton, Judy E. Walton

Naval Training Systems Center

A new application of Computer Aided Software Engineering (CASE) tools to assist managers improves the training systems acquisition process.  The perils of schedule slips and cost overruns are detectable early and offset by managers integrating CASE tools into the process for training systems acquisition.  CASE tools automatically provide: 1) graphic representations of software design; 2) reports on quantitative measurements of software quality; and 3) control flow diagrams which graphically disclose complex software modules that increase time and effort during system integration and testing.  Managers can more effectively and efficiently monitor the development of software-intensive training systems with the application of CASE tools to the software acquisition management process.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Software Team  Management  in the  Face of Declining  Budgets

David C. Gross and Lynn D. Stuckey, Jr.

Boeing Defense and Space Group

One of the results of the decreasing defense budget is that competition and value returned are not just hot topics, they are cold facts.  Critics have long contended that defense programs were not managed efficiently because these programs were not driven by the laws of the market place.  But even if this is only partially true, the perception of a diminished threat      (and the resulting diminishing defense budget) is forcing a re-evaluation of the way we manage simulator software projects.  The government wants more for less.  In the software arena there are a number of advances in both technology and in philosophy that may allow us to do our jobs faster and cheaper.  However, as Dr. Deming says, one obstacle to progress is the supposition that automation, gadgets, problem solving, and new machinery will transform industry.

Competition is forcing us to really address software project management.  The paper presents an approach to solving the pertinent issues of software project management.  How many people are really required to do the job? What are the underlying productivity drivers? Which tools are cost effective for our team, and which are simply neat toys? In which direction should we drive team communication and structure? The issues involved sound so familiar as to be old-hat – a complacency which blocks productivity enhancement.  We can not afford this attitude because only the most productive organizations will survive.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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The IterativE  Development  Method–A  Means  of Reducing  Risk in the Development of  Training  System Software

Charles A. Meyer

Southwest Research Institute

Successful risk management requires a means to evaluate the degree to which project activities and deliverables meet project goals.  Traditional process models employ a specify-then-build approach, where the primary tool of risk assessment is documentation reviews, walkthroughs, and formal design reviews.  However, these techniques are inadequate in the presence of non-trivial risk factors.  The iterative process model alleviates this inadequacy.  It calls for the design, implementation, test, and integration of small parts of the system, in an iterative fashion.  Thus, working pieces of the system development process generally exhibit the following attributes: the application is highly interactive, the formal requirements are poorly defined, the system under development employs new hardware or software technology, or the development team is encountering the application’s technology for the first time.  In practice, training systems projects typically possess two or more of these attributes and are ideal candidates for iterative development.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Simulator  Networking–An Application  for  Fighter  Aircraft  Simulators

Brigitte Le Sache, Claude Crassous de Medeuil

THOMSON-CSF, Departement Simulateurs

This paper describes the feasibility study and the implementation of a real-time coupling of two MIRAGE 2000C fighter simulators 800 Km apart, for interactive combat training and future extensions with additional simulators.

The feasibility study covered the following issues:

1)       The choice of a secure telecommunication line with high throughput, minimum transport  delay and high reliability,

2)       Use of DIS (Distributed Interactive Simulations) protocols,

3)       Tests of delays due to data formatting and transmissions,

4)       Study of compensation for transport delay using time stamping and dead reckoning techniques,

5)       Influence of the delay and errors on the pilot reactions during interactive training, especially during firing.

This study has benefited from a THOMSON-CSF project started in 1989 to develop tools and methods to allow consistent inter-operability of networked simulators.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Discrete  Event  Simulation  and Analysis of DIS Network Architectures

Dr. James W. Dille and Steven D. Swaine

McDonnell Douglas Training Systems

The Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) network architecture and protocol is being developed for the interconnection of large numbers of manned and unmanned simulators.  However, little data exists for the performance of this system when implemented on the large scale envisioned.  As with most modern communications networks, the complexity of this system is such that traditional analytic techniques such as queuing theory are incapable of accurately predicting system performance.  A simulation tool for the analysis of a DIS network is written using Simscript ll.5, a discrete event simulation language.  The simulation employs models of typical DIS entities such as aircraft, ground vehicles and infantry and can be a valuable tool for evaluating network performance due to different amounts and mixes of entities, dead reckoning error criteria, and various network hardware and protocols.  The simulation makes available extensive statistics detailing the performance of the overall system, making it possible to answer such questions as the number of entities that can be supported on particular network hardware, interrupt rates and the transport delays experienced by individual entities.  To illustrate the use of this tool, a DIS network composed of high performance aircraft is examined.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A Protocol Converter  for  Networked  Air  Defense  Applications

Daniel A. Bradford, Danielle M. Eriksen, and Alan M. Thibodeau

Lockheed Sanders, Inc.

Huat K. Ng

Institute for Simulation and Training, University of Central Florida

The standardization of training and simulation protocols through the SIMNET/DIS concept creates a unique opportunity to maximize the productivity of existing fielded systems.  The adaptation of trainer protocols to SIMNET/DIS protocols will allow trainers to be integrated with distributed simulation networks, thus expanding SIMNET/DIS to better simulate and model the complete air-land battlefield.  The focus of our work has been in the design and development of general form protocol converter to adapt air defense trainers/simulators to a distributed simulation network.  The air defense protocol converter incorporates generic air defense processing models, a menu driven user interface for customizing the protocol converter, and an object oriented design with clearly defined interfaces between models.  The protocol converter houses all of the SIMNET processing needed for air defense systems to participate in a SIMNET exercise.  In addition, we have defined a minimal set of messages between the air defense trainer and the protocol converter, which contains typical information available to the trainer.  The protocol converter uses information from the generic interface message set and the user interface message set and the user interface files to provide an air defense application with an intelligent interface to SIMNET, which can be easily expanded to address DIS.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Hurdling  Hovercraft  Terrain–Lessons Learned

Mark E. Donner

Hughes Training, Inc.

The Landing Crafts Air Cushion (LCAC) is the Navy’s fastest amphibious vehicle.  This hovercraft is capable of performing high speed assaults from an Amphibious Task Force at sea to hostile environments located inland.  The craft’s ability to perform over land and at sea lies in the design of its flexible air-cushion systems which allows the craft to conform to its operating surface.  This craft has made terrain that was previously considered immune to amphibious assaults such as wetlands, rocky beaches, and steep gradients, readily accessible.  Hughes Training, Incorporated has constructed the world’s first Landing Craft Air Cushion Full-Mission Trainer (LCAC FMT).  The implementation of this device denotes the U.S. Navy’s first attempt at training potential hovercraft candidates using simulation technology.  A major challenge in modeling the craft dynamics was to correctly determine the contour of the hovercraft’s operating surface.  This paper will present the major hurdles that were overcome in optimizing the simulation of a hovercraft terrain profile.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Development  OF A Flight  Test Database for the  MC-130E  Aircrew Training  Device

Omeed Alaverdi and Michael S. Warner

Systems Control Technology, Inc.

Captain Jose N.T. Abanero

United States Air Force, ASC/YTEE, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

In support of the Special Operations Forces Aircrew Training System MC-130E simulator development, a flight test program was conducted to collect flight dynamics data for use in both model fidelity improvements and simulator acceptance testing.  Due to the lack of several essential test signals, it was necessary to embark on an extensive date reconstruction and calibration task prior to applying the date for simulation validation or upgrade.  This paper outlines the flight test planning and data calibration process needed to develop and validate a high fidelity aerodynamic model.  The use of optimal estimation techniques for reliable and kinematically consistent data calibration is emphasized.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Estimating  the  Impact of Restricting  Simulated  Motion on Transfer of Training  in Rotary  Wing Aircraft

Jeffrey D. Horey

Naval Training Systems Center

Training effectiveness studies have not conclusively established the need for motion as a training enhancement or to reduce the incidence of simulator sickness.  Yet many rotary and fixed wing training systems continue to use motion base trainers for initial and sustainment skill training.  This paper introduces an approach for estimating the impact of motion system restrictions on training effectiveness in rotary wing aircraft.

A study which forecasts the impact on training effectiveness of restricting motion system capability in Device 2F120, the operational flight trainer for the CH-53HE helicopter, was conducted.  The impacts of restricted motion on system cueing, pilot training performance and transfer of training were estimated.  In Phase 1, restricted motion cueing was analyzed with respect to performance of four different maneuvers.  Restricted cueing equivalent to 50 percent system capability was predicted to impact Tail Rotor failure/separation maneuvers only.

In Phase 2, all four maneuvers were flown in three trials under three different motion system configurations.  Simulator performance of restricted and no motion groups was equal to or exceeded that of a full motion group for each of the maneuvers.  No difference in simulator sickness between motion groups was found.

In Phase 3, relevant literature on transfer of training in helicopters was consulted.  No negative impacts were forecast for the devices given improved visual systems and comparable training syllabi.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Extending  Classrooms to the Military   Workplace

D.B. Gould and C.N. McKinney

IBM Federal Systems Company

This paper identifies an architecture and an educational program structure that would promote enhanced training effectiveness for military personnel by extending the traditional school classrooms to the military personnel’s workplace and by providing a more flexible curriculum schedule.  The Navy’s surface ship and submarine forces responsible for sonar and weapons systems will be used to illustrate examples of how this architecture can be implemented to extend classes from the Navy’s classrooms to ships, bases, offices, and remote locations.  We illustrate how distance learning systems can be used as the backbone for this architecture and how the student workstations in this architecture also can be used to accomplish Computer-Based Training (CBT), Part Task Training (PTT), and operational training, among others.  We will identify technologies, such as video and audio digital compression which provide the capabilities for the two-way interactive participation between an instructor and students at separate locations.  Finally, we will address how this architecture can help eliminate problems with student availability and cost for access to the traditional classrooms, as we as facilitate a student’s natural progression through an established curriculum.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Hypermedia–A  Solution  for  Selected  Training  and Prototyping Applications

David J. Gurney, Edward F. Rizy,Ph.D., and Mary A. Zahm, Ph.D.

Raytheon Company, Submarine Signal Division

A traditional Fleet training problem has been the unavailability of tactical equipment for operator and maintainer training due to test and delivery schedules.  Factory and shore based courses are typically allocated only one system for 10 or more students, limiting the amount of “hands on” instruction time available for each student.  Reserve Fleet personnel also have limited access to tactical equipment, sometimes only two weeks per year.  Another traditional Fleet training problem has been the limitation on the type of training which can be supported in the factory and/or shore based classroom environment using the actual equipment due to the absence of critical interfaces.  Since 1988, Raytheon Company has been using Apple, Inc. Macintosh computers with customized hypermedia (i.e., HyperCard & SuperCard) software programs to develop cost-effective solutions to these problems.  Interactive computer-based instructional programs, which support student learning of systems operations without access to tactical equipment, were generated for two Navy programs.  These courseware programs vary in level of fidelity and complexity.  The first courseware application was the lower fidelity program developed for procedural training of the 89 OBT Trainer instructor interface during the Factory Operator Courses for the AN/SQQ-89 Onboard ASW trainer.  The second was a higher fidelity application for an AN/SQQ-32 Minehunting Sonar System, currently used in the Persian Gulf, to train Fleet Personnel in operating procedures.  Recently, a very high fidelity simulation was developed as a rapid prototyping tool during an Integrated Underwater Surveillance System (IUSS) proposal effort to demonstrate operational concepts and operability of the design to the customer.  It is envisioned that this simulation could be used as a supplementary trainer in the future.  This paper describes the three hypermedia applications that have been developed to date and the chief features of each.  Advantages, disadvantages, and future directions of hypermedia technology are outlined.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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The Utility  of Helmet-Mounted  Visual  displays for Tactical  air Crew  Training

Parker R. Goodwin and Samuel N. Knight

CAE-Link Corporation

Much of today’s training system development emphasizes lowering procurement and life-cycle costs.  Also, there is a strong desire to evolve to truly mobile systems.  At the same time, however, the services wish to retain the visual display performance previously achievable only with bulky dome or mirror systems.  This paper addresses helmet-mounted display technology as an effective solution for the visual display requirements of tactical air crew training.  The basic similarities that exist in the training requirements for both fixed wing and rotary wing tactical training systems will be discussed.  This evaluation will also consider the variances in mission types, mission environments, mission equipment, crew configurations, and cockpit displays and the impact of these differences on training requirements.  Subsequently, the paper will discuss the adaptability of the helmet-mounted display in meeting the training requirements.  The possible physiological impact of the display’s weight on the heads of flight crew members will be addressed as well as the perceived fragility of the display system.  The impact of the display system on the facilities required to support the flight simulation system will also be considered.  A final discussion of the trade-off of training requirements versus display system capabilities will be provided to demonstrate that the helmet-mounted system is an extremely cost-effective visual display for tactical air crew training.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Training  Analysis Review and Comment  System (TARCS)–A Concurrent  Engineering  Approach  to Training  Systems Development

Douglas Brashear and P. Kelly Watson, Ph.D.

Lockheed Aeronautical Systems Company

The Training Analysis Review & Comment System (TARCS) is being developed to furnish the F-22 and other follow-on weapon systems with a CALS-compliant, user-friendly capability of reviewing completed instructional Systems Development (ISD) data generated by the use of Joint Services ISD/LSAR Decision Support System (DSS) software.  TARCS will also give users the ability to provide feedback on data reviewed to the weapon system training team.

TARCS will allow the user to:

1.        Review Training Determination information (i.e., training requirements), including weapon system and training system concept information.

2.        See the logic used by the ISD Analyst in the Task and Media Models to arrive at the training requirements for each task.

3.        Read supporting comments or other information entered by the analyst.

4.        Perform “what-if” scenarios on responses to decision model responses.

TARCS will be a multi-platform, client-server software application utilizing a Graphic User Interface (GUI), and is designed to be easily adaptable to future training system development projects that use the Joint Services ISD/LSAR DSS software as the ISD decision support tool.

The ensure the “integrated, concurrent design of products and their related processes” in training systems development (IDA Report R-338, cited in Gorman, 1991), TARCS is designed to provide customer access to training products.  This approach helps accomplish what all good programs should accomplish; the ability to meet the customer’s requirements while building in quality at the outset.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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F-22 Innovations for Concurrent  Development of  Pilot Training System Devices

Dorothy M. Baldwin and Matt Landry

General Dynamics, Fort Worth Division

Developing and delivering concurrent pilot training simulators in sync with user need and maintaining currency through the air vehicle life cycle has traditionally been a serious problem.  Many factors have contributed to this problem including: (1) need for high fidelity simulation which drives the requirement for real operational flight programs (OFPs) and real air vehicle hardware, as much as feasible, (2) need to provide unique trainer control features which traditionally are a problem to implement with real OFPs, (3) procurement cycles on air vehicle hardware which are too long, (4) little, if any, connection between engineering laboratory development and training device developments.

The F-22 program provides a unique opportunity to maximize synergism across the entire weapon system.  The air vehicle, the support system, and the training systems are being developed concurrently through Integrated Product Teams (IPTs) during and Engineering Manufacturing Development (E&MD) phase.  Work on the E&MD effort by the tri-company (Lockheed, Boeing, and General Dynamics) led by Lockheed began in August 1991.  The F-22 E&MD IPT approach provides for training system influence on air vehicle development.  Boeing is team lead for the training system development.  General Dynamics has a Pilot Training System Device (PTSD) IPT in place that is developing portions of the air vehicle simulation for incorporation into the Pilot Training System Devices.  This PTSD development is a coordinated effort with the GD engineering flight simulator laboratory and GD air vehicle IPTs.

This paper will describe the process that has been established to provide for pilot training system device development, integrated with air vehicle and engineering lab development.  The many challenges and potential pitfalls that lie ahead will be outlined.  This paper will also describe (1) early accomplishments and lessons learned using this process, (2) plans for developing pilot training simulators truly integrated with engineering simulations, and (3) plans for maintaining trainer currency through the air vehicle life cycle.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Maintaining  Concurrency of a  Fielded Training  System

John C. Larson and Michael J. Rolecki

Boeing Defense and Space Group

Col. Michael Wiedemer

Aeronatutical Systems Division, Air Force Systems Command

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

For a training system to be effective, it must accurately represent the operational equipment responses and performance as they will be perceived by the trainee.  In modern avionics systems, response and performance are largely determined by the avionics software.  The inherent flexibility to enhance the performance of modern systems has historically resulted in frequent software changes.  This dynamic nature of avionics software has posed a significant challenge to training systems to keep up, or remain concurrent, with the avionics.

The B-1B is one example of such a training system.  The offensive and defensive avionics response and performance are largely determined by the embedded software.  Furthermore, the training system includes two devices, the cockpit procedures trainer (CPT) and the weapon system trainer (WST), which employ different approaches to avionics software simulation.  The CPT employs trainer-unique software to model the avionics while the WST employs actual aircraft avionics processors and embedded software.  Development and upgrade of these two training devices provides and excellent comparison between the “simulate” approaches and their capabilities for aircrew training concurrency.

This paper will use the B-1B training system, now fielded for over two years, to illustrate the challenges presented by concurrent development and upgrade of the avionics and training systems.  Early concurrency planning and trade studies will be reviewed and compared with actual program results.  The technical and management mechanisms employed to maximize concurrency of the fielded training system will be described.  Finally, applicability of B-1B concurrency concepts to future training systems will be discussed, including lessons learned and development risk factors not considered in the early trade studies.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Manprint–The   Road to Human  Systems Integration

Ric Armstrong and Al Galbavy

USAHEL Field Office, STRICOM

Doug Elam

Humanalysis, Inc.

DOD Instruction 5000.2 presents human systems integration (HSI-formerly MPTS) guidance for all services and industry to follow.  The Army’s manpower and personnel integration (MANPRINT) process tailored for simulation, instrumentation, and training device RD&A provides a roadmap for fulfilling HSI requirements.  Process goals focus on fielding devices that users can effectively and safely operate and maintain while performing tasks according to standards under given conditions.  The purpose of this paper is to present a MANPRINT roadmap in terms that assist program administrators and specialists (human factors and safety engineers, logisticians, et al.) in executing their HSI responsibility and authority.  Innovative methods used for making HSI/MANPRINT work productively in the simulation, instrumentation, and training device RD&A environment are discussed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A Better  Idea–Human   Systems Integration (HSI)–Methods  and Tools

CDR David L. Norman, Chief of Naval Operations, Washington DC

Thomas B. Malone, Ph.D.

Carlow International Incorporated

With the issuance of DOD Instructions 5000.1 and 5000.2 in February 1991, the DOD radically changed the way it addresses Human issues in system acquisition.  A new concept called Human Systems Integration (HSI) encompasses the integration of manpower, personnel, training, human factors engineering, system safety, and health hazard concerns.  In the wake of the DOD directives establishing the requirements for HSI, the need is for a standardized and formalized approach to HSI implementation.  Tools and methods to implement this approach are also needed.  This paper describes a set of automated tools to meet this need, designated the HSI Integrated Decision/Engineering Aid or IDEA.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Development of a Prototype–Manpower,  Personnel,  and Training (MPT) in Acquisition Decision Support System (DSS)

Dr. Lawrence O’Brien and John S. Park, Jr.

Dynamics Research Corporation

Captain David Dahn, Dr. Bruce Gould, and Dr. H. Barbara Sorensen

AL/HRMM, Brooks Air Force Base

The Manpower, Personnel, and Training (MPT) in Acquisition Decision Support System (DSS) is a significant, four-year (February 1992 start) Air Force program that will address MPT requirements during system acquisition and design.

The MPT DSS software will have three major components: a Data Base Integration Subsystem, a Baseline Comparison System (BCS) Development Subsystem, and the Analysis Tools Subsystem.  The Data Base Integration Subsystem will contain procedures for extracting historical MPT data from Air Force data bases and new system data from the LSA Record (LSAR).  The Data Base Integration Subsystem will also contain procedures for structuring and maintaining the MPT data base needed to support analysis of the BCS and new system.  The BCS Development Subsystem will help Air Force MPT analysts construct a BCS.  The Analysis Tools Subsystem will contain an integrated set of MPT analysis methodologies and tradeoff techniques.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Tactical  Air  Threat  System for a Distributed  Simulation Network

Captain Brian K. Rogers

Armstrong Laboratory, Human Resources Directorate

Aircrew Training Research Division (AL/HRA), Williams Air Force Base, Arizona

This paper describes the threat system which has been developed for the Multiship Training Research and Development (MULTIRAD) network.  MULTIRAD is a distributed, asynchronous network for tactical fighter team training and research on situational awareness.  The network integrates two F-15C, two F-16C simulators, and E-3A air weapon controller simulator, and the threat system.  The threat system provides threat aircraft and ground-based integrated air defense system (IADS).  Parallel research programs are discussed which include using the threat system for DARPA’s WAR BREAKER program to support the Critical Mobile Target (CMT) mission.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Connectivity  Between  Existing  Embedded  and Pierside  Sensor Stimulators

James R. Cooley

AAI Corporation

There are a number of initiatives in the Navy training community that involve networking large number of sensor stimulation devices, some that have yet to be developed and others that have been in the fleet for an extended period.  The final goal is to provide training for complete battle force teams from the sensor operators through the tactical decision makers.  Intermediate goals include providing team training for combat system teams on individual platforms.

Success of these initiatives depends on maximizing the use of existing embedded and appended stimulators to limit the resources required for new development.  There are a large number of these devices in the fleet that were designed and fielded long before the concept of intertrainer connectivity was introduced.

This paper discusses a number of cases where existing stimulators were connected together to provide coordinated combat system team training.  In each case, the decision to connect these trainers together was made long after the trainers were fielded, so there was no provision in the initial design of these devices for intertrainer connectivity.  In several cases, the trainers have been run concurrently on the same platform through the use of coordinated training scenarios, with mixed results.  This experience has led to a new requirement to connect the trainers directly together.

The case studies discussed in this paper include connecting Device 20B5 to the SQQ-89 On-Board Trainer, Device 20B4 to the SQQ-89 On-Board Trainer, Device 20B4 to the SLQ-32EW system, and Device 20B4 to the USQ-93RESS radar stimulator.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Semi-Automated Forces  Dismounted Infantry  in the  SIMNET Battlefield

Clark R. Karr, Mikel D. Petty, and Scott H. Smith

University of Central Florida, Institute for Simulation and Training

Dismounted infantry, in useful numbers, is conspicuously absent from the SIMNET battlefield.  That absence creates an unrealistic, and possibly negative, training environment.  Dismounted infantry, both in reality and in SIMNET, is difficult to see and very dangerous to vehicles when armed with antitank missiles.  Tank crew trainees in SIMNET do not learn to consider this threat, and consequently can learn behaviors that increase their vulnerability to dismounted infantry.

The Institute for Simulation and Training was charged with the task of developing a prototype computer generated forces system capable of generating useful numbers of dismounted infantry at minimal cost.  This was done by specializing IST’s Computer Generated Forces Testbed into a Semi-Automated Forces Dismounted infantry system, which can generate dismounted infantry fireteams and their associated fighting vehicles in the SIMNET battlefield.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Solving the Challenges  of High-Quality,  Low-Cost  Panoramic Visual Systems

Stephen H. Gersuk

Contraves, Inc., SSI

Al Rodemann

Naval Training Systems Center

Target projectors are the historical means to provide the resolution and luminance that allows trainees to detect and identify targets at real-world ranges.  With motorized gimbals and servo-controlled zoom lenses, a few bright, sharp vehicles can be superimposed onto a low-resolution background scene.  However, a growing class of applications can’t afford the cost, complexity, and the maintenance of target projectors, or the limited numbers of targets that they allow.  Yet these applications still required trainees to perform essentially eye-limited visual tasks.

This paper describes the combination of strategies used to enhance target detection and identification in an air traffic control tower trainer.  Computer-generated target images are electronically inset into the photo-derived background scene.  A typical visual task is to verify gear down at ¾ mile - a challenging task in real life.  Since targets are inherently at the same, relatively low resolution as the background, how can difficult visual tasks be augmented?

Techniques described include a new screen design to optimize scene luminance, anti-aliased inset of targets and restoration of the background scene, modeling techniques for enhancing recognition, and the careful use of artificial and substitute cues.  In combination, these result in improved performance of visual tasks while preserving a strong sense of realism in the scene.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Temporal  Perception  Versus Reality   in an Eye-Tracked Display–The  Impact  of Lag

David L. Peters and James Turner

CAE-Link Corporation

The development of a visual display system that takes advantage of the physiological process of vision required a detailed knowledge of the parameters effected.  During the development of the ESPRIT eye-tracked visual display, tests were run on allowable system lag, on the trade-off between the size of high resolution area and resolution, and on other parameters.  The results indicated that some parameters could effect performance even though the viewer might be aware of it.  One of the parameters, eye-track lag, was found to have some unexpected results.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TARGETs  for Aircrew   Coordination Training

Jennifer E. Fowlkes and Norman E. Lane

Enzian Technology, Inc.

Randall L. Oser, Carolyn Prince , and Eduardo Salas

Naval Training Systems Center

Aircrew coordination training (ACT) has become an important training objective in aviation.  Recent ACT training approaches have included behaviorally-based training objectives in the realization that, like other aviation skills, the acquisition of aircrew coordination skills is reinforced through practice and feedback.  However, there is little in the way of guidelines for the conduct and debriefing of aircrew team training exercises beyond global ratings of performance.  The purpose of this paper is to discuss and aircrew coordination performance measurement and methodology which, originally developed for team research, has direct application to the training and debriefing of aircrews as well as other types of teams (e.g., CIC).  The methodology is a form of structured observation in which (1) opportunities for crews to demonstrate aircrew coordination skills in training scenarios are provided utilizing carefully structured scenario events, (2) acceptable crew responses to each of the events are determined a priori by utilizing NATOPS, SOPs and subject matter experts (i.e., military aircrews), and (3) appropriate responses to events are scored as either present or absent.  The strength of this approach is that it is operationally relevant, minimizes judgments required by observers, and permits observation of crews across a wide variety of specific aircrew coordination behaviors.  In research contexts, high inter-observer reliability is achieved and the measures appear to be sensitive to the effects of ACT.  In the context of training, these characteristics should (1) enable instructors to provide specific and meaningful feedback with regard to the strengths and weaknesses of aircrew team performance (i.e., it is diagnostic), (2) facilitate standardization of observation and feedback by instructors, and (3) enable the technique to be implemented with minimal instructor training.  Applications of the technique to other team training domains are discussed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Building  a  Bridge  Between Data  Fusion Technology and Training  Technology

Ruth P. Willis

Naval Training Systems Center

Daniel Becker

Naval Air Warfare Center, Aircraft Division Warminster

CDR Steven D. Harris

Naval Training Systems Command, Washington DC

The modern Navy is confronted with a rapidly changing world order and it is essential that Navy personnel achieve the highest possible levels of proficiency on their assigned tasks.  The Navy Air Warfare Center Aircraft Division, Warminster and Naval Training Systems Center are collaborating on an effort to develop an onboard trainer that would provide the AN/SLQ-32 operator with situation assessment training.  To accomplish this, intelligent tutoring capabilities will be integrated into the knowledge base of an intelligent control architecture for data fusion.  This design will provide the operator with an opportunity to practice electronic warfare skills and to receive guidance and feedback via the computer) on his performance.  The objective of this paper is to document the potential for data fusion technology to enhance onboard training.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Development  of Instructional  Design Guidelines  for  Stress Exposure Training

Janis A. Cannon-Bowers, Joan K. Hall, and Eduardo Salas

Naval Training Systems Center

James E. Driskell

Florida Maxima Corporation

Training interventions should be designed to promote performance management under stressful conditions.  The success of the Stress Exposure Training method in positively affecting cognitive and psychomotor performance merited developing instructional guidelines for training tactical decision making performance.  Stress Exposure Training research articles were systematically reviewed for guidelines that could be applied to a Combat Information Center environment.  Guidelines were categorized according to specific aspects of training design:  (1) needs analysis, (2) fidelity, (3) sequencing of training, and (4) evaluation and feedback.  Overall, this information provides practical advice for creating effective training for stressful conditions.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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The Canadian  Forces Experience   in  Part-Task  Training

Laurence A. Sianchuk

National Defense Headquarters

Ottawa, Canada

The Canadian Forces experience in the evolution of part-task training requirements is traced through a discussion of systems both in service and under development.  These devices provide individualized training without tying up weapon system or full mission simulator resources.  This is especially useful in multi-member crews where an intensive effort is required to train new crew members on specific functions.  One example of such a system is the Acoustic Positional Trainer which is used to train sensor operators for the CP-140 Aurora anti-submarine warfare aircraft.  New technology has recently been applied to this method of training to produce multi-purpose trainers which can be reconfigured to provide training for more than one system.

One application of this concept is the Tactical Procedures Trainer, a device which can rapidly reconfigured into any one of several sub-systems to provide training for Aurora crew members on the various facets of anti-submarine warfare.  Another developmental system is the Naval Tactical Display Emulator, which grew out of a program to evaluate multi-purpose trainers for shipborne combat system operators using the latest display technology.  The successes of this program and the Tactical Procedures Trainer have demonstrated the advantages of part-task training with low cost, multi-purpose, reconfigurable trainers.  The paper concludes with lessons learned and the way ahead for part-task training in the Canadian Forces.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Requirements   and Design Approaches  for Flight  Training  Devices

Graham F. Upton

CAE-Link Corporation

In the commercial market arena, much attention has been given over the last 3 years to FAA Advisory Circular 120-45A - “The Qualification of Flight Training Devices”.  The primary focus of this attention has been on Level 4 through Level 6 devices, which replicate a specific aircraft cockpit and are designed to be included within training programs for specific aircraft.  Manufacturers of these devices often capture software from a full flight simulator and package the device using common modules (IOS, computer, interfaces, etc.).  These Level 3 devices are generally more applicable to flight training schools and the regional airlines.  However, they are also well suited to the requirements of the various military services.  They meet an ever-increasing demand for low-coast, generic training devices which are applicable to both the military and commercial organizations.  This paper discusses the application and technology of the low-end training devices and how they may fill the gap between the very low-cost off-the-shelf solutions and fully-tailored specific training devices (i.e., Levels 4-6).  The military applications of these devices will be emphasized to meet the demanding low cost procurements.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Tools and Utilities  for the Development  of Speech  Recognition Systems

David Kotick, Dana Smith, and Roger Werner

Naval Training Systems Center

The reliability of speech recognition systems can be enhanced considerably through the use of pre-defined wordsets and phraseology syntaxes.  Historically, syntax structures have been defined manually using hand-drawn state diagrams, which in turn are converted manually to ASCII files.  When many words, nodes or connections between nodes are involved, the processes of defining, debugging, and modifying a syntax can be quite tedious.  A tool has been developed which automatically generates a graphical state diagram from an ASCII syntax definition file.  It can also check for various hazards in the structure, check a list of phrases for compliance with the syntax, count words, and write and check against word dictionaries.  This automates much of the clerical tedium of dealing with syntax structures and phrase lists.  A further enhancement, which allows graphical editing of the state diagram, and subsequent automatic generation of the descriptive ASCII file is in the design phase.  An additional real-time nodal flow analyzer is also included in the tool package.

With the development and addition of post processed phraseology checking and word scoring/word thresholding utilities, apparent voice system accuracy and user acceptability may be significantly increased.  This paper discusses the use of these speech recognition tools and utilities in the NTSC Under Ice Navigation Trainer Test-bed.

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Locating Human  System Technologies for the  Acquisition Process

Dr. Mona J. Crissey

Defense Training and Performance Data Center

Frank C. Gentner

Crew System Ergonomics Information Analysis Center

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

To maximize cost benefit savings, influence design, and facilitate the trade-off decision process, the requirements for manpower, personnel, training, safety, health hazard prevention, and human factors engineering must be addressed as early as possible in the acquisition cycle.  To ensure that human issues are integrated into the total system, the new DoDI 5000.2, “Defense Acquisition Management Policies and Procedures” requires analysis and reporting of these factors throughout the acquisition process.  A NATO Research Study Group (RSG.21) was formed to identify, define, and describe the tools, techniques, and databases that enhance early consideration and integration of human issues at appropriate acquisition milestones.  RSG.21 developed the term "“Liveware" to collectively describe the domains of manpower, personnel, training, safety, human factors engineering, and health hazard prevention.  Liveware is defined as the human component of a weapon system in its integrated environment.  Collection of descriptive information about existing and emerging Liveware technologies is being accomplished by the Office of the Secretary of Defense under the auspices of RSG.21.  This effort involves industry and government developers, owners, and users.  The resulting collection will represent the most complete automated catalog of international Liveware technologies available.  Access to the catalog is to be provided to the entire acquisition community.  This paper (1) describes the requirements for and importance of human system information during the acquisition process; (2) defines the Liveware domains; (3) summarizes previous collections of information; (4) describes the need for a Liveware database; (5) describes the concept and scope of the database which produces standardized Liveware data, the information available, and methods for accessing the catalog; and (6) summarizes the benefits to the acquisition community from use of the data.

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Training  Management   Data–Myths  Versus Reality

John C. Finley

ARC Professional Services Group

The Submarine Training Master Planning System (STMPS) is a comprehensive information system that supports Manpower, Personnel, and Training (MPT) planners at all echelons.  STMPS projects annual training input requirements and the requirements for associated resources (instructors, classrooms/laboratories, and technical training equipment/devices) for twenty years.  This paper shares with the training management community the lessons learned during the development and operation of this major MPT information system.

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Is Object-Oriented Design Sound

Simulator  Software Engineering?

David C. Gross and Lynn D. Stuckey, Jr.

Boeing Defense and Space Group

Every advance of software technology has led to the discovery of new barriers.  The introduction of a new software technology expands the domain of solvable problems while revealing an undiscovered country of unsolvable problems.  Generally, the advances have been revolutions, which changed the paradigms defining common practice.  Each revolution has threatened the existing order while it offered new power.  The effect of this phenomenon has shaped the history of software technology into a series of searches for a “magic bullet”.  What is the new approach, which will break the latest barrier down? There are problems with such a mind-set.  One is that we come to expect paradigm shifts based on the calendar, and not necessarily on real progress.  How do we decide if a technique is a real advance or a passing fancy? Another is that we used to integrate new philosophies into our paradigms, where now we adopt complete new paradigms, and discard what has gone before.

The current candidate for the holy grails is object-orientation.  Such simulation is a software technology consumer; we view the possibilities of object-orientation with interest and concern.  What problems will an object-orientation approach help us resolve and how? This paper presents a software engineering examination of the effect of object-orientation on simulation software.  We review the fundamentals of an object-orientation.  We expand on this understanding by discussing a contrived example of simulation software.  Having defined the object-oriented methodology, we review the goals and principles, which define software engineering, as a basis for our evaluation.  Finally, we analyze the effects of an object-orientation for simulation software and draw conclusions about its utility.

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An Analysis of Ada, Object-Oriented Design, and Structure Model as Implemented in a Moving Target Simulation Design

Thomas F. Flynn and Mary D. Petryszyn

CAE-Link

Previous designs of moving target simulation models were developed using a single point of control functional architecture and functional design methodology.  This approach to design concentrated on identifying all of the specific actions that would occur within a simulation software environment and relied on a single control point and a common data pool to provide sequence, control, and communications between all of these functions.  Applying this to moving targets, the approach focused strictly on the specific actions that a unique platform must perform in order to satisfy an interface to other functions within the total environment.  On the B-2 ATD program, it became apparent that designing math models representing functionality caused a number of problems.  These problems involved: isolating control logic from system functionality; adaptability of software to accommodate future requirements, such as the addition of targets or modifications to the properties (geometry, weight and balance data, etc.) of targets; and taking advantage of software reusability.  Also, the functional approach, since it dealt with specific actions, did not segregate basic platform structures and properties, platform functionality, and non-specific platform maneuvers from one another.  These problems were the basic underlying reasons to use a more state of the art methodology and supporting language, Object-Oriented Design and Ada, to help reduce the functional approach weaknesses.

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An Object-Oriented Network  simulation  Architecture   for   space Station Freedom control Center  Training

Dawn Ward

NASA, Johnson Space Center

Joseph Policella and Joey White

CAE-Link Corporation

The Space Station Training Facility (SSTF) has a requirement for a Space Station Network Simulator (SNS) to provide a simulation of the NASA space network which is used to provide communications between the Space Station Freedom (SSF) and the Space Station Control Center (SSCC).  Network Simulators are different from traditional simulators (e.g., flight simulation, visuals, tactical, etc.) because they incorporate special telemetry, signal processing, data communications, and recording hardware.  The architecture of the SNS telemetry, signal processing, data communications, and recording hardware.  The architecture of the SNS is such that the role of simulation software models and this special purpose hardware id equally important.

In a Network Simulation, the role of software models is to simulate the communications environment, the communications satellites, and network management message interaction with SSCC, and to mode the hardware based upon simulated conditions.  The role of the hardware is to provide signal processing functions on simulated telemetry data produced by the Space Station Simulation and command streams produced by the SSCC.  This includes bit synchronization, frame synchronization/decommutation, signal processing, and serialization of the data.  The hardware also provides the simulation with a capability to receive and respond to network management messages.  These network management messages are sent to the computational platform, processed by the software models, and used along with the communications environment models to mode and control the special purpose hardware.

Network Simulation lends itself to Object-Oriented Design because of numerous occurrences of simulated generic real-world objects (e.g., approximately 14 occurrences of antennas are modeled in the SNS).  This is true for both the hardware and software.  This paper describes in detail the hardware and software of the SNS architecture, emphasizing the opportunities for 4reuse found in the hardware and software objects of the system.

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Lasers for Displays

David A. Ansley and Kris E. Bentley

Hughes Training, Incorporated

Over the past decade there have been several attempts to market laser television projectors.  High cost, huge electrical power consumption and poor reliability have usually doomed these ventures.  In order to be a viable alternative to commercially available projectors such as light valve and CRT projectors, the unique characteristics of lasers must be exploited.  The laser projector should solve specific applications problems that cannot be solved by any other projector.  Some of the unique characteristics of a laser are (1) high degree of collimation, (2) zero light persistence and (3) 100% color (hue) saturation.

This paper will describe how these unique characteristics are applied to solve specific training requirements for advanced weapons tactics trainers.  These requirements include two full color targets and one monochrome target with dynamic distortion correction over the entire field of regard (360° horizontal, +90° to -50° vertical).  Additional requirements include independent, non-interfering Night Vision Goggle training for the Pilot and Weapon Systems Officer.  Recent developments toward achieving non-interfering full color area-of-interest displays for the Pilot and Weapon Systems Officer will be discussed.

The characteristics of available lasers will be reviewed and some recent improvements in electrical power conversion efficiency using upconversion, diode pumped second harmonic generation and fiber lasers will be described.

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Advantages of Using a Projected  Head-Up display  in a flight simulator

Philipp W. Peppler

Human Resources Directorate, Aircrew Training Research Division

Williams Air Force Base, Arizona

When viewing a real planar image through an aircraft head-up display (HUD focused for “infinity,” diplopia and other related problems render the HUD useless as a training device.  Future flight simulator visual displays are being developed with real planar image projections; therefore, this problem must be resolved.  Past research into decollimating aircraft HUDs for real planar visual displays presented several solutions, but major side effects limited the tasks that could be trained with a decollimated HUD.  Recent advances in projector and graphics technology have made projecting a real planar HUD an attractive solution.  Projected HUD technology at Armstrong Laboratory, Aircrew Training Research Division, Williams AFB, Arizona is described.  The advantages of using a projected HUD were investigated and are discussed.  Advantages of using projected HUDs in simulators with a real planar visual display are numerous.  Projected HUDs are lower cost, produce an accurate HUD field of view, are easily maintained, and are flexible.  Projected HUDs are undoubtedly a technology for tomorrow.

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Visual Simulation  techniques  for

Desktop Training  Applications

Brent Henderson

Southwest Research Institute

James A. Squires

Kinetic Visuals

This paper presents an overview of visual simulation techniques that are now available for developing desktop training applications using low-cost visual computing workstations.  The trend towards desktop visual simulation is due to the high level of user interactivity and system modeling functions provided by increasingly capable workstations featuring real-time simulation, 3D graphics, digital audio, and video capabilities.  Improved workstation-based ADA development tools and low-cost visual simulation development tools, along with emerging standards in graphics libraries (OpenGL, PEX) and POSIX-compliant application program interfaces (API), now provide visual simulation models that are transportable and reusable across a wide range of workstation platforms and desktop simulation applications.  An example desktop visual simulation application which utilizes these techniques is presented in the form of a prototype Scenario Viewing System.  The desktop Scenario Viewing System (SVS), developed by Southwest Research Institute, uses the VisionForm visual simulation toolset developed by Kinetic Visuals.  The SVS features GL-based rendering of tactical scenes, real-time Ada-based flight simulation modeling, Head Up Display symbology modeling, Defense Mapping Agency digital terrain model integration, and user interface control capability for freeze, run, rewind, and skip ahead functions.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Cost/Benefit Analysis as an

Instructional Design Consideration

Edwin R. Griffith and Kurt W. Miles

Applied Science Associates, Inc.

The instructional design process, properly applied, consists of several phases.  One of the key phases is the analysis phase, followed closely by the design phase.  Depending on the model used, the topic of media selection is near the end of the design phase.  Several factors are weighed and evaluated in making the decision of which medial to select for the presentation.  Although many decision makers have an excellent grasp of development costs, all too often the long range costs of media are not clearly understood.  The difference between the actual cost of the instruction and the real cost of the instruction is not apparent.

This paper presents a basic definition of what cost/benefit analysis is, discusses the concepts of actual (out-of-pocket) cost versus real cost and cost per student versus cost per course.  It also addresses the idea of establishing the cost benefit for a variety of media as part of the media selection process.  Generic examples of costing (real and actual) are presented to illustrate the concept of cost/benefit analysis, and manipulated to demonstrate the value of using a cost benefit analysis as part of the instructional design process.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Automating   Courseware  Development,   Production  and Management for  Space Station Freedom

Greg McMillan

Spar Aerospace Limited

Spar is designing and building the Mobile Servicing System (MSS) - a number of space-based robots - that will be used to build and maintain NASA’s Space Station Freedom (SSF).  This paper describes the automated courseware development system Spar’s MSS Training Group is implementing and plans to start using in August 1992.  The automated courseware development system will allow the production of all types of MSS training materials to occur in a highly interactive and responsive manner.  Thus, training development closely parallels the evolution of the MSS and produces some of the courseware for training SSF personnel well in advance of the first launch in 1996.  We also plan to sue the courseware development system for future projects and develop internal company training.

Our goal was to implement a system that integrates the most appropriate commercial software tools, with proven instructional development processes and procedures that the training staff would use during the analysis, design, development, production and management phases.  Our approach was to us HyperCard on a Macintosh Quadra 900 running System 7 to integrate commercial off the shelf (COTS) software to implement the automated courseware development system’s functions.  The system will automate the development of text, CBT, video, and some aspects of simulator-based courseware.

This paper describes the design goals for the system, its hardware and software architecture, major functions and outlines how the system is used to create courseware.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Low Cost Trainers–Lessons for the  Future

Garry H. Boyle and Bernell J. Edwards

Air Force Armstrong Laboratory, Aircrew Training Research Division

Williams Air Force Base, Arizona

A new generation of part-task trainers is required if the simulator industry is to support squadron level training, team training, large networks of manned combat engagement simulators, and deployable simulators to support Global Reach--Global Power.  This paper will describe the genesis, development and results of an effort attempting to provide that capability.

The goal of Aircrew Training Research Division is to develop a family of training devices for training research at the operational squadrons.  This goal required that training devices had to:  (1) be low-cost, so they could be widely deployed at the squadron level, for example, low-cost microcomputers, graphic devices, and selective fidelity to provide user acceptance while cutting development cost; (2) be networked with minimum two-ship network, since in an operational squadron the basic element is a two-ship; (3) be “pilot friendly” without operators, maintenance crews or even instructor pilots; and (4) be able to provide training in mission critical skills.  The engineering plan included the additional descriptors; (5) a flexible system or an extensible system to allow for growth; (6) a distributed system to allow for real time high fidelity simulations; (7) a modular system in both hardware and software so the device could keep pace with technology and changing training needs while capitalizing on existing software; and (8) a deployable, self contained system requiring only normal classroom environment.

The result: a family of low, medium and high fidelity trainers utilizing the same software core, networked in local and long haul networks.  The low fidelity Air Intercept Trainer (AIT) has been fielded since October 1986, transitioned to user with a total of thirty devices between the AF Reserve, ANG, TAC and AL, and has included several research studies including a transfer of training study.  The medium fidelity combat engagement (CET) is an innovative glass cockpit design.  Two were fielded in July 1990 and are used as manned flight stations for network and team training research.  The high fidelity Multitask Trainer (MTT) is a simulator in a deployable shell.  Phase 1 of the MTT was demonstrated at the 1991 I/ITSEC, and there is now four units, one of which will have been fielded in August 1992 at the 926 TFG for evaluation.

This paper will portray the evolution of this effort, the engineering solutions, and its direct technology transition, lessons learned, field observations and future directions.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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CBT in the  Royal  Navy–Training  the Trainers

Commander M.G. Pengelly, Royal Navy

Lieutenant Commander G. J. Moore, Royal Navy

Lieutenant Commander D.W. Dowsett, Royal Navy

The paper examines the factors, including the Royal Navy’s policy for CBT, which led the Royal Naval School of Educational and Training Technology (RNSETT) to question the methods and content of training being provided for members of the Naval Service (principally Royal Navy, Royal Marines and Women’s Royal Naval Service) who, when appointed to training billets, were expected to be able to make good use of, propose or help develop CBT as a cost-effective training medium.

It describes the analysis of the training need, including descriptions of the three main roles which personnel fulfill in relation to CBT in the Royal Navy, and the shortcomings inherent in attempting to run a Systems Approach to Training when the majority of those responsible for training execution are subject experts in their own field, given minimal training in pedagogic theory and practice, and frequently do not perceive training to be their primary function.

Potential alternatives, the chosen methods of tackling the training problems, and the reasons why they were chosen are discussed.  The content, structure and target population for the short Principles of CBT Course which has been developed and is now run by the RNSETT will also be described, together with analysis of its effectiveness as measured by post training feedback from the initial graduates.  Potential future developments in the raining need and alternative training strategies under consideration are also described.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Development  and Production of six Video Programs  for  Night Vision goggle Training

Joseph C. Antonio and DeForest Q. Joralmon

University of Dayton Research Institute

With the increased use of night vision goggles (NVGs) within the Air Force, Navy, and Marine aviation communities, there is an expanded need for NVG training.  Six video programs have been produced covering the following subjects: image characteristics, luminance variations, lighting issues, terrain albedos, weather effects, and navigational issues.  These linear presentations demonstrate a variety of NVG attributes, limitations, and operational capabilities.  Intensified imagery acquired from both airborne aircraft and ground-based locations provide visual examples of the concepts discussed.  The programs are generic in that they apply to both rotary and fixed-wing flying communities.  The programs are used to augment ground school and may be used as refresher training prior to NVG flying.  This paper describes the role of the NVG training videos within the prototype NVG training course, the content of the presentations, and techniques used in the production of the programs.  These six video programs form the basis of an NVG interactive videodisc currently being developed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Virtual   Environment  Training:

Auxiliary   Machinery  Room  (AMR)  Watchstation Trainer

Dennis C. Hribar, Ed.D., David C. May, and James A. Probsdorfer

Newport News Shipbuilding

Virtual Environment Training offers a cost-effective alternative to high-priced simulators and training devices.  It uses the advantages of multimedia technology to provide quick access to motivating video sequences, audio warnings, realistic images and detailed text and drawings to interactively train critical tasks.  This paper will highlight a recent project completed at Newport News Shipbuilding to use Virtual Environment Training to improve performance of submarine crewmen.  It will detail critical considerations in the use of Digital Video Interactive (DVI®) in Virtual Environment Training.  This paper will also identify a Virtual Environment Training development process and highlight a software application that was developed to aid in training design.  Finally, significant performance improvements from a recent text/evaluation of this virtual environment part-task trainer will be discussed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A Survey of F-16 Squadron Level  Pilot  Training 

in the  Pacific  Air  Forces (PACAF)

Dee H. Andrews, Bernell J. Edwards, and Thomas H. Gray

United States Air Force Systems Command, Armstrong Laboratory

Aircrew Training Research Division, Williams Air Force Base

At the direction of Air Staff and Systems Command, Armstrong Laboratory conducted a study of operational squadron level flying training.  Budget reductions in the formal training unit have focused interest in training at the squadron level.  The objective of the laboratory study was to identify training requirements and shortfalls in the operational squadron and to determine areas where technology development could offer potential solutions.

The approach followed a training needs assessment model in obtaining information from training managers and operational squadron pilots.  F-16 squadrons located in the Pacific Air Forces were chosen for study as the most likely population for generalizability of findings.  About 2/3 of all pilots assigned to PACAF F-16 units participated in the data collection.  Content areas investigated included flying, ancillary training, and professional military education, but the emphasis of the study was on flying training programs.

Survey findings appear valuable as preliminary indicators for improved training technology applications.  Major findings were as follows:  (1) Maintaining air combat proficiency is the most difficult single aspect of sustaining mission readiness in these squadrons.  (2) Multi-force, dissimilar aircraft combat training was the primary area where more and better training is needed.  (3) Specialized training in certain skill areas including weapons systems/delivery and electronic combat is needed.  Specifically focused technology development could improve training in all of the above areas, with a view toward improving the integration of combat skills in the cockpit through advanced simulation capabilities.  Technology emphasis at the squadron level would significantly offset effects anticipated from cuts in schoolhouse programs.  Other findings are also presented.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Training  System Challenge –Lowering   the Cost of Concurrency

John C. Larson and Dwight W. Potter

Boeing Defense and Space Group, Huntsville

David R. Sando

Boeing Defense and Space Group, Seattle

During the 1980’s, approaches were developed to design and manage training devices that could achieve concurrency with the associated weapon system and sustain it throughout the life cycle.  Training systems were able to address this long standing concurrency problem through incorporation of avionics computers, interface hardware and embedded avionics software directly in the training device itself.  While these powerful techniques provide unrivaled fidelity and concurrency, they are characterized by high acquisition and life cycle costs.  Recent avionics trends toward fusion architectures and digital signal processing point to even higher trainer complexity and cost for future systems if the current approaches are continued.

In contrast, modern training systems are evolving toward families of simpler, specialized devices.  Several part-task trainers may better meet specialized, complex training needs at a lower cost than a single high end device.  In addition, low cost devices are key to achieving meaningful group and force level training.  Operational and maintenance trainers may include similar system models to meet unique training requirements.  However, the need for current, accurate representation of the weapon system is not diminished for these newer, low cost devices.

Techniques must be developed that assure all devices accurately reflect the current weapon system configuration.  This paper illustrates a method for concurrency comparison of training device alternatives.  It shows how modern avionics systems complicate traditional training system concurrency approaches.  Finally, it shows how advanced computational and software technologies including multi-processing, software design methodologies and Ada programming provide powerful tools for low cost concurrency if properly employed within the weapon system program.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Cost and Training  Effectiveness  Impacts of Contracted C-130 Aircrew  Training

William Derrick

Systems Research and Applications Corporation

Major Walt Tomczak

Headquarters, Air Mobility Command

Robert Nullmeyer

Burke Burright, Armstrong Laboratory, Aircrew Training Research Division

CAE-Link Corporation was awarded the contract in 1987 to develop and implement a ground-based training system for C-130 aircrew members.  The Military Airlift Command and the Armstrong Laboratory recently sponsored an analysis, conducted by The Systems Research and Applications Corporation, to ascertain this new system’s impacts on training costs and effectiveness.  This paper analyzes the available cost and training effectiveness data generated by the old and new aircrew training systems, describes the cost-effectiveness analysis model developed for this project, and estimates the cost and effectiveness impacts of the new system.  Outputs (training objectives, numbers of graduates, and proficiency levels of graduates) were found to be similar across the two systems.  The ATS lowered total training costs given current student flows.  However, the relative cost-effectiveness of the ATS and pre-ATS alternatives would be strongly affected by changes in the number of graduates produced.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Open Systems and Industry Standards in Flight Simulation–What do they Promise, can they Deliver?

Bruce Johnson

Harris Computer Systems Division

Michael Caffey and Mark Easter

FlightSafety International

In the flight simulation industry today, computer industry standards and open systems architecture are dramatically influencing computer system selection, hardware/software design, and applications software development.  What is an “open” systems simulator design? While open systems design has often been defined to mean the selection of a particular operating system and/or computer language for a host computer, it actually encompasses much more.  A true open systems design impacts both hardware and software across all the systems and components that constitute a simulator.

Industry standards are offering very enticing promises of lower systems cost and complete portability of code.  Yet how genuine are these promises and will flight simulation manufacturers and end-users truly benefit from a design that fully embraces open systems and industry standards? Beyond delivery, how will open systems and industry standards affect the logistical support of future simulators and training devices?

This paper will explore these issues and provide some answers to these questions.  It reports of and draws upon the recent experiences of the Simulator Systems Division of FlightSafety International during their development of a completely portable simulator design.  This design effort utilized industry standards to produce a flight simulator that is portable across multiple host computer platforms.  The design effort involved months of development work on three different computer platforms (a Concurrent 8000, a Harris Night Hawk 4000, and an IBM RS/6000™).  Far from a trade study, the design effort culminates this year with the delivery of a simulator to a FlightSafety customer.

Both the benefits and consequences of a standards-based design will be discussed based on the lessons learned in this effort.  In addition, the trends in industry standards will be evaluated to predict their effect on future simulation development efforts.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Open System Environment  for Training  Simulations

Benjamin D. Blood, Jr. and Philip W. Holden

Coleman Research Corporation

A review of what constitutes an evolving open system environment for the U.S. Government as recommended by National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in the Application Portability Profile (APP) and by Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) in the Technical Reference Model for Information Management is presented.  Its applicability as technical guidance to DOD components for the acquisition, development, and support of Department of Defense (DOD) training systems and simulations is described.  The choices or recommendations made to implement some of these standards on an actual Army project is discussed.  The project is concerned with the implementation of a simulation interface system for the Army War College.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Visual Simulation  Techniques

for Desktop Training  Applications

Brent Henderson

Southwest Research Institute

James A. Squires

Kinetic Visuals

This paper presents an overview of visual simulation techniques that are now available for developing desktop training applications using low-cost visual computing workstations.  The trend towards desktop visual simulation is due to the high level of user interactivity and system modeling functions provided by increasingly capable workstations featuring real-time simulation, 3D graphics, digital audio, and video capabilities.  Improved workstation-based Ada development tools and low-cost visual simulation development tools, along with emerging standards in graphics libraries (OpenGL, PEX) and POSIX-compliant application program interfaces (API), now provide visual simulation models that are transportable and reusable across a wide range of workstation platforms and desktop simulation applications.  An example desktop visual simulation application which utilizes these techniques is presented in the form of a prototype Scenario Viewing System.  The desktop Scenario Viewing System (SVS), developed by Southwest Research Institute, uses the VisionForm visual simulation toolset developed by Kinetic Visuals.  The SVS features GL-based rendering of tactical scenes, real-time Ada-based flight simulation modeling, Head Up Display symbology modeling, Defense Mapping Agency digital terrain model integration, and user interface control capability for freeze, run, rewind, and skip ahead functions.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Improved  Image  Generator 

Database  Development  Technologies

Michael J. Panzitta, P.E.

Evans & Sutherland

Economic and political changes are reshaping the global simulation and training marketplace, and users are becoming increasingly more sophisticated in their requirements for visual and sensor simulators.  These factors are stimulating a demand for more powerful and less expensive image generation systems.  Consequently, the cost and complexity of the databases which drive them are becoming increasingly significant.  Highly efficient strategies for simulator database development are needed in order to meet this challenge.

This paper describes new database modeling technologies being put to use at Evans & Sutherland.  Processes for the generation of geometry, terrain, and texture provide flexible modes of interaction, allowing the most effective modeling technique to be used for a given database element.  Strong data commonality throughout the system maximizes IG-independent modeling and database correlation, reusability, and interoperability.  The result of these improvements is a new modeling system which provides a powerful and efficient means for the generation of simulator databases.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Data  Acquisition for CIG Database  Development

Gregory D. James

MANDEX, Inc.

John L. Booker

Naval Training Systems Center

Hardware developments are rapidly increasing the capacity and reducing costs of Computer Image Generation (CIG) Systems to process and create real-time visual simulations,  Hardware costs continue to decline with recent developments resulting in low cost CIG workstation technology.  However, software development costs for visual databases have not kept pace with the hardware cost reductions.

Database development costs represent one of the most important cost factors on future overall visual system cost reductions.  One of the most important tasks, and one often inadequately addressed, is acquisition of 3-D visual data for incorporation into visual environments.  The problem is lack of data necessary to generate realistic simulation databases.

This paper discusses the results of SBIR Topic N86-87, Contract N61339-89-C-0071 with MANDEX, Inc., “Digital Representation of Solid Objects” during 1989 through 1991 which include new techniques and methodologies for acquisition of 3-D data for CIG databases.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Learning  Strategies  in Army  Training

William T. Melton

There are currently six primary learning strategies used for training in the Army.  These are programmed, traditional, exercise, small group, pure group, and mentor instruction.

Historically several of these strategies have been accepted as the way to training only to fail to meet the expectations of the Army in some way.  Considerable training resources have been lost transitioning major portions of the Army’s training program form strategy to strategy.

All of these strategies are useful, none of them are “the way” to train.  The purpose of this study is to propose criteria to help training developers to determine when to use a specific training strategy.

The student-teacher relationship which characterizes a strategy provides the key to determining when to use each strategy.  Arraying these strategies along a continuum from the strategy with the most teacher structured learning environment (programmed instruction) to the least structured learning environment (mentorship) reveals that in each less structured strategy the student progressively takes more responsibility for his own learning.  This change in the teacher-student relationship become increasingly appropriate as the maturity of the student in the area of study advances.

The progressive change in student-teacher roles is also marked by increasingly personal relationships from the relatively impersonal nature of programmed instruction to the intensely human relationships of mentor led learning.  High levels of human interaction are required if the student is resistant to the training or if a high degree of personal commitment is desired form the student at the completion of training.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Deriving  Theoretically-Based  Principles  of Training Effectiveness  to Optimize  Training  System Design

Scott I. Tannenbaum

School of Business, State University of New York at Albany

Janis A. Cannon-Bowers and Eduardo Salas

Naval Training Systems Center

John E. Mathieu

Department of Psychology, Pennsylvania State University

Recent advances in technology and rapid changes in the world have placed increasingly stringent demands on the human operator in many military systems.  The need for improved and more varied skill levels, coupled with current fiscal constraints, requires that modern military training systems must impart the complicated, higher-order skills required to operate modern combat systems in less time and with a lower dollar investment than in recent history.  Therefore, the modern training challenge demands an optimization of training resources--a  return on investment that results in an uncompromisingly high level of readiness at the lowest possible cost and in the shortest time.  The purpose of the present research was to advance understanding of effective training system design by investigating factors that may affect significantly the success of training in terms of performance improvement in the operational environment.  The benefit of such work is that it can lead to generalizable training design guidelines that will increase the probability of effective training with a relatively small investment.  In order to accomplish this goal, a comprehensive model of training effectiveness was first developed and used as a basis to specify testable hypotheses.  A large-scale data collection effort was then conducted with Navy recruits.  Results indicated that several “non-technical” factors had a significant impact on training outcomes in this setting.  These factors included: self-confidence, task-related attitudes, expectations for training, training fulfillment, and pre-training motivation.  These results are discussed in terms of their implications for improving training system design.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Increasing  Combat Aircrew  Training  Effectiveness–Using Multimedia   Delivery  systems to Link  Teaching  Methods  and Learning   Styles

Tom A. Buckles, Assistant Professor

School of Business and Economics, Chapman University

John R. Ronchetto, Assistant Professor

School of  Business Administration, University of San Diego

The major premise of this paper proposes that current and emerging applications of electronic and computer technologies can assist educators in teaching students both task-related and critical thinking skills.  The purpose of the article is to (1) review selected learning style and teaching style literature, (2) provide examples of new multimedia technologies and delivery systems, (3) propose a framework that can serve as an organizing structure for choosing an appropriate multimedia delivery system, (4) consider multimedia applications in combat aircrew training, and (5) briefly outline implications for researchers, educators and students.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Intelligent  Frameworks   for  Courseware   Design

J. Michael Spector

Air Force Armstrong Laboratory, AL/HRTC, Brooks Air Force Base

Many researchers are attempting to develop instructional design systems to guide subject matter experts through the lengthy and expensive courseware authoring process.  A number of these approaches incorporate artificial intelligence (AI) techniques.  Possible used for AI in the automation of instructional design include the following:  (1) on-line, context-sensitive, domain-specific instructional design assistance, (2) elaborate and worked examples of the application of instructional design principles in a variety of automated settings, (3) intelligent and configurable lesson frameworks, and (4) intelligent tutoring systems (ITSs) for instructional design.  This paper will review each of these four approaches and include illustrations of the first three approaches.  Problems yet to be resolved in developing an ITS for instructional design will be identified.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Update  of the  United  States Air  Force 

Instructional  Systems Development (ISD) Process

Katharine C. Golas, Ph.D., Southwest Research Institute

Sara Shriver, Consultant

Conrad G. Bills, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

Pat Bowden, Randolph Air Force Base

The United States Air Force is revising its Instructional Systems Development (ISD) process.  This paper will focus on the background leading up to this revision, the approach that has been followed, and the results to date.  In 1992, the Air Training Command and the Air Force Systems Command joined forces to initiate a task order contract that would first establish the current baseline of ISD and then focus on the direction ISD should take.  The current process does not adequately support new air Force application needs, new training technologies, or automated support tools.  Also cognitive/affective aspects of learning are now recognized as having potential for contributing significantly to instructional practices.  The authors visited Air Force ISD experts across major commands.  Outlines were prepared for the overall description of the Air Force ISD process (AFM 50-2) and the application volumes (AFP 50-68), which give guidelines for implementing the process in different settings including education, acquisition of training, aircrew training, and technical training.  Content for the manual and each application volume is closely coordinated with Air Force ISD experts.  The manual and pamphlets are presented in a structured writing format with illustrations and examples.

ISD is a total quality process and management is key to its implementation.  The distorted view that ISD is procedure-checklist-linear is to be changed to a more accurate view that ISD is process-dynamic-circular, allowing the instructional designer to begin at any phase of the process as required to develop and maintain the total instructional system.  Information on affective and cognitive domains is added.  Information on monitoring contractor-developed instructional systems includes requirements for measurement tools or “metrics” for assessing progress and traceability of decisions back to initial training needs analysis conclusions.  The overall training system architecture or “big picture” is used to define the components that will be required to carry out each training system function.  Streamlining of the documentation trails is to be aided by computer-assisted tools.  The application of computer technology can assist in total system integration.  A method for continuing updates is in place.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Automated–Training,   Evaluation,   Acquisition,  and  Management  (A-TEAM)

Dr. H. Barbara Sorensen

AL/HRMM, Brooks Air Force Base

John S. Park, Jr.

Dynamics Research Corporation

The Automated-Training, Evaluation, Acquisition, and Management (A-TEAM) program is developing a prototype automated training development system for multi-Service use.  The present training development process is time consuming, labor intensive, costly, slow, and requires instructional design expertise.  The emergence of proven advanced computer technologies offers the potential for automating the entire training development process.  The A-TEAM development technical approach will capitalize on three existing tools already under development or completed: The Army’s Automated Systems Approach to Training (ASAT), the Joint Service Instructional Systems Development/Logistics Support Analysis Record (ISD/LSAR) Decision Support System (DSS), and the Navy’s Authoring Instructional Materials (AIM) program.  ASAT is an automated set of tools to aid training developers in conducting front-end analysis of collective and individual tasks for the design and development of instructional training materials.  The Joint Service ISD/LSAR provides an interface with the Logistics Support Analysis Record (LSAR) to allow front-end data integration with the ISD decision-making process.  The Navy’s AIM system is a set of software programs that provides tools for the design, development, and maintenance of instructional training materials.  Each of these tools, however, was designed specifically to meet the needs, requirements, and priorities of each service and are therefore specific to the need of each service.  The A-TEAM effort will functionally integrate the ASAT, ISD/LSAR DSS, and AIM tools through effective data interfaces.  The effort will also identify functional “gaps” that may exist in the Joint Service ISD capability.  This paper will describe the progress of A-TEAM Phase I, including a functional description of each of the three component tools, the A-TEAM integration approach, and the production schedule for the first A-TEAM software prototype.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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“Paradigm   Paralysis” in Electronics  Maintenance  Training

Commander Richard L. Thomas

United States Navy, Office of the Chief of Naval Operations

This paper examines serious shortfalls in electronics maintenance training in the Navy.  It discusses where we are today, how we got here, where we are going, and how we should get there.  As the fleet has grown in size and complexity, the need for qualified electronics maintenance technicians has also escalated.  Because modern electronic equipment and systems design is not standardized, we have seen an unacceptable growth in the number of specially trained maintenance technicians required to keep these systems operational.  To keep track of these special qualifications, we continue to add more and more Navy Enlisted Classification Codes (NECS).  This places an unnecessary burden on training systems as well as manpower planners and detailers.  It’s no secret, the Navy is getting smaller.  Tighter dollars and fewer manpower assets require us to be more efficient in training and personnel assignments.  We don’t have the luxury of evolutionary improvements in the way we train our technicians and maintain our equipment.  We must revolutionize the way we design our systems, the way we document those designs, and the way we teach our sailors to maintain them.  Education, not training, is the answer.  We must require defense contractors to provide us with systems that are capable, operable and maintainable.  We must require the systems commands to provide technical documentation that is “sailor friendly,” and supports training and maintenance.  And finally, we must “educate” our electronic equipment repairmen so they can use these tools (quality equipment, documentation, and knowledge) to maintain the Navy of the 21^st Century.  This paper will present a recommended approach to changing what and how we teach our electronic equipment repairmen, and more importantly, how we change our equipment maintenance paradigms as we try to meet the needs of a rapidly changing Navy.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Cost Efficient  Maintenance  Training  Through  Cognitive Fidelity

Jerome Bresee and Douglas Greenlaw

Delex Systems, Inc.

In the next decade, we can expect that maintenance training will gain in significance as we field fewer new systems, and continue to operate what we now have for longer periods.  The cost of maintenance training, always an issue, will also gain in significance.  This cost can probably be most accurately measured in terms of its impact on operations.  In the broadest sense, effective training reduces the true cost of operations.

Data from commercial airlines supports a contention long heard in military maintenance organizations: one of the costliest problems in maintenance is misdiagnosis.  There is added cost in an unnecessary LRU replacement, cost in unnecessary depot-level inspection, and added cost in stocking and restocking.  More importantly, there is an even greater loss to the service and the nation in needlessly lost operational capability.

This paper takes the position that troubleshooting is largely cognitive rather than procedural, and has many parallels with tactical decision making.  Because of the cognitive nature of the task, training for troubleshooting can be made more effective by prioritizing the training of foundation cognitive skills.  Recommendations made include the following:

1)       Supporting troubleshooting skill acquisition with simulation, and optimizing this simulation for cognitive fidelity.

2)       Altering curriculum sequence to teach troubleshooting as an initial skill, and as the foundation for actual maintenance procedures.

3)       Measuring student performance - and maintenance training system performance - using operational criteria.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Human  Visual  Performance   Modeling

David C. Gross and Keith O. Rogers

Boeing Defense and Space Group, Huntsville

Tactical weapons systems frequently depend on electro-optical sensors for engaging targets.  Many of these electro-optical sensors utilize a man-in-the-loop.  In such systems, the human eye is the critical processing element and is therefore the fundamental determiner of the sensor’s effectiveness.  This is true whether the sensor is the unaided eye (with or without magnification optics) or the eye in concert with devices which convert energy into the visible spectrum.

Simulations that intend to assess the effectiveness of proposed and existing sensors require accurate models of human visual performance.  Unfortunately, human vision simulation models are generally immature, poorly understood, and more theoretical than practical.  The paper presents a method for modeling human vision that represents a synthesis of existing methodologies for characterizing human visual performance.  The method involves an approach which is useful to non-specialists, and will address all electro-optical sensors which utilize a man-in-the-loop.  The paper reviews the tasks associated with engaging targets, by using a generic tactical weapon system to characterize the sequence of events to be modeled.  Finally, the paper discusses the implementation of the model and its application in various simulation environments.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Real-Time  Network  for Multi-Device  Mission Rehearsal

Graig A. Calabrese

Loral Defense Systems-Akron

Gary W. Warden

Systran Corporation

The Special Operations Forces Aircrew Training System (SOF ATS) has in its arsenal of mission rehearsal aids, five reconfigurable (MC-130E, MC-130H, AND HC-130P/N fixed wing, MH-53J and MH-60G rotary win) Mission Rehearsal Devices (MRDs), and two (AC-130U and AC-130H fixed wing) Weapon System Trainers (WSTs) which are also utilized as MRDs.  When placed into a multi-device network configuration, the WSTs and MRDs are interconnected via an inter-device network patch panel providing the capability for up to three completely separate, yet simultaneous, mission rehearsal exercises.  The inter-device network supplies each of the variously interconnected devices with shared data in real time.  Both the WSTs and MRDs utilize a real time intra-device network, which interconnects all of the real time computational hardware within the particular device.  The intra-device network is also configured to permit independent, as well as, integrated training of the operator’s station, flight station, respective crew station(s), and the Sensor Simulation System within the device.  Both the inter-device and intra-device networks utilize a replicated memory technology provided by the SCRAMNet fiber optic network.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Measuring  Fidelity  Differential  in  Simulator  Networks

Pamela Woodard

Naval Training Systems Center

Elizabeth M. Bennett and Ron Matusof

CAE-Link Corporation

Simulator network design has changed from proof-of-principle demonstrations to a production training medium as new contracts call for the implementation of simulator networks designed to a standard protocol.  The prototype standards for Distributed Interactive Simulations (DIS) address the information content required to the interconnection of dissimilar simulations and the rules for DIS usage.  These rules currently center on the control and execution of network exercises and have not yet addressed the issues of system validation and system performance measurement.  This paper briefly discusses current trends in simulator interoperability.  It then discusses the concept of fidelity differential and its impact on team training.  It discusses various methods of measuring fidelity differential and their relative merits.  Finally, it suggests a set of performance metrics that should be applied to simulation networking standards.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Database  Correlatable  Charts  Enhance  Simulation  Training

Sherry Nathman

Hughes Training, Inc.

The lack of correlation between real world charts and a simulated visual database has caused problems to arise in many areas including preflight planning, navigation and mission rehearsal.  Since visual databases are now being stored in cartographic format, paper color charts that are 100% correlatable with the database are feasible.  These charts are proving to be quite useful in many areas in support of simulation training.

In some programs, generic databases are created for specific training mission.  In other programs where geo-specific databases are created, generic features are added to enhance the training effort.  Real-world charts do not exist for the cases; therefore, database generated charts are necessary.  These charts allow flexibility to adapt the visual environment to meet training needs.  Changes in terrain or added feature needed for a training scenario can be depicted on these charts.

Database correlatable charts have also proven useful in all phases of database production and verification, Database modelers and users alike are able to see a plan view of the database during construction instead of performing the tedious task of flying the database to verify its content.

Several future uses are planned for these charts.  Many instructor operator stations now use a 24-bit color workstation.  The color raster of the chart can be captured and displayed on an IOS.  Plans are being made to capture mission data and overlay it on the charts to aid in mission debriefing.

Charts can be generated from any area of the database using any scale.  The entire gaming area can be plotted on a small scale, or a small area can be plotted on a large scale to give a close up view.  Charts can be customized to meet user requirements without any loss of correlation.

This paper will give an overview of the processes involved in the generation of navigation charts or maps from a visual database and the problems solved by the use of this application.  It will also explore future uses for this technology.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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An Approach  to Designing Interoperable   Visual  Data Bases for Networked  Environments  Utilizing   Computer   Image Generators  of  Varying  Fidelities

Steven M. McCarter

Loral Western Development Labs

With the ongoing reductions in defense spending, more effort is being placed on large networked battlefield simulations.  As witnessed by the Advanced Distributed Simulation Technology and the Close Combat Tactical Trainer programs, users are starting to understand the reality and complexities of large networked simulation environments.  One major obstacle that will need to be overcome is that of designing and developing interoperable data bases for Computer Image Generators (CIGS) with varying fidelities.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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An Operational  Approach  to Mission Data Base  Development

Melinda Carlie

General Electric Aerospace, Simulation and Control Systems Department

Much of the challenge associated with the application of computer image generation has shifted from the development of technical capacity to the implementation of mission training strategies that optimize the technology.  Since current imagery capability can create realistic visual scenes, the challenge is met by balancing the desire for near exact correlation between the operational environment and the modeling of mission data bases against the training requirements of an ever broader range of training tasks.

This paper describes the derivation of a process to meet two specific needs identified in the development of mission data bases for the currently field M1 Tank Driver Trainer.  The first need in precise identification of task training requirements in clear and measurable terms to facilitate test and evaluation of mission data bases on specific criteria.  This need is one of translation; the user’s terminology and techniques for stating requirements are significantly different from those of the technology expert or engineer.  The second need is to provide a path that facilitates des