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Sometimes Hot, Sometimes Cold: What is the Future of MPT and HF Analysis and Planning in DOD Acquisition

Lawrence D. Howell, Jr., Ph.D.

University of Dayton

Paul H. Cuningham

University of Dayton/RICSEI

For many years the subjects of Manpower, Personnel, Training, and Human Factors planning oscillated between hot topics to espouse as essential for improved acquisition planning and execution in the Department of Defense, and out-of-favor subjects that caused the eyes of acquisition managers to glaze over.  This paper explores how these topics have been treated in the past and how advanced technology and high-level administrative support may lead to improved human-system synergistic performance in the future.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Manpower, Personnel, and Training Analysis in Aerospace System Development

Captain David A. Dahn and Dr. H. Barbara Sorensen

Armstrong Laboratory, Human Resources Directorate

Brooks Air Force Base

The manpower, Personnel, and Training (MPT) in Acquisition Decision Support System (DSS) is an Air Force program providing the first integrated tool for addressing MPT requirements during system acquisition and design.  New weapon system development and major modifications have historically neglected how our most important and costly resource – people – will maintain and support the fielded system.  Inadequate planning for training and deploying the human element has often delayed system operational dates.  This DSS will assist acquisition managers and analysis to effectively integrate people issues (numbers, characteristics, proficiency) with equipment (aircraft) early in the acquisition cycle.  Acquisition specialists can use the structured analysis approach provided by the MPT DSS to ensure that system people costs are affordable, jobs are properly structured, and people are trained prior to the system becoming operational.  The MPT DSS is being designed to support the Human System Integration requirements, now directed under DOD Instruction 5000.2.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Search for Training and HSI Technologies–Analysis of DOD Liveware Survey

Frank C. Gentner and David E. Kancler

Crew Systems Ergonomics Information Analysis Center (CSERIAC)

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

Dr. Mona J. Crissey

United States Army Research Laboratory

How can the United States (US) military achieve more with the human resources it will have after completing the current downsizing efforts?  By improving training effectiveness and HUMAN Systems Integration (HSI), the DoD can leverage the people it has.  To achieve this goal, the DoD has mandated a series of HSI analyses throughout the defense acquisition process.  Now Government and contractor employees alike must find training and HSI technologies that help achieve better consideration of human issues during acquisition and better integration of the human into each defense system developed or modified.  Recently, there has been an explosion of affordable HSI and training technologies.  Despite this new emphasis, it is very difficult to identify the most appropriate technology for training development and HSI analyses.  Defense acquisitions managers, their contractors, and the HSI research and development community need a database of information about HSI and training tools, database, and test facilities. They need help in identifying the technology already available in each of the Liveware domains of Manpower, Personnel, Training, (MPT) Safety, Health Hazard Prevention, and Human Factors Engineering (HFE).  However, no comprehensive catalog of HSI and training technology exists.  Under the sponsorship of the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (Force Management and Personnel) HSI office and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Research Study Group.21 (RSG.21), ARL-HRED-STRICOM and CSERIAC have surveyed the HSI and training communities to obtain a comprehensive database of HSI and training technologies.  This paper presents highlights of the resulting Liveware database, and discusses Liveware survey collection methods, findings, and implications of this landmark survey.  More than 500 HSI and training technologies have been catalogued in the Liveware database.  Special emphasis will be placed on technologies critical to maintaining US military superiority while reducing manpower and training costs. 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Taking the Guesswork Out of Program Management Utilizing COTS Software

Richard L. Peters, Edward M. Beckman and Steven J. Johnson

Metters Industries, Inc.

This paper will discuss the tailoring and utilization of Commercial Off-the-Shelf (COTS) software to perform Program Management.  The requirements were to provide a COTS approach to Program scheduling and tracking, determining and tracking personnel resource requirements, and to depict program funding status.  Specifically, this paper will address the COTS software utilized by the Simulation, Training, and Instrumentation Command (STRICOM) to perform Program Management from the receipt of a draft Operational Requirements Document to system delivery.

Typically Program Managers have not had sufficient automated tools for Program Schedule planning and tracking, personnel resource forecasting and utilization, and funding overview in an easy to use format.  The ability to crosscheck the deliveries specified in a RFP and Section F of a contract has been labor intensive in the past.  This paper will discuss the integration and utilization of Microsoft Project and Excel to accomplish these tasks easily and in a timely manner.

In discussing the utilization of COTS software for Program Management, the paper will address the requirements for the STRICOM system, its capabilities, and the benefits received from its use.  The paper will also discuss the system’s applicability to other organizations, both government and defense contractor.

Automated program management for all systems, ACAT I to ACAT IV, is required to schedule and track shrinking resources and to conduct real time “what if” drills in order to make intelligent program decisions.  The utilization of the STRICOM system is one method of accomplishing these tasks.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A Hypertext Tool to Support Development of Flight Simulator Specifications

Edward A. Martin

Training Systems Branch

John F. Lethert

Air Mobility Training Systems Division

Wright Patterson Air Force Base

A long-standing problem in the acquisition of flight simulators has been the clear communication of requirements through the specification process.  There are numerous reasons for this, including obfuscation by technical jargon, fragmentation of requirements within a specification, and a human inclination to adopt “cut and paste” approaches which may reflect the requirements of a precedent system more than those of the current system.  This paper discusses an Air Force initiative to develop a hypertext-based generic guidance specification for flight simulators that attempts to address these problems.  Each generic specification paragraph includes hyperlinked recommendations and rationale for principles is embedded in logic that guides the author through the development of specifications.  Since this guidance specification is embodied in a software tool that makes it relatively easy to use, the expectation is that it will be used.  If it is used, the documents produced will reflect the high degree of disciplined cut-and-paste approaches, and emphasize sound systems engineering practice.  Standardized format and vocabulary will help avoid misplaced information and inconsistent interpretations.  Localization and integration of requirements will minimize conflicts. 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Life Cycle Cost Management for Comprehensive Training Systems

Leland O. Singer

Boeing

Ralph Smith

Lockheed Aeronautical

In several current weapon system programs, Training System development is integral to the prime system project.  High level training needs are established at a Training System level while specific requirements are developed under the prime contract using Instructional System Development (ISD) or a similar process.  This affords substantial flexibility in developing a Training System configuration that yields true life cycle cost effectiveness.  However, this can only be exploited if a practical means of determining the cost is used during specific requirements development.  The interesting management challenge is that the range of system design options is almost limitless.  The complexity associated with doing cost analyses, and the potential for disjointed and incomplete analysis is high.  Clearly, some method of creating an organized, thorough and efficient cost analyses is needed.

This paper portrays a life cycle cost based process that evaluates all aspects of training cost.  The process provides an organized method of analyzing and recording all development, production, and support resources required for the Training System and their associated costs.

The process uses data Input Tables that include such things as: the skill mix required to operate and maintain the prime system; the prime system deployment schedule related to the need dates or trained personnel; and types of media, support resources and instructors required for each course.  These and similar inputs are related to each other through Process Tables that include Cost Estimating Relationships.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Guidelines for CMI Interoperability, the Aviation Industry Steps Forward

Jack Q. Hyde

Boeing/CAG

Anne Montgomery, Independent Computer Systems

One of the most recent actions of the Aviation Industry CBT (Computer-Based Training) Committee (AICC) was to publish guidelines for the interoperability of Computer Managed Instruction.  This paper describes the AICC guidelines for interoperability of CMI systems.  It addresses:

-          How CMI systems in general function

-          The value of interoperability

-          Achieving interoperability: 

An overview of guidelines in three areas:

-          CMI/CBT interoperability.  How different CMI and CBT systems from different vendors can work together.

-          CMI/CMI interoperability.  How different CMI systems can pass course structure and student management rules to other CMI systems.

-          Lesson evaluation tools.  How different data analysis tools can work with CBT from different vendors.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Toward Assessing Team Tactical Decision Making Under Stress, the Development of a Methodology for Structuring Team Training Scenarios

Joan K. Hall, Daniel J. Dwyer, Janis A. Cannon-Bowers, Eduardo Salas, and

Catherine E. Volpe

Naval Training Systems Center

Tactical decision making teams in the modern warfare environment are faced with situations characterized by rapidly unfolding events, multiple plausible hypotheses, high information ambiguity, severe time pressure, and severe consequences for errors.  Training interventions should fully exploit instructional designs that will enable teams to maintain performance under these stressful conditions.  Recent research indicates that training scenarios should incorporate significant task situations (events) that present opportunities to learn and achieve desired performance requirements.  In addition, the event-based approach allows for standardized, reliable, and valid measurement of team member performance.  However, little guidance exists regarding how training scenarios should be designed so that they will have a significant impact on helping the team maintain performance under stressful conditions.  Therefore, the purpose of this paper is threefold.  First, a stress assessment methodology (SAM) will be described that guide in the creation of structured training scenarios so that they contain appropriate and relevant levels of situational stressors.  The SAM is based on the idea that training scenario design should be driven by an identified standard of performance.  Therefore, two evaluation instruments will be described, the Behavior Observation Booklet (BOB) and the Sequenced Actions and Latencies Index (SALI), whereby an assessment of team member performance is obtained at pre-specified, time-tagged events in the training scenario.  Lastly, implications for creating event-based training scenarios are discussed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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The Effects of Above Real-Time Training (ARTT) on Three Tasks in an F-16 Part-Task Simulator

Dutch Guckenberger, ECC International Corporation

Kevin C. Uliano, Norman E. Lane and Kay Stanney

University of Central Florida

In this application of ARTT, 24 mission-capable F-16 pilots performed three tasks on a part-task F-16A flight simulator under varying levels of time compression (i.e., 1.0x, 2.0x and random).  All subjects were then tested in a real-time (1.0x) environment.  The three tasks under study were an emergency procedure (EP) task, a 1 versus 2 air combat maneuvering task, and a stern conversion or air intercept task.  In the EP task, all ARTT pilots performed the EP task with 28% greater accuracy, and were better at dealing with a simultaneous MIG threat, reflected by a six-fold increase in the number of MIG kills compared to real-time control group.  In the ACM task, those pilots trained in the mixed time accelerations were faster to acquire lock, and were faster to kill both MIG threats than the other groups.  In the stern conversion task, there were no statistical differences between groups.

These findings are generally consistent with previous findings that show positive effects of task variation (including time variations) during training.  Results are discussed in the context of expansion and evolution of ARTT research across multiple simulator platforms and different types of high performance tasks.  Also discussed are related research findings that support the benefits of ARTT.  Further, a synthesis of multi discipline research outlining the underlying theoretical basis for ARTT is presented.  A proposed model of ARTT based on an analogy to Einstein’s theory of special relatively is suggested.  Conclusions and an outline of future research directions are presented.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Instructional Design Issues in Distance Learning

William J. Walsh, Elizabeth G. Gibson, Patricia Y. Hsieh

MEI Technology Corporation

Dennis Gettman

Armstrong Laboratory, Brooks Air Force Base

This paper reports preliminary results into distance learning currently being conducted by the authors.  Although some of the results reported here are preliminary, the trends identified should not change significantly. 

While many organizations conduct distance learning programs, there has not been much focus on issues of instructional design specifically directed towards distance learning.  In this paper, current research on trends in instructional design issues pertaining to distance learning are investigated.  Focus of the research was on evaluating the delivery of hands-on technical training via distance technologies.  Data is presented on the impact of distance learning curriculum, types of student – instructor interaction, student interaction with the instructional materials, and on the preparation of faculty and staff for distance learning.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A Distance Learning Network Control System

C.N. McKinney, Q. Tran, V. Gallegos and P. Gercken

IBM Federal Systems Company

In the “Extending Classrooms to the Military Workplace” paper submitted last year, we discussed the benefits of distance learning over conventional training programs.  We focused on hardware and introduced multimedia and a modular, building block architecture that supports distance learning and Computer Based Training (CBT) on one platform.

This year, we focus on implementation of a new system and we detail the software architecture.  We performed a comparative analysis of several distance learning systems currently in operation and designed a new system incorporating the best features discovered during this investigation.  This analysis identified a need for distance learning systems to use existing Department of Defense multimedia and networking technologies; provide capabilities for transmitting lessons of individual workstations; and provide features that allow one person to control the entire distance learning network.

This paper describes a generic framework for a distance learning network control system that allows one instructor to control the entire network operation and allows communication to receive sites over satellite, terrestrial, and Local Area Network (LAN) interfaces.  The proposed control system supports two-way video, audio, and data transmissions between the broadcast and receive locations, and provides system monitoring capabilities from one central console.  We discuss interoperability, open systems, and the functional requirements needed to control a distance learning classroom session.  We describe basic software components of the distance learning control system–user interface, LAN control system, satellite control system, terrestrial control system, and receive site control system.  We also define interface specifications and performance requirements, and define the relationship between components and subcomponents within the distance learning architecture.  Finally, we give examples of how the implementation of the proposed control system can lead to reduced costs in developing, maintaining, and enhancing distance learning systems.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Classification of Electronic Classrooms for Use of Instructional Protocols

William A. Platt, Ivor K. Davies, James R. McConville, Stephen J. Guynn, Gary Orwig, Charles G. Bollman, Ron Bower and Marvin Smith

Recent developments in electronics and computer science have been so dramatic that their incorporation into classroom design has caused the term electronic classroom to come into wide use.  The purpose of this paper is to explore basic design and training issues for the electronic classroom and to isolate effective practices where they can be identified from experience in the field.  To this end, several training sites were investigated to review the teaching and learning that were taking place.  Experienced-Derived models of classroom procedure were developed for each situation.  A system of notation was created that captured classroom interaction, media use, and personal control.  A design classification was used to formulate protocols that fit each situation.  The protocols covered steps needed to implement each strategy by incorporating type and frequency of interaction, information source input, communication patterns, locus of controls, and type of feedback.  The instructional protocols are sets of operating procedures for instructors to use in planning and executing instruction in electronic classrooms depending on the type of electronic classroom.  The protocols were devised as a practical extension of learning theory modified by field experience.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Concurrent Development–Boon or Bane?  An ISD Perspective

J.D. Jared

Boeing Defense and Space Group

This paper focuses on the problems and adaptations required for the instructional systems development process to support the concurrent development of weapon systems and training systems.  Government contracts mandate the use of the instructional system development process to develop training systems.  It also requires the concurrent development of training systems along with the weapon system.  The advantages of concurrent development are obvious, such as having a training system delivered at the same time and in the same configuration as the weapon system first article.  However, the concurrent development requirement constrains the options available to the training system developer.  In the course of developing the analysis procedures for identifying training requirements of a major weapon system, considerable flexibility was required for the analysts and designers.  What appeared to be a relatively straight-forward analysis and development approach, in practice, required a significant number of modifications, including procedures and software tools used in the front-end analysis.  Specifically, the criteria used to select procedures and analysis models, primarily train/no-train and media selection were driven by the concurrent development requirements.  The program schedule, availability of design data, and analyst capabilities also had to be considered.  A major concern for the training device developers is the changes that occur in the weapon system as it evolves.  Changes are a critical and costly issue that must be addressed from the beginning.  When concurrent development requirements are applied to new weapon system programs, there is a need for a tailored ISD process that sustains analytical integrity and supports the media developers.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Automated Instructional Media Analysis–Lessons Learned and Recommendations

Larry Clemons

JWK International Corporation

The Automated Instructional Media Selection (AIMS) model was used to allocate selected media to specific training objectives for the Air Force Primary Aircrew Training System (AFPATS) Ground Based Training System (GBTS).  This paper discusses why the AIMS model was chosen over other media selection models, how it was used, what modifications were made, and what modifications recommended for further use.

Choosing the best media selection model, from the more than 30 available, requires a careful matching between model capabilities and unique program requirements.  Once selected, some modifications to meet specific program requirements may be necessary.  For the AFPATS GBTS, the AIMS model offered the flexibility to add or delete as many as 30 candidate media and 192 instructional characteristics.  The media weighting factors and the use of program-specific instructional characteristics used in the AFPATS program are discussed in this paper.

The AIMS model maximizes the use of pertinent information by automating the non-judgmental, data manipulation tasks of the media selection process.  User-definable media pools and editing functions provide flexibility in adapting the model to specific problems and changing technologies.  In addition, the user-definable aspect allows for inclusion of any instructional characteristic.  The flexibility in defining the data manipulation can account for wide variations in the depth of front-end analysis to be accomplished.

Use of the AIMS model maximizes the use of AFPATS GBTS allowed for assessing various instructional media for psycho-motor and cognitive skills.  This was accomplished through program modifications that that separated performance objectives from knowledge-based objectives.  The flexibility in programming the reports’ function was very useful in analyzing candidate media from different perspectives.

The paper presentation associated with this abstract is presented with a demonstration of the automated software used to employ the AIMS media matrix algorithms.  The automated software and AIMS modeling are available through the government.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Lessons Learned from a CBT Development Team

Major Peter H. Lhotka, 1LT Todd W. Gorrell, MSgt Troy L. Rose, SSgt Jeanine M. Butler, Sgt Sheri A. Semrau, Mr. Curt L. Taylor and Mrs. Terry L. Smith

Det 1, 4444 Operations Squadron

CBT Division, Interactive Courseware Branch

Luke Air Force Base

The purpose of this paper is twofold:  to document the lessons learned during development of actual Computer Based Training (CBT) and to provide practical recommendations on how to meet the “challenges” of producing quality CBT.  Topics of discussion will include resource acquisition, project development procedures, and courseware implementation.

The mission of the Interactive Courseware branch includes producing quality interactive courseware (ICW) to train a variety of tasks for fighter aircraft operations.  The branch has developed lessons in fighter aircraft operations, avionics integration, and precision guided munitions delivery.

ICW recently developed three CBT lessons for the F-16 and four CBT lessons for the A-10.  Both projects involved major upgrades to include substantial hardware and software changes.  This paper incorporates the lessons the lessons learned from these projects in the following areas:

1)       Resource acquisition – personnel expertise, hardware/software requirements, support from upper level managers and subject matter experts (SME), and funding.

2)       Project development procedures – team development, design/ programming standards, review/ validation process, and project management.

3)       Courseware implementation – courseware distribution and follow-up evaluation.

The paper focuses on meeting the “challenges” encountered during CBT development.  It emphasizes recommendations designed to assist other organizations in the pursuit of developing quality CBT.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Estimating Time to Develop Interactive Courseware in the 1990s

Katharine C. Golas, Ph.D.

Southwest Research Institute

In this paper a methodology for estimating the time required to design, develop, and evaluate ICW products was prepared and evaluated by 20 ICW experts from industry and the government.  The methodology will appear in the Air Force Handbook 36-2235, Information for Designers of Instructional Systems, Volume 5, Interactive Courseware Design, Development, and Management Guide.  This handbook has been developed for individuals in the Air Force who are responsible for ICW efforts.  Many of these individuals lack previous ICW experience.  The methodology will be used as a guideline to help them in their efforts to estimate time to develop ICW.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Appraisal and Techniques for Digital Audio in Interactive Training

Lt. Cdr. John H. Hall

Royal Navy

Dr. Ann E. Barron

University of South Florida

The increased availability of moderate cost, good quality, digital audio computer cards and peripherals has enabled trainers and instructional designers to realize the potential of random access audio for computer-based training (CBT) and other multimedia applications.  There are, however, few guidelines for instructional designers to follow when incorporating audio into interactive lessons.  This paper provides an overview of digital audio in interactive courseware.  Hardware and software issues are analyzed, and the advantages and disadvantages of incorporating digital audio are outlined.  In addition, areas of future research needs are investigated.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Storyboard Development for Interactive Multimedia Training

Kay L. Orr, Ph.D. and Katharine C. Golas, Ph.D.

Southwest Research Institute

Katy Yao, Ph.D.

Consultant

Training applications using interactive multimedia capabilities are growing in number.  The approach followed to produce these multimedia applications is essentially the same (analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation) regardless of the instructional delivery system. 

Data from research studies, combined with development experience, provides insight into “what works best” for this particular delivery system, thus producing the most effective multimedia training in the most efficient manner.  This paper addresses the procedures for storyboard development and provides specific guidelines for designing interactive multimedia courseware.  Guidelines are presented for increasing interactivity, determining extent of learner control, determining most appropriate use of feedback, preparing visual elements (video, text, graphics and animation), audio elements, and programming.  All of the guidelines are based on data from research studies.  The research studies and literature which support the guidelines are specified by topic in the references.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Enhancements to the Distributed Interactive Simulation Architecture for Training Simulator Interoperability

Brett E. Butler

Loral Advanced Distributed Simulation

The Strawman version of the Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) Architecture was unveiled in March 1992.  This Architecture addressed the requirements and design of interactive (man-in-the-loop) combat simulation in a distributed and networked computing environment.

Since its initial unveiling, work has continued on the refinement and expansion of the architecture.  This paper highlights developments which, as part of the Architecture, facilitate the Interoperation of training simulators of varied fidelity, design, and manufacture.

A specific application which motivates this work is the requirement to conduct training simulation exercises which utilize three different classes of networked simulator devices-a class of existing DIS trainers, an existing high-definition engineering simulator, and a class of new-generation DIS simulators. 

Specific issues to be addressed in the paper are:

1)          Summary overview of key concepts of the DIS Architecture and its enhancements. 

2)          Brief comparison of the configurations and capabilities of both the existing “SIMNET” devices and the newer-generation training devices.

3)          Analysis of how simulator differences detract from the interoperation of these systems.

4)          Discussion of the concepts and solutions, found in the DIS Architecture, which address interoperability problems.

The focus of the paper is to address how the Architecture supports the implementation of interoperability solutions in the proposed exercises.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Distributed3 Interactive Simulation at ACETEF

Phil Landweer

BDM Federal, Inc.

The Air Combat Environment Test and Evaluation Facility (ACETEF) used distributed interactive simulation and computer generated forces in support of two T&E programs during the summer of 1992.  The first of these involved testing the effectiveness of an Electronic Countermeasures (ECM) system used to protect tactical aircraft during a strike against a ground- and surfaced-based Integrated Air Defense System (IADS).  The scenario included a full Navy strike package with 16 aircraft and a robust threat with over 30 units.  Three manned simulators, three actual hardware systems, an RF environment stimulator, and a digital simulation (the Simulated Warfare Environment Generator, or SWEG) were integrated in real-time to provide a full-up, closed-loop combat environment to the ECM system under test.  The second test investigated the relative contributions of various E-2C communication systems to the effectiveness of a carrier-launched tactical strike against a Surface Attack Group (SAG).  The tactics used during the strike were specified by a Naval aviator, with the CGF models adjusted to represent these specific behaviors.  As part of the test planning process, several hundred stand-alone SWEG runs were made to predict what would happen during the actual test.  Again, a variety of simulators, hardware, stimulators, and digital simulations were integrated in a real-time environment using SWEG.  All incidents of interest were captured by SWEG as the test scenarios progressed, with a post-processor used to quantify the various measures of effectiveness (MOEs) identified by the test analysts.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Connectivity for the Highly Dynamic Vehicles in a Real and Synthetic Environment (HYDY) Project

Kevin E. Boner

Naval Command, Control and Ocean Surveillance Center, RDT&E Division

The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) has created the Intelligent Gateway/Scaleable Simulation (IGSS) project to perform research into problems associated with large-scale simulations, combining both real and simulated units on Local Area Networks (LANS) and Wide Area Networks (WANs).  The program’s goal is to achieve seamless simulation by providing worldwide access to multi-layer simultaneous, realtime, very large virtual war-fighting environments composed of 10,000 or more objects.  Seamless simulation requires user-friendly, self-configuring, variable-scale environments with essential resolution, and transparent connectivity.  The IGSS program’s intent to research areas of potential difficulty resulted in the selection of the following subprojects:

1)       Integration of highly dynamic live objects with synthetic objects;

2)       Interoperability of coarse grain (e.g., time step wargames/aggregate units) with fine grain (realtime/individual units) simulations;

3)       Interoperability of engineering fidelity simulators with moderate fidelity simulators; and

4)       Networking of large numbers of objects (10,000 to 100,000) into one simulated warfighting environment.

An Advanced Interface Unit (AIU) will be developed to provide capabilities/tools for simulators and real systems to use in interfacing with the warfighting network.  This effort, called Highly Dynamic Vehicles (HYDY), Phase I, resulted in a Proof-of-Concept (POC) demonstration showing the feasibility of integrating a live F-14D aircraft into the simulation environment.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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An Object-Oriented Approach to Environment on the Virtual Battlefield

Ms. Rosemary Enright and Randal Holl

SYSCON Corporation

Wargames and warfare trainer systems require varying degrees of environmental fidelity depending on their focus.  Individual combatant trainers need a high measure of congruity between the real and perceived environment; strategic planners achieve a realistic overall view of the battlefield with fewer details.  In fact, excessive environmental fidelity may be detrimental to the training mission.  We have been working to create a model of the environment that may be tailored to the level of abstraction appropriate for the simulation.  We describe the environment as a series of objects with the attributes and services needed to calculate mobility and detection.  For our current wargame, we have concentrated on the requirements of strategic planners, while identifying the characteristics and methods required to extend the concept to the battle force level and below.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Distributed Simulation–Does Simulation Interoperability Need an Environment Server?

Gary M. Kamsickas

Boeing/DSGS&TS

Future Distribution Interactive Simulation (DIS) implementations will be significantly impacted based upon the resolution of issues relating to a distributed versus a central computer generated environment.

DIS, developed by the University of Central Florida Institute for Simulation and Training (UCF/IST) and funded by the Program Manager for Training Devices (PMTRADE), is based on the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) developed Simulation Network (SIMNET) technology.  DIS is an architectural approach where large scale, multi player simulation is distributed across independent and self sufficient computers instead of one central computer.  DIS implementations are used to train individuals in coordinated team tactics and support weapon system evaluation through test/prototype developmental systems in realistic simulated combat scenarios.  One of the key concepts behind the DIS architecture is the autonomy of each individual simulation.  This implies that each simulation entity is responsible for maintaining a realistic, true representation of the environment external to itself.  Several problems arise when large numbers of simulation entities of different fidelities and designs interoperate within a DIS architecture based exercise.  Since there is no central source of “ground truth” for the environment, each simulation provides a specific internal representation of the environment.  Because each simulation device operates within this internal environment, each player could potentially have a dramatically different representation of the simulated external environment.  The result is a situation where a “fair fight” is not possible among the players.  It has been suggested in the simulation interoperability technical community that a central environment, or “Environment Server” approach, if implemented, could reduce or eliminate this problem along with several other issues related to the commonality of the simulated environment.  This approach seemingly violates the autonomy goal of the DIS architecture.  This paper discusses several key issues and the relative advantages and disadvantages between the distributed and centralized environment approaches.  The resulting impact to future DIS implementations of each approach is assessed.  A hybrid approach that takes advantage of the strengths of each approach is presented.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Weather Environment Simulation Technology

Bruce C. Montag

Southwest Research Institute

This paper presents the results of an internal research program at Southwest Research Institute for the development of a weather simulation and modeling approach for training and simulation applications.  This weather simulation system approach, known as Weather Environment Simulation Technology (WEST), provides the means to correlate and synchronize all weather-related cues presented to the student.  The approach provides for direct correlation between out-the-window visual weather scenes, weather-processing sensors and avionics displays, and vehicle handling qualities through the use of a unified meteorological database that has been reformatted specifically for real-time simulation.  By ensuring dynamic weather cue correlation across all simulator subsystems, this technique enables simulator instruction in weather-related procedures to be highly transferable to mission-oriented situations.  This research effort demonstrated a method for processing weather data in real time for generation of out-the-window weather imagery that correlates directly with airframe dynamic effects.  The model architecture also supports sensor simulations and generation of cues on operator displays and controls.  Since the weather model is driven by gridded field, digital meteorological data, students can learn and practice weather-related skills within a realistic, synthetic weather environment as produced by a WEST-compatible simulator.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Hierarchical Training for Army Aviation

William A. Yarlett

Reflectone, Inc.

Sandra M. Szaba

Sikorsky Aircraft

In 1993, the Army Aviation community conducted a review of simulation and training requirements for deployable simulators and devices that support individual/crew sustainment training, collective training, and combined arms training.  Following the review, the Army’s Mobile Aircrew Sustainment Trainer (MAST), Future Aircrew Sustainment Trainer (FAST), and Aviation Combined Arms Tactical Trainer (AVCATT) programs all underwent scrutiny to determine if they could meet the training requirements within the constraints of today’s austere budgets.  This paper presents a training concept that consolidates Army Aviation simulation and training requirements under one program offering a single hierarchy of individual/crew and collective training devices.  A basic tenet of the paper is that a single program could provide better training at a lower cost than several independent programs.  The key to affordability resides in:

1)          Using state-of-the-art technology to reduce the recurring cost associated with training device hardware development.

2)          Tailoring training device fidelity to meet the “margin” of acceptable training for each level of training.

3)          Reducing non-recurring software costs by flowing software from full-fidelity training devices down to lower-fidelity devices.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A Conceptual Architecture for Integrating Tactical Engagement Simulations (TES)

James T. O’Connell, Jr.

O’Connell and Associates

Larry L. Mengel

LL&M and Associates

Dr. Thomas A. Mastaglio

PAIDEIA

In this paper the authors suggest a conceptual architecture for achieving the high level of integration required to insure fidelity and tactical realism in the environment of a synthetic electronic battlefield.  The architecture focuses on the concepts associated with the development of a family of knowledge-based software modules that populate the battlefield.  These modules, ACTORS, AGENTS, and Filters provide the capability required to implement the full range of functions inherent in modern tactical warfare.  The approach maintains strict adherence to all of the salient features of the Army’s collective training strategy.  Flexibility is provided to ensure implementation consistent with current doctrine Modifications can accommodate doctrinal, weapons systems and other external changes.  The architecture provides innovative design that applies current and emerging technologies to satisfy the training community’s vision of a capability to integrate, in an electronic environment, the full range of tactical engagement simulations.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A Blackboard Approach to Computer Generated Forces

Wesley Braudaway

IBM Federal Systems Company

This paper presents the research for applying the AI blackboard paradigm to the problem of realistically emulating multiple battlefield entities within a training simulator.  One challenge of these computer generated forces (CGF) is to emulate human behavior so human controlled and computer controlled entities are virtually indistinguishable.  The blackboard paradigm provides a useful framework for attacking the CGF problem.  The results of this research demonstrate the usefulness of a blackboard architecture for the CGF problem.  The blackboard paradigm provides a means for integrating subtasks of the system that are implemented using different programming paradigms.  Also, the “context” and “event” driven control strategy of the blackboard paradigm provides adaptive behavior for the computer forces.  These characteristics discriminate the blackboard architecture from other programming paradigms for use with the CGF problem.  The research reported in this paper was funded by STRICOM under contract N61339-92-C-0032.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Energy Level Modeling–A New Approach to Real-Time ECM Radar Threat Simulation

Drew Tucker

SBS Engineering

Lt. Kurt S. Collom

United States Navy

Effects level modeling in radar simulation has been the traditional approach for satisfying Electronic Countermeasure (ECM) training requirements.  A new Radar Environment Simulator (RES), developed for a U.S. Navy F-14A Weapon Systems Trainer, utilizes design principles which go beyond the traditional.  The jammer models in the RES are based on detailed modeling of real-world transmitted and received energy levels (“energy level modeling”).  This design approach is used instead of simply attempting to duplicate visual effects (“effects level modeling”).  While either of these methods can provide an accurate simulation under normal operating conditions, the energy level model has significant advantages when ECM is introduced into the scenario.  The result is a trainer that is more realistic in its response to a large set of radar operator actions and threat variables.

Energy level modeling can be applied to the simulation of systems designed for the detection, acquisition, and tracking of various targets.  This design principle enables the software to emulate all radar system behavior without anticipating each unique scenario.  In addition, non-standard radar operator inputs to an actual radar system interface are processed real-time using a detailed radar model allowing realism never before possible.  Consequently, the goal of  preparing a trainee through traditional effects level simulation.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Electronic Combat Simulation in a Networked, Full Mission Rehearsal, Multi-Simulator Environment

David W. Galloway, Patrick G. Hefferman, E. Allen Nus and Charles M. Summers

TRW Avionics and Surveillance Group

Warner Robins Avionics Laboratory

The Integrated Electronic Combat Simulation System (IECSS) has been developed for the MH-53J and MH-60G Weapon System Trainers (WSTs) and is under development for the HC-130P Aircrew Training Device (ATD).  This system provides dynamic simulation of the closed loop Electronic Combat (EC) environment to support multiship operations for eight networked training systems.  The IECSS simulates:

1)       The electromagnetic and infrared environment;

2)       Threat weapons dynamics and engagement including basic C3 characteristics;

3)       Electronic warfare (EW) defensive system processing and environment interaction; Countermeasures effectiveness calculations; and

4)       EW systems audio and video interface to the aircrew.

The level of fidelity for this simulation is sufficient to accommodate mission rehearsal for qualified aircrews in addition to programmed, repeatable training to qualify or upgrade new aircrew members.

The IECSS real-time software for on WST is hosted on a single VME chassis with multiple 68030 CPUs, and these general purpose processors communicate with the simulation host computer through shared memory.  The IECSS has been developed using a building-block approach that separates threat modeling.  In this way, enhancements can be made to any model without significant impact to other existing modes.  The software suite also includes off-line editors and diagnostic tools in addition to the real-time functions.  Off-line threat setup involves populating a file structure that contains threat laydown and characterization.  New threats are easily added to the database through menu-driven editors.

An Inter-Simulation Network (ISN) connects up to eight IECSS-equipped trainers through a fiber-optic based reflective memory technique.  All eight players share a common electromagnetic simulation but individually process the environment based upon position, occulting, and defensive models assigned.  This enables the WSTs/ATDs to mission rehearse or fly in formation through a consistent environmental laydown.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A Neural-Network-Programmable Processor for Real-Time Correlated Sensor Simulation

Budimir Zvolanek and Erwin W. Baumann

McDonnell Douglas Corporation

Simulation of Infra-Red (IR), Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), and Out-The-Window (OTW) visual imagery plays an important role in the planning and rehearsal of missions and personnel training.  The challenge is to develop database and image generation systems that extremely rapidly and in real time process geo-specific Multi-Spectral Imagery (MSI) over large areas into simulated sensor imagery to achieve high real-world accuracy and sensor / OTW-visual correlation.  To meet this challenge, a novel architecture called a Neutral Network Look-Up Table (NNLUT) which implements spectral conversion by neural networks has been developed.  The NNLUT processor is described and examples of highly correlated IR and SAR imagery simulated in real time from MSI by the NNLUT are demonstrated.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Research in the Use of Virtual Environment Technology to Train Dismounted Soldiers

Bruce W. Knerr, Stephen L. Goldberg, Donald R. Lampton, Bob G. Witmer,

and James P. Bliss

United States Army STRICOM

J. Michael Moshell and Brian S. Blau

University of Central Florida

The Army has made a substantial commitment to the use of a simulated, electronic battlefield for combat training.  Current and next-generation training systems can provide a realistic combat simulation for soldiers fighting from vehicles, but not for individual dismounted soldiers.  Virtual Environment (VE) technology has the potential to provide that capability.  The Army Research Institute, with contract support from the University of Central Florida Institute for Simulation and Training, has initiated a research program to investigate the use of VE for training dismounted soldiers.  Issues we are investigating include: some types of visual displays and controls better suited for training or task performance than others; does visual immersion in a simulated environment improve learning of the configuration, locations of objects, and routes through that environment; what scene details are most important for the acquisition of spatial knowledge and the interpretation of terrain information; does immersion in a virtual world cause disorienting side-effects, and if so, how can they be reduced.  

This paper describes the initial results of our research program.  We developed: a set of tasks, the Virtual Environment Performance Assessment Battery, and a questionnaire to measure “Presence”, the extent to which the participant felt immersed in the VE experience.  We also included existing questionnaires to measure the frequency and severity of simulator sickness.  The tasks measure the underlying skills needed to move, employ weapons, and communicate in a virtual environment, but do not require previous military training.  They include the perception of form, color, and distance; control of simulated movement; tracking of targets; manipulation of objects; and reaction time.  Thirty participants in two experiments performed the tasks using either a spaceball or joystick.  Results indicate that performance on the battery tasks is sensitive to differences between the control devices and amount of practice.  The presence scale possess high internal experienced some symptoms of simulator sickness.  Future research plans are discussed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Application of a Three-Dimensional Target Display for Weapons Training

Albert Marshall, Edward Purvis, Ronald Wolff and Robert McCormack

Naval Training Systems Center

A 3-D large screen display for small arms and minor caliber weapons has been designed and the prototype will be displayed at the I/ITSEC 93 conference.  The system provides interactive stereoscopic images of the environment and targets that virtually leap from a 100 inch diagonal video projection screen.  The system uses switched LCD glasses, worn by the trainee, to convert video recorded from two separated video cameras and stored on video disk to 3-D like images.  Three -Dimensional computer graphics objects are added to portray tracers and objects flying at the trainee.  The prototype has been tested and the efficacy of the prototype is discussed.  The use of a small motion platform with the system is also discussed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Advanced Weapons Team Training Technology

Jeffrey Horey, Albert Marshall, Robert McCormack, Edward Purvis, and Ronald Wolff,

Naval Training Systems Center

Many simulator-based weapon trainers currently use technology that restricts both realism and the ability for thorough team performance measurements in tactical training situations.  This paper describes a training system prototype that uses new technology to improve simulation training for weapon fire teams.  These new developments include intelligent video branching, location detection of trainees, interaction between trainees and their on-screen aggressors, computer networking of multiple video projection screens within multiple rooms, a wireless data communication system allowing full unrestricted mobility, a high speed weapon tracking system, and a digital MIDI controlled system.

The simulator developed at the Naval Training System Center will allow up to nine trainees to practice and rehearse close combat training exercises such as low intensity conflict, light infantry, SWAT, and security operations with a high level of realism and feedback.  Typical events might include security operations, hostage rescue, shoot-no-shoot, outdoor squad engagements, and routine law enforcement operations in a common threat team training environment.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Software Reuse–A Company Vision

Paul E. McMahon

CAE-Link Corporation

Today, many exciting initiatives are underway within the software industry.  Structure Modeling technology is growing rapidly through efforts at the Software Engineering Institute (SEI) and ongoing projects.  Megaprogramming challenges are being faced on the ARPA STARS project.  Open standards including POSIX, X-WIN-dows, and Motif are becoming realities as key software vendors position themselves to support these initiatives.

Reuse library tools and guidelines are also being developed through efforts at the SEI, the Software Productivity Consortium (SPC), and on the STARS project.  At the same time, software contractors are moving forward with serious strategies to improve their company software processes in response to industry initiatives including the ISO 9000 requirements and the SEI Process Maturity Model.

All these initiatives share the common objective of cost reduction and most are looking to one form or another of software reuse to achieve this goal.

This paper examines the multi-faceted issues of reuse and the role these current industry initiatives play within reuse technology.  Issues discussed include analyzing existing software for reuse, techniques to design for reuse, reusable software architectures, managing variant versions of software, and managing a corporate reuse library.  Technical and management issues are presented.

This paper focuses on lessons learned from efforts at CAE-Link to infuse software reuse techniques into the corporate culture.  Practical techniques being applied today to meet reuse challenges are discussed.  The key roles of reuse criteria, metrics, company software standardization, project-company interaction, management mandates and training and education are discussed.

Experiences and examples are provided from the B-2 ATD project, Independent Research and Development, and a corporate software Process Action Team that was instrumental in providing the focus necessary to move the company forward with an effective and practical reuse initiative.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Applying Advanced Parallel Processing Concepts to Radar Simulation and Image Generation

Edward W. Drew and Ron Matusof

CAE-Link Corporation

This paper discusses advanced parallel processing concepts and their use for radar simulation and image processing.  It describes both the advantages and disadvantages of a number of architectures and illustrates these with actual implementations.  It discusses issues relevant to real-time image generation, including latency, synchronization, and scheduling dispersion.  It also discusses the problems inherent in designing state-of-the-art systems in a research and development environment, and then applying that product to an evolving market.  Finally, it makes recommendations concerning future directions in parallel processing and simulation.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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The CCTT Development Approach–Integrating Concurrent Engineering and User-Centered Development

Tom Mastaglio

CCTT Training Effective Advocate

Don Thomson

CCTT Development Manager

The Close Combat Tactical Trainer (CCTT) is being developed using a concurrent engineering approach that organizes the engineering effort into integrated teams assigned by major system components or products.  These integrated teams include industry representatives, Army systems material development engineering staff from STRICOM, and TRADOC user representatives.  Some users are assigned to an integrated development facility which is located near the material development customer so that they can interact on a daily basis with the engineering staff.  Others are proponent level subject matter experts assigned to normal training and combat development jobs at the Army proponent schools and centers but readily accessible to the engineering staff.  A key member of the development team staff, the CCTT Training Effectiveness Advocate, has as a primary responsibility implementing this concept.

CCTT development requires a strong user focus because it is a complex training system with a product of improving human performance.  Major training system development efforts, like CCTT, must focus on human performance as a product rather than as merely one consideration in determining overall system effectiveness.  This requires the development effort to have a user-centered design focus.  Furthermore, CCTT is an extremely complex Human-Computer Interaction system.  The combination of these two factors resulted in a joint industry/government decision to include field users up-front in the design and development phase of the program.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Recommendations for Franchising Aircrews in Synthetic Environments

Lynn A. Carroll and Dee H. Andrews

Air Force Armstrong Laboratory

Synthetic environments will become increasingly important to the military in the future.  The capability to optimally blend virtual, constructive and real environments will become crucial not just for aircrew training, but for other military uses (e.g, test and evaluation, research and development, prototyping, tactics validation).  Technical advances in networking will theoretically allow any site in the world to be linked into world-wide synthetic environments.  Individuals and components from the Joint Chiefs of Staff down to the individual warrior will be able to access these environments.  Senior leaders will interact through synthetic environments in much the same way they currently interact with theater and battlefield level assets during war.  Therefore, this paper does not focus on issues related to franchising upper echelon users of synthetic environments.  This paper expresses recommendations and considerations about what will be required to franchise aircrews at the lower end of the hierarchy.

In the zeal to create and use synthetic environments, operating concepts, access tools and aircrew training requirements may be over-looked.  Aircrews already voice the concern that they are merely “training aids” for senior leaders in large-scale exercises.  The problem stems from aircrews not being allowed to function as they would in combat.  This paper describes concerns, properly franchised in the use of synthetic environments.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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What is ISO 9000–Can it play a Future Role in Training Acquisition Strategies?

James B. Coughlin

Reflectone, Inc.

Due to the wide spectrum of products and services acquired by the training community, it is virtually impossible to develop a common denominator for contractually assuring the adequacy of the products and services purchased.  This situation is additionally complicated by the fact that training acquisitions often involve a significant level of non developmental items (NDI) equipment or the purchase of services.

Debates of the recent past have questioned the adequacy of MIL-Q-9858 as the most effective procurement tool in assuring this wide range of training community needs.  Recommended alternatives such as “best commercial practice” have equally raised concern among procurement leaders as being too vague and not universally defined.

Could the ISO 9000 series of specifications help solve this problem?  Could it become another tool in developing an effective acquisition assurance strategy?  This paper will define the ISO 9000 series of standards, and provide an analysis of how these standards could effectively be used (once approved for use) by the training community as an acquisition assurance tool.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Enabling Cost-Effective Decisions on the Procurement of Training Equipment by the Use of Training Needs Analysis as a Management Tool

Lieutenant Commander David Shields, Royal Navy

Royal Naval School of Educational and Training Technology

HMS NELSON, Portsmouth England

Commander Bob Duke, Royal Navy

Ministry of Defence, Directorate of Naval Education and Training Support.

London, England

The cost-effectiveness of certain items of training equipment hardware has been called into question.  It was apparent that no effective means of identifying training needs or selecting media alternatives was included in the Royal Navy’s procurement process.  This paper describes the processes that have been embedded into the current system to ensure that proper value for money decisions can be made.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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United States Air Force Helicopter Training High Fidelity Simulation Providing Advanced Mission Training and Rehearsal

Lt. Col. Edward T. Reed

United States Air Force, Kirtland Air Force Base

                            The majority of helicopters in the US Air Force support two distinct and important missions; Air Rescue and Special Operations.  Since 1987 the Air Force has been transitioning from a mixed fleet of various models of H-3’s, H-53’s, and ten UH-60A’s to a standardized force of 41 MH-53J PAVE LOWs and 101 M/HH-60G PAVE HAWKs.  Combat proven in Operations JUST CAUSE and DESERT STORM; these aircraft, and the crews that fly them, continue to prove that through small in numbers compared to the other services, the Air Force helicopter force continues to be a leader in advanced avionics and combat tactics.  As part of significantly upgrading its helicopter force, the Air Force has invested in a comprehensive and fully integrated training and mission support system for the 542d Crew Training Wing (CTW) at Kirtland Air Force Base, NM.  This advanced training system combines self-paced computer based training (CBT), electronic classrooms with computer-aided podiums (CAPs) for academic training, Part Task Trainers, and fully networked Operational Flight and Weapon System Trainers providing sophisticated flight simulation capabilities.  All systems are controlled by a computer based training management system (TMS).  This Air Force helicopter training system provides exceptionally realistic flight training, combat mission training, and mission rehearsal.  This paper describes the development, procurement and specific capabilities of the helicopter training and mission support system at the 542 CTW.  Also discussed will be lessons learned and future upgrades.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Putting the Training into Training System Design­:

It Doesn’t Have to Hurt

Jolene O. Pike, Tamara L. Busch, and Lisa R. Carlson

Hughes Training, Inc.

The recent DOD emphasis on MANPRINT and integrated approach to system development should be applied not only to defense systems but also to training systems.  This emphasis requires a change in the focus of how training system design is accomplished.  To ensure maximum training effectiveness, the expertise of training personnel and Systems Approach to Training (SAT) products need to be Incorporated into the training system design process.

The objective of this paper is to present a management approach which may be used to integrate training considerations smoothly into the training system design process.  The approach identifies key SAT training products and methods of information exchange which maybe used, as well as desired areas of training expertise which contribute significantly to training system design. This approach is intentionally modular, giving it the flexibility to be applied to any of the training system design processes practiced in a variety of government and industrial settings.  Application of this approach will ensure that critical training issues are addressed early in the design of a training system, making that training system better suited to meet the needs of instructors and students, and ultimately providing a more effective training program.

This paper describes the types of training expertise which may be used, the types of SAT training products which may serve as input, and a management structure which will facilitate communication and coordination during training system design efforts.  Finally, this paper discusses the benefits of including training personnel and training products in the training system design process.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Applying the Instructional System Development (ISD) Process in the United States Air Force Defense System Acquisition

Ben H. Catalina

Southwest research Institute

Conrad G. Bills

Loral Defense Systems

The United States Air Force (USAF) has completed a new series of guides for designers of instructional systems-Air Force Handbook 36-2235, Information for Designers of Instructional Systems.  Volume 3, Application to Acquisition, covers the major phases of the instructional system development (ISD) process and addresses them to the various phases of defense system acquisition. The ISD process has application in all acquisition phases, but the major effort occurs between the demonstration and validation phase and the production and deployment phase.  The new Air Force ISD model incorporates the necessary functions for fielding successful total training systems.  Fielding a new defense system with a total training system is a project that requires considerable management, coordination, and integration.  Interface of the ISD process with the system engineering process ensures that critical functions are not overlooked early in the overall design and that these requirements are tracked throughout the acquisition for full implementation and life cycle support.  This guide incorporates lessons learned from the past, applying a systematic, orderly process of integrated product development and treating ISD and system acquisition as a total system.

This paper discusses this new application of the ISD process in acquisition, the redefinition of activities leading to a common terminology for instructional designers and system engineers, and the orientation to quality improvement of the total training system throughout the life cycle of the defense system.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Reconsidering the Role of ISD

Kathy D. Andrews

Information Spectrum, Inc.

James M. Young, Ed.D. & Larry W. Barks

Naval Air Systems Command

Two decades of military with             ISD have yielded mixed results.  Depending on one’s perspective, “doing ISD” may still be considered essential to the development of effective, efficient training system or it may be regarded as a resource-consuming chore to be avoided to the extent possible.  Both perspectives and numerous variations have merit.  This paper examines some of the problems associated with ISD models and their applications and discusses potential solutions, including redefining ISD’s role.  The problems with ISD, the acquisition process, and Navy training in general are not simple, and filling the knowledge gaps, streaming processes, and producing better-equipped ISD practitioners are only partial solutions.  Although the paper focuses on naval aviation, it is applicable to other naval activities and military services.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Evolution of a Training Program–The effects of Simulation on the MH-53J Pave Low Combat Crew Qualification Course

Major George Selix

542d Crew Training Wing, Kirtland Air Force Base

This paper showcases the effectiveness of enhanced training through simulation by examining the evolution of the MH-53J Combat Crew qualification course over a 7 year period (1986 to 1993).  The MH-53J PAVE LOW is the primary special operations helicopter asset in the US Air Force. The qualification course in 1986, was almost totally reliant on lecture and “on-aircraft” training.  In three years, a high fidelity Weapon System Trainer/Mission Rehearsal System, an Operational Flight Trainer, and numerous part task and computer based training devices have been added to the training program.  Integration of Advanced Training Devices into the syllabus has also allowed us to absorb a 20% cut in MH-53J flying hours.  Our examination of the Pave Low course concentrates on the integration of simulation at different levels of training program and the decisions on simulator fidelity and procurement that made it all possible.  Some lessons learned for other aircrew training programs are included at the end of the paper, dealing with sensor correlation, databases, and training transfer issues.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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The Role of the MH-53J III E Pave Low Weapon System Trainer/Mission Rehearsal System (WST/MRS), in Preparing Students for Operation Desert Storm, and Future Operations

Lt Col. Russell Rakip

20^th Special Operations Squardron

Jack Kelly, Sharon Appler and Peter Riley

Martin Marietta Corporation, Albuquerque

The MH-53J Pave Low III E, WST/MRS simulator was ready for training in August 1990 on the eve of the hostile actions in the Persian Gulf.  It possesses the complete functionally of the aircraft and operates as both a trainer and a Mission Rehearsal Device.  It graduated the first students to operational field units in the fall of 1990.  This paper presents a survey of the MH-53J operators that are involved in real world special operations.  The survey analysis evaluates how simulator training contributed to preparing this class, and future classes to meet the challenges of Desert Storm, and future operations.  The survey captures the perceptions of training effectiveness from experienced operators tasked with performing missions along side these newly qualified crew members.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Multiplayer Simulator Based Training for Air Combat

Major Steven C. Berger

United States Air Force

Peter M. Crane, Ph.D.

Armstrong Laboratory, Williams Air Force Base

Emerging simulation technologies provide new opportunities for training mission tasks and skills that have not been previously trained in simulators.  Research is necessary to identify the tasks where additional training would most benefit mission ready pilots and air weapons controllers and which of these tasks represent training opportunities for networked simulators.  Armstrong Laboratory, Aircrew Training Research Divisions has recently developed a SIMNET compatible network of F-15 cockpits with visual systems, an air weapons controller station, manned and digital threats, and an exercise control station.  An evaluation of this system was conducted in which 23 F-15 pilots 13 air weapons controllers participated in simulated air combat exercises.  Each team of lead pilot, wingman, and controller flew several offensive and defensive counter air missions against a force of up to six aircraft , anti-aircraft artillery, and surface to air missiles.  Participants were asked to rate their interest in receiving additional training on each of 36 mission areas.  After participating in the simulated air combat exercises, participants rated the value of the training received in the simulator system and the training currently received in their units for each of these mission areas.  Data presented identifies, a) tasks that are of particular interest to aircrews, b) which tasks were better trained in the simulation system than in current unit training, and c) changes in pilot performance in simulated air combat related to levels of fighter experience.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Non-Diagnostic Intelligent Tutoring System

Leo Gugerty and Kimberly Hicks

MEI Technology Corporation

The keystones of traditional intelligent tutoring systems (ITSs) have been complex procedures for student diagnosis and adaptive instruction based on diagnostic data.  While some of these systems have been shown to be effective, they are also very expensive to develop.  This paper describes another class of ITSs, non-diagnostic ITSs, which do little or no student diagnosis, and concentrate their intelligence in other areas.  Intelligent features of non-diagnostic ITSs include: modeling of experts’ reasoning processes and cognitive representations (often using graphic displays), comparison of student and expert performance, and replays and summaries of student performance.  While traditional, diagnostic ITSs are usually intended to be used in a stand-alone fashion, non-diagnostic tutors are designed to facilitate collaborative learning among students and between teachers and students.

The non-diagnostic approach to ITS development offers either a low-cost alternative to traditional ITSs or a way to expand the educational capabilities of traditional systems.  This paper presents a framework for comparing the features of non-diagnostic and diagnostic tutors.  A number of non-diagnostic and diagnostic ITSs are described, and data on the costs and educational effectiveness of each type of ITS is presented.  Finally, obstacles to wider use of non-diagnostic ITSs are discussed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Advances in Learning and Instructional Design Theories

Katharine C. Golas

Southwest Research Institute

Conrad G. Bills

Loral Defense Systems

Learning and instructional design theory is the body of principles proposed by psychologists and educators to explain how people acquire skills, knowledge, and attitudes.  Learning theory is used in formal instruction to facilitate and accelerate the learning process.  When applied to the practice of instruction, learning principles derived from theories can guide the instructional designer in improving the effectiveness and efficiency of the learning activities of a program.  This discussion of learning theory is an attempt to express the human process of learning in terms that can be applied in training and education.  The categories of human activity have been delineated by learning theorists.  This paper uses those categories to establish a framework for how learning takes place and addresses how learning theory is applied to the selection of instructional strategies as well as the media selected to deliver the instruction.  The paper also addresses the fact how, in real life, the various types of learning are integrated. This integration of human activities is discussed in terms of schemas, enterprise theory and metaskills.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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The Use of Computer-Based Videogames in Knowledge Acquisition and Retention

Katrina E. Ricci

Naval Training Systems Center

The cost associated with the use of desktop computer-based games as an instructional technique is minimal.  However, the potential of computer-based video gaming as an effective training approach has not been determined.  There are several reasons for expecting effective knowledge acquisition and retention using computer-based video gaming.  First, video gaming may combine principles of computer-assisted instruction, such as the contiguity between the stimulus and response, knowledge of results, and practice (Driskell and Dwyer, 1984).  Second, properties of computer-based video gaming such as active participation, competition, and challenge against uncertain outcomes, have been associated with increased motivation to participate in video gaming (Shrestha, 1991; Malone, 1984).  Finally, research has found that testing, one aspect of video gaming, will increase retention scores (Hogan & Kintsch, 1971; Hagman and Rose, 1983).

Research conducted at the Naval Training Systems Center investigated the acquisition and retention of basic knowledge with subjected matter presented either in paper-based prose form (TEXT), paper-based question and answer (TEST) form, or using video gaming techniques (GAME).  These conditions were selected to investigate potential benefits of video gaming over traditional paper and pencil media and to identify the extent to which benefits obtained from video gaming could be due to testing during training.  Results showed subjects assigned to the GAME condition scored significantly higher on a retention test as compared to pretest performance.  Subjects assigned to the TEST and TEXT conditions showed no differences in performance from pretest to retention test.  Additionally, subjects assigned to the GAME condition rated the training they received as more enjoyable and more effective than those assigned to the other two conditions.  Results are discussed in terms of the effectiveness of computer-based games and applications for military training. 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Bytes vs. Bullets

Crew-Served Weapons Training and Simulation

Brian K. Wilhoite

United States Marine Corps, Camp Lejeune

Can crew-served weapons training in the military be augmented by simulation? – Yes.  Simulation is going to play an ever increasing role in the nation’s ability to maintain combat effectiveness in the armed services.  While cutting personnel and training dollars, the services are attempting to get leaner and more efficient.  Simulation is proving to be beneficial for crew-served weapons training.  Tests and responses to recent crew-served weapons training conducted with the improved Indoor Simulated Marksmanship Trainer (ISMT) at the School of Infantry, Camp Lejeune, North Carolina have proven that simulation is an effective for augmenting the training of crew-served weapons teams.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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The AN/SQQ-89 Maintenance Training Exercise–A Lesson in the Team Approach to Interactive Courseware Development

Katrina E. Ricci

Naval Training Systems Center

The paper provides an overview of the AN/SQQ-89 maintenance training program.  It concentrates on the methodology used to provide one element of that program, the ‘Maintenance Training Exercise’.  The methodology relies heavily on the interaction between USN Subject Matters Experts (SME) and training managers and other specialists such as instructional designers, authoring system experts, graphics experts and software engineers.  The paper describes how a USN SME and an Instructional Designer produced a prototype lesson.  The architecture of the lesson is described as well as the tools which were used.  The prototype lesson was validated in a classroom and the classroom and training manager feedback caused the prototype to be changed.  The feedback is described and the changes it caused. The paper goes on to describe how the production process was automated to reduce the exercise preparation time from weeks to just days by a rule-based approach.  The paper concludes with a comparison of the effort to produce production lessons against the prototype lessons and a summary of the experience gained during the development.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Part-Task Computer Based Training for Operators Using a Toolbox Approach

Commander M.G.Pengelly and Lieutenant Commander D.W. Dowsett, Royal Navy

The Royal Naval School of Educational and Training Technology

HMS NELSON, Portsmouth, England

The focus of this paper is the development of a “toolbox” computer based training system, which is used to provide Operations Branch Ratings and Seamen Officers with part-task training in the use of the modified Action Data Automated Weapons System (ADAWS) coming into service in Royal Navy ships.  This CBT is a networked, multimedia system that provides a limited simulation of the actual system within an interactive training lesson, which itself is based upon a scenario developed by the instructor.

The paper discusses the development of this system in the wider context of CBT development and examines the significant milestones in the development of the Royal Navy’s toolbox strategy.  It traces the analysis of training need and how technology can be applied to meet established objectives whilst offering a degree of control to the instructor.  The paper concludes by reviewing how lessons learnt are being incorporated into a future CBT procurement for the Surface Ship Command System (SSCS).

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Human-Computer Interface and Training Issues in the Design of an Expedient Computer-Based Language Training Program

J. Peter Kincaid, George Kishek, and Daniel E. Mullally, Jr.

University of Central Florida

This paper describes the development and user concept evaluation of a Computer-Based Language Training Program in Somali titled “Humanitarian Expedient Language Pronunciation Simulation” or HELPS.  The HELPS Concept Demonstration Project was designed to provide expedient language training to Marines involved in humanitarian relief duties in Somalia during Operation “Restore Hope”.  The HELPS project was a joint cooperative effort by the Institute for Simulation and Training (IST) at the University of Central Florida,  who donated the software program without cost to the Marine Corps, Apple Computer, Inc., who loaned the 10 Macintosh PowerBook computers to the Marine Corps for the duration of the project, and the Marines of all ranks in I MEF who evaluated the HELPS Concept Demonstration Project in Somalia.  

The analysis, design, and development steps of the HELPS project are outlined.  These steps allowed the rapid prototyping and delivery of HELPS to Marines deployed in Somalia in seven weeks from concept to delivery.  The results of the user evaluation in Somalia is analyzed and presented.

This paper has several objectives.  The first is to describe the analysis, design, and development of the HELPS project.  The second is to describe the unique human-computer interface issues involved in the design of the HELPS.  The third is to present the results of the user evaluation and acceptance of an expedient language training system.  The fourth is to demonstrate and summarize the implication of a capability to bridge the language barrier in computer-based language training. 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A Cognitive Science Approach to Structuring Lesson Content

Patsy D. Moskal and Patrick J. Moskal

University of Central Florida

Rober H. Ahlers

Naval Training Systems Center

A critical component of combat readiness lies in the skills and knowledge of the deployed personnel.  However, these skills are highly perishable without continued training.  Embedded training (ET) is one potential solution to the problem of maintaining a maximum level of operator readiness.  The objectives of ET are to build on existing knowledge, diagnose and correct deficiencies as efficiently as possible, consolidate skills through practice, and acquire new knowledge and skills.  ET effectiveness can be increased by implementing instructional technologies which promote efficient acquisition and retention of skills and knowledge.  Current research on the application of cognitive learning principles to training provides precise instructional methods and implementation techniques.  Recent research at the Institute for Simulation and Training (IST), in collaboration with the Naval Training Systems Center (NTSC), has demonstrated the power of this cognitive learning approach in applied Navy training environments.  Significant improvements were found in the instructional capabilities of tactical console ET lessons.

The present effort involves evaluating this instructional methodology using a Computer-Aided Submode Training (CAST) lesson of the Navy’s Aegis weapons system.  CAST was selected because it provides an ideal environment for implementing cognitively-based instructional enhancements.  It incorporates a well-developed ISD methodology, which provides a framework to build a more specific cognitive learning approach.  A CAST lesson was restructured according to the cognitive task analysis methodology.  Performance on the cognitive lesson was then empirically compared to performance achieved on the original lesson.  Trainees receiving the cognitively structured lesson significantly outperformed trainees receiving the original lesson by an average improvement of 47%.  These findings strongly support previous research concerning the merits of this cognitive approach to learning.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Cognitive Task Analysis for Development of an Intelligent Tutoring System

Sallie E. Gordon

University of Idaho

Bettina A. Babbit

Northrop corporation

Herbert H. Bell and Peter M. Crane

Armstrong Laboratory

H. Barbara Sorensen

Brooks Air Force Base

Training programs are increasingly relying on high level Artificial Intelligence modules to provide computerized feedback to trainees.  The work reported here consisted of the use of cognitive task analysis methods developed at the University of Idaho to perform knowledge acquisition for a proof of concept training module targeted toward the defensive counter air mission.  The specific subtask analyzed was “the use of fire control radar for search and sort” at the beginning of an Air-to-Air intercept performed by F-15 and F-16 pilots.  The cognitive task methodology was conceptual graph analysis, a method that uses conceptual graphs to structure interviews and observational data gathering.  The analysis consisted of three steps: 

1)       Development of conceptual graphs from existing documentation;

2)       Expansion of the graphs through interviews structured with question probes; and

3)       Expansion and completion of the graphs through performance observation and inductive analysis. 

After the conceptual graph analysis was completed, additional decision heuristics were used to identify the type of expert system architecture(s) most suitable for the task.  These architectures include a rule-based system with explanation capability, classifiers with some type of explanation capability, and case-based reasoning with analytical ability. 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Virtual Time:

Adding the fourth Dimension to Virtual Reality

Dutch and Elizabeth Guckenberger

ECC International Corporation/University of Central Florida

Dr. Kay Stanney

University of Central Florida

Daniel Mapes

Institute for Simulation and Training/University of Central Florida

The Virtual Time (VT) concept is an unique new manipulation of time in the context of Virtual Reality.  VT refers to a Virtual Reality paradigm that manipulates time under the control of the operator, instructor, or software.  Current Virtual Reality environments allow operators to control space.  Virtual Time extends operator control to vary the flow of “simulated time”, that is, “Time-Warp” the virtual environment.  A hypothesis of the immersive nature of Virtual Reality which tightly binds on individual’s “time norm” to the speed of environmental cues is presented and provides the framework within which to define the VT concept.  The pilot study presented in this paper can also be characterized as the first use and extension of the Above Real-Time Training (ARTT) paradigm.  In this application of Virtual Time, twenty-eight university students performed a simple tracking and targeting task under two levels of time compression, (i.e., 1.0x, 1.7x).  All subjects were then tested in a real-time (1.0x) environment.  This study investigated a virtual block-grabbing task.  The block moved in a three-dimensional virtual environment and subjects were required to use a Virtual Reality glove to track and grab the block.  In the block grab task the mean performance for the VT (1.7x) trained group performed twice as fast as the control group (1.0x) during testing (transfer of training) when both groups were tested at real time.  Past test, a set of questionnaires were administered to subjects in order to establish the perceived temporal and workload demands of the task.  The results from these questionnaires indicated that within both subject groups (1.0x and 1.7x), there were no significant differences detected between the perceived temporal and mental demands of the testing and training (1.7x) and the testing (1.0x) phases.  There were, however, significant differences in the perceived temporal demands between subject groups.  The VT group perceived less temporal demands during the testing (1.0x) phase than the control group.  These results indicate that VT is a potential means of exploiting an existing ability of humans (time adaptability) within virtual training environments in order to achieve performance enhancement in real-time situations.  ARTT analogies and parallel concepts are discussed including a synthesis of multi disciplinary support for Virtual Time.  Conclusions and novel future research directions are presented.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A Context-Based Representation of Tactical Knowledge for Use in Simulation-Based Autonomous Intelligent Platforms

Avelino J. Gonzales

University of Central Florida

Robert H. Ahlers

Naval Training Systems Center

The focus of the investigation described in this paper is the development of a concise, yet rich knowledge representation paradigm that could be effectively and efficiently used to model the intelligent behavior of simulated agents in a simulator-based tactical trainer.  The behavior of these agents would be similar to that of an adversary who would react to a student’s action in a manner representative of enemy tactics.  The availability of this feature would be of significant utility to the training process for two reasons:

1)       the student would face a realistic enemy who is knowledgeable about tactics in the domain of interest and,

2)       the instructor would not have to be burdened with playing the part of the enemy in those training systems where this is commonly done.

The hypothesis presented is that whereas tactical knowledge is highly dependent upon the context  (i.e., the situation being faced), a combination of script-like structures and pattern-matching rules in an object-oriented environment could serve as a concise means of representing the knowledge involved, as well as an efficient means of reasoning with that knowledge.  This hypothesis was tested through the development of a prototype system that implemented the knowledge of a submarine tactical officer on a patrol mission.  The prototype was implemented in CLIPS 5.1, a rule and object-based expert system shell developed by NASA. The results of the prototype show that the combination of scripts and rules in an object-oriented environment promises to meet the requirements described above.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Evaluating the Overhead of OSI Stacks in Interoperable DIS Networks

Margaret Loper and G. Bulumulle

Institute for Simulation and Training

M. A. Bassiouni and Ming Chiu

Department of Computer Science, University of Central Florida

OSI (Open Systems Interconnections) communication stacks can be used to interconnect heterogeneous DIS machines and eliminate their incompatibilities.  However, the interoperability benefit of OSI stacks could be offset by the computational overhead associated with the complex data transformation process of OSI upper layers.  It is feared that an OSI implementation utilizing the transformation process would be too slow to meet the real-time requirements of DIS networks.  In this paper, we present the results and conclusions of a detailed performance evaluation study which we have recently conducted to measure the overhead of the OSI transformation process, assess its impact on the delay encountered by DIS PDUs, and evaluate the benefits of using lightweight transfer syntax implementations.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Infrared Attributes for

Project 2851 Standard Simulator Data Bases

Erwin Baumann, Douglas Dillard, and Budimir Zvolanek

McDonnell Douglas Corporation

The many phenomenological Infra-Red (IR) modeling programs currently in use require a large number of parameters to achieve a high degree of image simulation accuracy.  When the parameter sets required by these programs are tabulated, the result is a large and diverse set of potential database attributes.  In addition, these IR modeling programs are intended to satisfy the needs of a wide range of IR simulation users.  To achieve the goals of Project 2851 in defining DOD Standard Simulator Data Bases, decisions must be made regarding which parameters should be included as attributes within the databases.  The set of selected attributes must satisfy a wide variety of IR image simulation programs and users while being of reasonable size for storage in IR image generator databases. 

McDonnell Douglas Training Systems assisted Project 2851 in the selection of these parameters by taking a three-part approach to the task.  First, current IR phenomenological models were studied and their required parameter sets were tabulated.  Second, IR modeling experts and weapons systems users were surveyed to determine their needs.  And third, a Quality Function Deployment analysis was performed to prioritize the parameters with respect to user needs, producing a set of IR database attributes that were recommended to Project 2851.  This paper describes the results of the user survey, the evaluation process, and the recommended IR attribute set.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Beyond Visual Range Extensions to DIS

Ken Doris and Grace Mak-Cheng

Grumman Aerospace and Electronics

The successful 1992 I/ITSEC demonstration of DIS was significant milestone in the development of the DIS protocols, providing that Version 1.0 of the standard is truly workable.  Although the plans for the 1993 I/ITSEC demonstration focus on long-haul and live participant involvement, a vital ingredient to the eventual success of distributed simulation lies in the ability of subsequent versions of DIS to adequately support beyond visual range (BVR) encounters.

Simulation of BVR effects within the DIS context offers substantial increases to training effectiveness, tactics development, and improvements to the acquisition process.  To achieve these goals we must overcome a new set of challenges.  SIMNET, the predecessor to DIS, provided a solid background in the development of version 1.0 of DIS, but was limited to within visual range encounters.  The BVR extensions found in DIS Version 2.0 can thus borrow little from the SIMNET legacy.  New problems, such as sensor simulation, EW data base correlation, and environmental effects must be addressed.

This paper provides insight into the key issues associated with extending DIS to encompass the beyond visual range arena.  In addition, it describes series of rapid prototype implementations of the Emitter, Transmitter, and Signal PDUs, starting with a joint Grumman/NTSC experiment held on the last day of the 1992 I/TSEC show.  The “lessons learned” from these implementations are discussed along with suggestions and guidelines for future development of BVR PDUs and associated data bases.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Development and Application of the Emissions Protocol Standard in the DIS Network Environment

Jerry W. Denver

Boeing Defense and Space Group

Missiles and Space Division

Ensuring interoperability of war-fighting simulations within the Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) environment requires network data protocol standards that ensure correlated effects in many diverse simulation arenas, not the least of which is the electronic interaction among detection, tracking, and jamming systems associated with the electromagnetic environment.  Complicating the development of a general purpose emission protocol is the very broad nature of electromagnetic emissions and their inherent diversity between and within system applications.  Other complicating issues include (1) interoperability of DIS with dissimilar equipment such as training devices, battlefield equipment, and war-gaming simulations, (2) extensive quantity of parametric data necessary to describe electromagnetic emissions, and (3) highly classified nature of the weapon system operational intelligence data.

An Emissions working group within the Workshop for Standards for the Interoperability of Defense Simulations is diligently forging ahead in its development of an approach that completely describes the electronic parameters in a radar emissions environment and ensures sufficient signal correlation among various types of simulation nodes.  While various approaches have been considered, the approach taken is characterized with a strategy of broadcasting a minimum set of transmitting entity data, called the Emissions Protocol Data Unit (PDU), across a network medium.  This data is coupled to a receiving node with a characteristic emissions data base containing static parameters that are specific to particular signal emissions.  The protocol structure accommodates diversity in both radar emission types and various fidelity receiving node equipment, through the standard data structure organization as well as special purpose data fields, in order to accommodate unique equipment operational characteristics.  Development of an Emissions PDU data structure is nearing completion with the expected submittal for standardized approval in late 1993. 

This paper provides insight into the background of radar environment simulations in the DIS environment, discusses the interoperability issues relevant to various simulation approaches including data base functionality, and discusses the currently proposed Emissions PDU data structure and rationale for peculiar data fields.  This paper also offers insight into the application of this PDU to various diverse radar system types and other Electronic Warfare (EW) emission types, and discusses areas where further investigations are warranted.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Having Equal Simulators does not Guarantee a Fair Fight

Ray Latham

Computer Graphics Systems Development Corporation

Having a fair fight in networked simulation means the outcome is determined by the quality of the user’s skill, tactics, and modeled-real-world equipment, and not by the limitations and peculiarities of the user’s simulation equipment.  It might seem that by ensuring that all participants in an exercise have equal, or identical, simulators one would ‘level the playing field’ with respect to any shortcomings in simulator realism, but it turns out that this is not true.  A way to treat these problems is to analyze the role of each player in a simulation exercise against the objectives of the exercise.  This analysis is aided by charts that help relate image generator characteristics to the requirements of the simulation exercise.  Even a simplified analysis may produce simulation results having greater validity than obtained by attempts to equalize simulator equipment.  Future efforts at verification and validation will be aided by developing catalogs of simulator capabilities, standard task descriptions and their simulation requirements, and templated methods of analysis.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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The 1992 I/ITSEC Distributed Interactive Simulation Interoperability Demonstration

Brian Goldiez, Margaret Loper, and Scott Smith

University of Central Florida

The first demonstration of the Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) Protocol Data Unit (PDU) standard was conducted at the 14^th Interservice/Industry Training Systems and Education Conference (I/ITSEC) in San Antonio, Texas in November 1992.  This effort was sponsored by the Defense Modeling and Simulation Office (DSMO) and the United States Army’s Simulation, Training and Instrumentation Command (STRICOM).

The DIS standard protocol data units (PDU) and current communications architecture were utilized along with the common visual databases using Project 2851 (P2851) data.  The demonstration was an integrated display of both standardization efforts.  The Institute for Simulation and Training (IST) at the University of Central Florida developed the detailed design of the demonstration system, coordinated the effort for the government, and provided technical support to those organizations who demonstrated interoperability at the I/ITSEC.  Planning Research Corporation (PRC), the P2851 contractor prepared the databases. 

This paper describes the approach used and lessons learned from the interoperability demonstration.  The planning and integration effort consisted of three components.  First, the scope of the demonstration had to be determined.  This included three main issues: the communications network, the DIS standard, and the terrain database.  Second, before integration occurred, each simulator had to be tested for compliance with the DIS standard.  The testing was conducted at the San Antonio Convention Center during the week prior to the I/ITSEC Conference.  The last component of the effort was the scenario developed for the opening plenary and banquet demonstrations.  The scenario was dependent on the outcome of testing and was therefore the most dynamic component of the effort.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Reviewing the Battle at the Alamo

Grace C. Mak-Cheng and Kenneth Doris

Grumman Corporation

Robert Perry and Norm Lawler

Concurrent Computer Corporation

The creation of the synthetic, virtual battlefield at the 14^th I/ITSEC in San Antonio demonstrated the feasibility of the use of the non proprietary Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) protocols for the interoperability of dissimilar simulations.  Although a major milestone has been reached in the demonstration of the ability of dissimilar simulators to communicate with the DIS protocol, true interoperability has yet to be determined.  The actual interoperability of the players cannot be assessed until a thorough review the individual player’s action and response has been made. 

During the demonstration, a data logger developed by Concurrent Computer Corporation was used to collect all message traffic on the DIS network.  Grumman, in conjunction with Concurrent, has begun a post mission review of the data collected.  This paper will describe the findings of this review.  A comparison of how the actual network traffic compared with the predicted assumptions, and how the use of the next order dead reckoning algorithms may impact the network traffic will be made.  Discrepancies as a result of differences in the terrain database and interpretations of the rules of engagement will be pointed out.  This paper will also include the “lessons learned” from the review process.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Simulation Networking at Kirtland Air Force Base

Mark Castle, Kevin Curley, John Little and Frank Magee

Martin Marietta Information Systems Company

Under the sponsorship and direction of the 542d Crew Training Wing at Kirtland AFB and the Department of the Air Force Headquarters, Ogden Air Logistics Center (AFMC) at Hill AFB, Utah Martin Marietta has implemented a real-time network for multi-device interactive simulation.  Currently this network is an contract to interface the following air crew training devices and facilities: MH-53J Weapon System Trainer (WST)/Mission Rehearsal System (MRS), MH-60G WST, TH-53A Operational Flight Trainer (OFT), and the 542d Training Observation Center (TOC).  The network designated SOF-NET, was integrated and ready for training (RFT) in 1993.  In the near future, the network will expand to include the HC-130P, MH-60G OFT, OFT, Aerial Gunner and Scanner Simulator (AGSS), and an external Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) network node.  The external node will be used to link the SOF-NET with other Government networks and facilities.  To date, the MH-60G, MH-53J, and TH-53A helicopter simulators have been successfully tested for network interactions; in support of an accident investigation, key information was provided through a networked simulation of a multiple ship mission.

This paper examines the Kirtland network architecture and the implementation approach which links the varied computational platform, Image Generators, Radar and EW Systems.  The SOF-NET results to date and potential future projects suggest that this facility is a pathfinder site for the resolution of several thorny DIS issues such as data base correlation, EW simulation, virtual/constructive interfaces and aggregation/deaggregation.  The successful resolution of these issues as applied of Kirtland AFB may impact future revisions of the DIS specification and provide a basis for future interactive network applications.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Development, Test, and Evaluation of a Multiship

Simulation System for Air Combat Training

Capt. Phillip A. Platt

United States Air Force

Peter M. Crane, Ph.D.

Air Force Armstrong Laboratory, Williams Air Force Base

The Aircrew Training Research Division of Armstrong Laboratory at Williams AFB, AZ has developed a SIMNET Version 6.6.1 compatible network of dissimilar aircrew training devices.  The multiship research and development system (MultiRAD) uses distributed micro-processor technology to integrate: an exercise control and videotaping system, two high fidelity F-15 and two lower fidelity F-16 cockpits, visual display systems, a ground controlled intercept (GCI) station, and a computer generated threat system.  As part of systems integration and development, four one-week tests were conducted in which F-15 pilots and air weapons controllers participated in simulator air combat training exercises using the MultiRAD system.  During these exercises, pilots and controllers flew simulated offensive and defensive counter-air missions against a force of up to six threat aircraft plus surface-to-air missiles.  Participants then evaluated the utility of the MultiRAD system for air combat training.  System components were modified after each of the four weekly tests based on the participants’ evaluations.  Systems development, integration, and modifications, based on pilot and controller evaluations, are discussed along with lessons learned.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Interdependence of Training Utility and Network Performance Using the Armstrong Laboratory Multiship Research and Development System

Thomas L. Gehl

IBM Federal Systems Company

Capt. Richard L. Rogers, AL/HRAE

Capt. Mark A. Miller, AL/HRAD

Joseph Rakolta

Loral Defense Systems

To determine the value of a training system, we must evaluate the system’s design and performance with respect to the training effectiveness needed to support the operational mission.  We will need a means to determine the relationship between a system’s engineering design parameters and the training utility during a specified mission scenario.  Through the research efforts of Armstrong Laboratory’s Aircrew Training Research Division, we will address this need by using a networked multiship simulation system with experienced mission ready pilots, including Desert Storm veterans, flying specified mission scenarios.  We will then relate network performance measurements to the evaluation of the training utility for critical segments of the mission scenarios.

We will also discuss the relationship between the training utility and network performance for specified mission scenarios.  We will characterize the architectural components of the Multiship Research and Development (MultiRAD) training system and define the mission scenarios developed for the MultiRAD training utility evaluation.  We will describe the test cases for measuring the network performance and present results of the network performance results of the network performance results with both average and worst-case segments of the mission scenarios.  Finally, we will evaluate the network performance results with respect to the training utility and will recommend methods of extrapolating the results to future systems.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Low-cost Cockpit Trainer Design–Challenges and Solutions

Robert L. Bothwell and James W. Lacy

Lockheed Fort Worth Company

The challenge to today’s training system design engineer is changing; adapting to this change is necessary for survival in a demanding economy.  Previously, training system engineers met with success by using emerging technologies to develop ways to increase the capability of training devices: increase fidelity, increase task capacity, increase throughout.  The result has been an evolution of larger, more capable, and more expensive training devices.  However, in today’s environment of declining budgets, another demand is being made of the training system engineer-decrease cost!

The purpose of this paper is to describe specific challenges facing the designer of a cockpit trainer attempting to blend the training requirements of high fidelity and capability with the requirement of low cost.  This paper will present innovative methods to overcome these challenges in designing a high fidelity, low-cost, cockpit trainer. 

The paper emphasizes the importance of front-end analysis to determine the fidelity and cost factors that would drive the design.  Specific examples of training task analysis and preliminary cost determination are given.  Specific problems encountered in designing a low-cost cockpit trainer and pragmatic considerations in designing solutions for these problems are addressed.  The paper examines alternatives to expensive mechanical instruments and integration and fidelity of virtual displays.

The paper concludes with a discussion of practical benefits of these design solutions.  Emphasis is placed on cost savings, reliability, and efficiency through reconfigurabiliy.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DARTS–A Domain Architecture for Reuse in Training Systems

Robert G. Crispen, Brett W. Freemon, K.C. King and William Tucker

Boeing Defense and Space Group

The dynamics involved in the training system marketplace of today are dictating the need for major changes in the way organizations specify, develop, and maintain training systems.  One of the key areas affected by these changes is the system and software architecture of training systems.  This is evidenced by the increased attention that has been placed on architectures by recent initiatives (e.g. Structural Model, Mod Sim, STARS, DIS, ARPA DSSA, etc.).  There are many reasons for this emphasis, not the least of which is a desire to produce training systems at the least possible cost while providing faster time to market and higher quality.  An architecture for training systems can be a framework to enable cost reduction, reusability, and standardization.

We drive a set of attributes which we believe characterize a “good” software architecture.  We discuss an architecture developed by Boeing Defense & Space Group, the Domain Architecture for Reuse in Training Systems (DARTS) and evaluate DARTS against these criteria.  We also discuss the role of DARTS in megaprogramming, part of the ARPA STARS initiative, and suggest that DARTS is a suitable architecture for achieving the STARS vision of process-driven reuse.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A Commercial Alternative to Tactical Equipment

Richard W. Pecile

Scientific-Atlanta, Inc.

Eddie Smith

Naval Training Systems Center

The solution to training requirement is often implemented through a trade-off between the procurement of tactical equipment of a simulator.  The choice usually depends on the differences between the high recurring costs of the tactical equipment versus the high non-recurring costs of a simulator.  Simulators may also require the acceptance of compromises in training effectiveness.

A third alternative may satisfy the cost and performance requirements without compromise.  This alternative uses the military specification tactical equipment designed and built to commercial standards.  The relaxation of tactical environmental requirements for the benign classroom environment allows for the use of a commercial grade system.  The key is to develop a system which is a functional equivalent of the tactical system.  This is accomplished through use of commercial parts and components, resulting in an overall cost reduction. 

Using a real world example based on the AN/BQR-22A, EC-15 Sonar Receiving Set, this paper traces specification and performance considerations, design strategies to shorten development schedules, and manufacturing approaches to minimize training and life cycle costs.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Appended Tank Full-Crew Interactive Simulator Trainers

Richard D. Gillem, Richard D. Leavitt, and Daniel F. Yuchnovicz

Computer Sciences Corporation, Integrated Systems Division, Training Systems Center

This paper discusses the benefits of appended full-crew training systems for armored fighting vehicles.  It shows the benefits appended trainers have over institutional trainers.  It describes two similar yet different appended trainer designs and the design challenges involved in the development of each.  The paper also discusses the employment experience of an existing appended trainer and the resulting benefits.  While this technology is applicable to any armored fighting vehicle, this paper will address only tank training systems.

The successful pioneering of the development of appended full-crew, interactive tank gunnery skills training devices has occurred.  Devices were delivered to the U.S. Marine Corps (USMC) Reserve for the M60A1 tank in 1989 and for the M1A1 tank in 1993, and demands for application to other fighting vehicles are increasing.  An M60A1 trainer was used by USMC Reserve units aboard the USS Tarawa to train tank crews en route to DESERT STORM.

For optimum effectiveness, appended trainers must be capable of training the entire tank crew – tank commander, gunner, driver, and loader – as a single integral crew.  They must have high fidelity and meet all of the requirements for a precision gunnery trainer.  They must literally turn the entire tank into a simulator.  Since the trainers are deployable, tank crews can maintain gunnery skill proficiency wherever they are deployed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A Comparison of Truck Driving Instruction Using Simulators and Traditional Driving Instruction

Dr.phil. Rainer Dieterich

Professor of Psychology, University of the Federal Armed Forces, Hamburg, Germany

This study compared truck driving instruction given to two groups who were taught to drive using driving simulators with a third group which was taught by a traditional truck driving method of instruction.  The simulators were constructed by different companies and were analyzed and compared with the traditional group.  There were eight subjects in each of the groups (N = 24).

The major difference between the simulator groups and the traditional driver training group was that the latter group learned in actual traffic conditions.  It was theorized by the researcher that the success of the experimental groups was dependent on the similarity of conditions in the simulators and in the actual truck.

Each subject in the three groups had their driving skills evaluated in a traditional driving test behind the wheel of an actual truck in traffic.  Additional data on the driving skills of all subjects were obtained from rating scales and observations.  The data showed that the two groups trained in the simulators often did better than the group trained in actual trucks.  A discussion of the findings and an interpretation of the results will be included.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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The Pros and Cons of the Use of NDI Software on Government Contracts

Nathaniel R. League and Michael F. Wilt

AAI Corporation

The application of NDI is becoming more wide spread, especially with the development of better software development methodologies, such as Object Oriented techniques, and languages, such as Ada.  Contractor’s who have a substantial quantity of NDI software for a specific application; for example, flight simulation, radar simulation, etc., maintain a significant advantage over those who do not when responding to a Request For Proposal from the Government.  Their cost can be substantially lower than others and thus provide the contractor with the most available NDI software for the required application, an “easy” win.

Unfortunately, the Government’s definition of NDI continues to baffle many as to exactly what qualifies as NDI.  This typically leads to long and generally somewhat unresolved battles between program managers and engineers on both sides following the award of the contract.  Typically the contractor may have a difficult time qualifying his perceived NDI software.  Also, the Government still requires a substantial degree of design, performance, implementation, and testing information relating to the NDI.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Reconfigurable Trainers in Software Life Cycle Maintenance

Neil F. Cosgrove

INFOTEC Development

One way of achieving these seemingly contradictory goals of military preparedness within the new economic reality is through computer simulation training.  Despite the fact that simulation can result in great cost savings, even new simulation efforts will face increased fiscal pressure.  One means of reducing software cost is to maximize the use of development resources.  Traditionally, software development and maintenance have required the use of unique hardware development platforms.  The availability of these platforms is often the gating factor in development.  Yet the use of these facilities is often cyclic, periods of frantic activity where all resources are fully committed to periods of no activity where resources are sitting inactive. 

In this paper, we will discuss our experience of this problem as pertains to software maintenance of the U.S. Army’s Conduct of Fire Trainers (COFTs) for the M1, M1A1, and Bradley fighting vehicles.  Traditionally, software development for these systems had implied the dedication of one or more of the actual target training systems.  This has posed the problem that the required COFT system was not always available during software development.  Our solution to this challenge was to develop a reconfigurable COFT trainer for software development.  Realizing that real world fidelity is a training concern not required for software development, we have developed a family of devices that allow any COFT of the above cited vehicle types to simulate any one of the other vehicle types.  This paper provides our lessons learned from our experience that we believe will have broad range applicability not just in software maintenance, but in the development of future training systems.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Source-Data Imperatives for Concurrency

J.J. Shaw

SIMTEC, Inc.

The timely development, fielding and support of training systems, media, devices and courseware is critically dependent upon the quality and currency of the information (source-data) that describes the characteristics of the real-world environment for which training is required.  Unfortunately, many military training programs for operators and maintainers have been, and continue to be, seriously compromised by the lack of awareness, commitment and resolve to ensure that the essential training source-data is provided as a product of the weapon system.

The solution to this problem is based on successful commercial practices and is rooted in the acquisition and systems engineering management of both weapon and training systems.  The key to the solution is the implementation of structured processes that develop and maintain quality source-data products configured to both the weapon system and training system.  This approach will substantially reduce the problems, risks and related costs of :

1) Acquiring quality source-data in the weapon systems,

2) Implementing source-data in the training systems, and

3) Maintaining concurrency of the training system components.

The concurrency of the training system will be significantly improved since the required training system source-data is an integrated product development embedded in the systems and logistics engineering of the weapon system.  As the weapon system design evolves, the training system source-data products will reflect the changes. 

This paper provides insight into the basic source-data acquisition and implementation processes and requirements to support concurrency.  Also, the paper addresses the philosophy, practices, and cost-effective methods of achieving significant improvements in source-data applicable to a variety of training programs.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Using Cognitive Simulations in Multimedia

 for

Maintenance Troubleshooting Training:

Practical, cost-effective Simulations

T. Kent Thomas

Allen Communications, Inc.

Experts appear to master the art of critical thinking in troubleshooting.  It’s as if they have a mental model of the system etched on the inside of their forehead.  How can this mental model be transferred to the novice?  Through carefully crafted multimedia courseware and free-play simulations, novices can match wits with the expert in a delivery environment that doesn’t require either expensive expert systems software development nor complex hardware simulators.  Preliminary training results from a 200-plus hour program suggest that interactive multimedia courseware may produce results approaching both of those methods, with substantially lower development and delivery costs. Small-group tryout results from 21 courses developed by Allen Communication for Air Force maintenance technicians show a 25% aggregate increase in knowledge, and a striking 79% aggregate leap in the ability to successfully apply expert troubleshooting strategies to simulated problems.

The mental models of experts, the sequence of troubleshooting actions they perform, and their reasoning have been captured using cognitive task analysis methods and used as the basis of courseware design.  Experts’ mental models form the foundation of the tutorials that comprise approximately 70% of the courseware.  Their performance on complex troubleshooting problems is the basis of the simulated troubleshooting scenarios.  Combining this detailed cognitive task analysis with high-impact motivational video, focused in-depth tutorials that directly depict the mental models of experts, and extensive free-play simulations, this F-15/F-16 Maintenance Continuation Training Program won the 1993 Nebraska Interactive Media Award for the most significant achievement in the Government/Military category and an Intermedia Invision Bronze Medal.

The author will present an overview of the methods used to design and develop these simulation-focused multimedia courses, including: knowledge engineering, design, programming, and evaluation.  Courseware samples will be demonstrated and preliminary results reported.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Multimedia Information Retrieval–Revolutionary Result of Technology Fusion

Bruce C. Mather, Scott D. Royse, and Denise C. Varner

Southwest Research Institute

In his 1992 article in Harvard Business Review, Fumio Kodama defined technology fusion as the “nonlinear, complementary and cooperative blending of incremental technical improvements from several previously separate fields of technology to create products that revolutionize markets.”  This paper describes the design and application of a multimedia information storage and retrieval system that is the blending of digital multimedia, database management, and communications technologies.  The resulting system has demonstrated the potential for dramatically changing the ways in which computer systems are applied to accomplishing work.  As the multimedia capabilities of PCs become as common as math coprocessors are now, this new method of information management will blur the lines of distinction between training and work, and will add new dimensions of meaning to the concepts of “computer-based training” and “embedded training.”

The Visual Information System (VIS) is a multimedia data management system with an intuitive, visually oriented user interface.  Each node in the data structure may have multiple information elements that may be photographic, computer graphic, video, animation, audio, text and numeric.  In addition, user-generated notes and tutorial programs may be attached to any node in the database, and initiated at the user’s request.  Database navigation may be accomplished either by linear traversal of the data structure, by directed search according to specified criteria, or by hyperlinks to other data records.

This paper will demonstrate applications of the VIS concept to aircraft systems (MH-53J Pavelow Helicopter) and electrical cable and connector repair, and will describe the system (hardware and software components) and how it works.  The paper will conclude with a discussion of other potential applications that focus on why this startling new capability is important. 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Designing electronic Performance Support Systems

Susan Varnadoe

Analysis and Technology

Ann E. Barron

University of South Florida

Electronic Performance Support Systems (EPSS) are designed to provide information, training, and resources to users on an “on-demand” basis.  This approach differs from traditional computer-based training systems in their organization, the amount of control the users maintain, and their integration with an on-the-job context.

The design of an EPSS is quite different from the design of computer-based instruction.  Although an overall menu structure may exist, the user generally has a great deal of freedom to move around in the system and access specific parts.  In addition, hyperlinks usually exist to connect multimedia and textual resources.  This paper provides guidelines and suggestions for the design and development of electronic performance support systems for maintenance and trouble-shooting procedures.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Automated Tools for Icon-Based Authoring Environments–Training Development and Delivery

Ingo B. Ellerbrock

Unisys Corporation

Icon-based interfaces to authoring systems are productive and creative new way of designing and developing interactive training courseware.  Icon-based tools allow courseware designers (CDs) to create, deliver and maintain computer based training (CBT) courseware, without programming assistance.  Lessons are created by selecting icons that represents various types of lesson components, such as graphics, text, pauses, or menus.  Custom made icons for frequently used courseware strategies can also be created as “objects” available to all CDs.  By arranging these icons, the CD creates a graphic flowchart of a lesson.  Through the use of versatile editing environments, often found in graphical user interfaces such as Microsoft Windows and X-Windows, creating and manipulating a lesson is made simple. 

After investigating the features of an available icon-based authoring interface, Paramax created a software tool to support flowchart and storyboard development by instructional designers. As part of our courseware productivity IR&D, we have developed a tool that parses icons to create an ASCII delimited database file containing all data required by MIL-STD 1379D.  That ASCII file is imported into a COTS software application for form generation to create storyboards that the customer can review on screen or print for hard copy review.  When the storyboards are approved and appropriate comments are incorporated, preliminary source code is compiled directly from the storyboards.

This paper describes how icon-based authoring interfaces and support tools can increase productivity and configuration control.  Advantages of icon-based authoring interfaces and future directions for courseware productivity IR&D efforts are outlined.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Taking Advantage of Low-Cost Commercial off the Shelf  (COTS) Software for the Development of Training Management Shells

Ellen E. Shay and Linda L. Terlecki

Loral WDL

In the past few years, a wide variety of powerful, low-cost commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) software packages have been released, allowing users to build complex applications using minimal programming skills.  These packages have made graphical user interfaces particularly simple to develop by providing robust on-line tools and support features.  This allows applications to be quickly and easily prototyped for early user involvement, better user understanding, and overall proof of concept.  Developers can concentrate on the requirements and design of an application, spending time on the “look and feel” of the application instead of the “how” because the how has been simplified. 

Our requirements were to build a training system management shell that provided student logon, access to course materials, management of student data, and course evaluation data reporting.  This shell was part of an overall effort to produce a general-use; Multimedia Personal Computer (MPC)-compliant platform that was also to be used for language enrichment materials.  This platform included a specified set of hardware and COTS software.  We analyzed the given set of software tools, then developed a strategy to enhance the overall training product by providing a training system management shell for a minimal investment.  It was determined that the best strategy would be the use of the built-in capabilities of the provided COTS software.  The training system management shell was developed with a minimal used of traditional software development procedures, focusing only on the essentials for successful user management in the specific environment. 

We found this approach to be appropriate when it is necessary to enhance existing student management and course evaluation capabilities, integrate courses from different sources, minimize time/resources spent on non-instructional aspects of a project, accommodate a short development schedule, and/or utilize resources whose skill level and/or availability won’t allow a traditional approach to development.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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The Development of the Embedded Training Decision-Aiding and Recommendation Tool (ET Dart)

P. Kelly Watson, Douglas Miannay, and Douglas Brashear

Lockheed Aeronautical Systems Company

Richard A. Copeland, Jr.

STRICOM

Nina E. Chatham

The development of embedded training (ET) guidelines by the Army Research Institute (Witmer and Knerr, 1991a, 1991b) has affordable military planners a systematic method for making critical training decisions related to embedded training systems and other training alternatives.  Recent work at NTSC and STRICOM has attempted to expand the use of the guidelines by providing an automated version of the algorithms used in the model. The current study reviews and incorporates those efforts while continuing to expand the capability of an automated version of the guidelines in the areas of:

1)       user interface;

2)       making the terminology generic to all services (where necessary);

3)       user help and instruction;

4)       decision documentation; and

5)       decision aiding for training media cost analysis.

This paper describes the current and future development of a tool (the ET DART) that will fully support decision-making processes related to embedded training.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Dismounted Infantry–Indispensable to the Virtual Battlefield

Elton C. O’Byrne

Marine Corps Base, Camp Lejeune

Today’s infantry is more important to battlefield success than at any time since 1865.  Forces are more widely dispersed because of the lethality of modern weapons.  Dispersed, taking advantage of micro-terrain, able to maintain their mobility in any climatic context, dismounted infantry brings intelligence, flexibility, and killing weapons to the critical place at the appropriate time to define the battlefield and gain the victory.  No model that denies dismounted infantry their proper place on the virtual battlefield can be validated.  This paper defines the simulation requirements for infantry participation on the virtual battlefield of the advanced distributed simulation (ADS) environment.  Current simulators pertinent to the this environment are identified, and placed in a conceptual framework that will enable dismounted infantry to participate accurately on the virtual battlefield.  A phased implementation plan highlights the upgrade path from currently available trainers to the complete integration of foot mobile infantry in all phases of the ADS environment.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Sara Car Driving Simulator:

An Ambitious Research and Development Tool

Michel Lacroix and Jean-Pierre Gaubert

Thomson-CSF, Departement Simulateurs

Pierre Gauriat

Groupement d’Interet Economique SARA

This paper describes the objectives and main features of the French car driving simulator for research applications, called SARA project.  Requested by the French Transport and Safety Research Institute (INRETS) and the two French car manufacturers (PEUGEOT S.A and RENAULT) this simulator allows:

1)       Safe and accurate evaluation of driver’s attitude in various situations,

2)       Accurate traffic engineering research,

3)       Engineering evaluation of vehicle design.

This simulator is a technological state of the art design, as far as it incorporates a specific motion system including a 6 DOF motion platform on top of a large X-Y linear displacement system and a specific vibration device.  Also included is a wide field of view visual system including a 180* front field of view and rear view mirror scene displays.  This system is based on a Computer Image Generator and a collimated display system, and a specific software and database development center allowing the preparation of real time experiments and analysis of their results.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Cognitive Fidelity in the Design of a Maintenance Troubleshooting Trainer

J.S. Bresee and W.W. Wagner

Delex Systems, Inc.

Previous papers have explored the concept of cognitive fidelity and its application to training in decision-making skills.  These papers have described the concept of cognitive fidelity and its value in ensuring the realism of information as an essential factor in decision-making trainer.  Devices designed for high cognitive fidelity would provide a user with highly realistic information, but might not require a physical environment of corresponding realism.

This paper reports on the design and development of a device for training the troubleshooting of an aircraft fuel system.  The paper’s initial focus is on the design choices made to ensure that cognitive fidelity remained high under conditions, which sharply constrained physical fidelity.  The paper shows how the functional requirements of specific training objectives were used as a basis for design specifications. 

The development of the troubleshooting trainer is described, identifying the key design choices, and the way in which cognitive fidelity was used as the basis for selecting between specific design alternatives.  Specific features examined include simulation of test procedures, simulation of related systems, and trainee interface.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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Desktop Simulation for Avionics Maintenance Training

Kevin J. Miller, Scott D. Royse, and Charles J. Zinsmeyer

Southwest Research Institute

The F-16 C/D Avionics Intermediate Shop Maintenance Procedures Trainer (AIS-MPY) represents a significant advance in the application of desktop simulation techniques to a training task that has previously been addressed only through interactive computer-based training (CBT).  In order to meet requirements for a high-fidelity simulation of the AIS computer system using captured operational data, the simulator was designed using a digital multimedia representation of the four automatic test equipment (ATE ) station types that is controlled by a simulation execution environment written in Ada.  The result is a unique combination of real-time simulation programs and multimedia-based “simware” running on a networked, dual-CPU student station, and providing a true simulator for the AIS and for F-16 line replaceable units (LRU).

The AIS-MPT provides the training environment for the development of new skills in the operation, familiarization, operational check-out, fault isolation and repair of AIS ATE and LRUs for the F-16 aircraft.  The system provides a high-fidelity simulation of the AIS computer system, including a very detailed simulation of the software diagnostic tools used to debug complex AIS and LRU malfunctions, and a low-fidelity simulation, using digital multimedia images, of the four ATE station types of the AIS.  The simulator uses actual AIS test data, obtained by using a data capture utility, to drive a simulation of the test equipment for 63 different malfunctions of both AIS equipment and aircraft LRUs.  In addition, a courseware development utility provides the capability to create and modify the simulation presented at the computer bay and the multimedia simulation without having to modify trainer software.

This paper will provide an overview of the AIS-MPT software design, a description of the orchestration of the real-time simulation software and the multimedia presentation of test equipment, and an example of the unique development of “simware” materials that define student exercises.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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From an Intelligent Job Aid to an Intelligent-Computer-Aided-Training System–Training Applications of the Integrated Maintenance Information System (IMIS)

Leo Gugerty, Kimberly Hicks, and William Walsh

MEI Technology Corporation

The goal of the project described here is to investigate the training uses of the Integrated Maintenance Information System (IMIS).  IMIS is being developed by the Air Force’s Armstrong Laboratory as a job aid (using automated tech-order data) for aircraft maintenance technicians who are performing duties on the flightline.  This project involves conducting an analysis of current Air Force maintenance training practices, developing a prototype of how IMIS can be used in Air force training at Technical Training Centers and operational bases, and demonstrating this prototype in a realistic training situation.

In this paper, we first describe the IMIS system and briefly report the results of our analysis of current Air Force maintenance training practices.  Then, we suggest a general procedure for planning how to add training capabilities to job aids, and describe how we followed this procedure in planning the IMIS training system.  Finally, the prototype IMIS training system is described.

The most effective use of IMIS in training would be as an intelligent simulation environment.  In terms of the content of training, the prototype we are developing will