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SECTION ONE: POLICY AND MANAGEMENT

COMBINED TEST: A TEAM APPROACH TO ACHIEVING SIMULATOR AIRCRAFT CONCURRENCY

Major William R. Corrigan, USAF

John K. Clapp, CAE-Link Corporation

Can Aircrew Training Device (ATD) testing be restructured to better support concurrent simulator-aircraft development and delivery to the using commands while reducing cost, mitigating schedule risk, and effectively using a reduced number of experienced test personnel?  Traditional development and acceptance testing followed an interactive process of identical activities conducted first by the contractor then repeated by the Government.  This inefficient process increased program cost and schedule risk.  The reality of forced downsizing has contributed to test risk by reducing the number of personnel available to support a traditional test program, especially a program seeking to achieve concurrency.  To deal with these problems, the B-2 ATD Government-Contractor team developed a combined test methodology to eliminate redundant test, consolidate similar activities and complement the major program objective, concurrent development and delivery of the ATDs.  The purpose of this paper is threefold.  Firstly, to identify the test related problems associated with concurrent development of complex training devices for a highly software-dependent aircraft not yet in flight test.  Secondly, to illustrate the team-oriented structure and process of combined test and how it proved critical to B-2 ATD delivery and functionality.  Finally, to present the results – the on-time delivery of two B-2 Aircrew Training Devices that reflect the configuration and capabilities of the first operational B-2 delivered to Air Combat Command.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TRAINING SYSTEMS VIA “NEW WAY” BEST VALUE CONTRACTING AND MIL-STD-1379D

Steven L. Griffin & William Kitterman,

Naval Air Warfare Center, Training Systems Division

Neal M. Finkelstein

Simulation, Training and Instrumentation Command

In 1993-1994, STRICOM formed a team to acquire the AGTS (Advanced Gunnery Training System).  The team developed a “new way of doing business” which synthesized a number of concepts—best value source selection; emphasis on processes and metrics and total quality leadership; concurrent engineering; integration of MIL-STD-1379D and the systems approach to training; application of the Fixed-Price-Incentive (Successive Targets) contract type; range pricing; and a uniquely structured Request for Proposal.  This “new way of doing business is described and lessons learned are presented.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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MOVING IN A NEW DIRECTION: TRAINING AND SIMULATION TECHNOLOGY CONSORTIUM

Janet Weisenford

Naval Air Warfare Center, Training Systems Division

William F. Jorgensen

Training Simulation and Technology Consortium

The Training and Simulation Technology Consortium (TSTC) is a new model for transferring defense training and simulation technology involving a partnership between the federal government, industry, and a university.  Members include three government agencies; four DOD based industries and a major university.  These members determined that technology transfer would not occur without commercialization.  This involves identifying new customers, understanding customer requirements, matching requirements to defense-based capabilities, and then developing the distribution and sales process.  TSTC was established to support this commercialization process through the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) under the Technology Reinvestment Program (TRP).

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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MINIMUM ESSENTIAL CDRL REQUIREMENTS FOR SIMULATOR SOFTWARE DOCUMENTATION

Igor V. Golovcsenko

Training System Program Office, Wright Patterson Air Force Base

This paper describes an approach to streamline software data acquisition with recognition of both the contractor’s role in technical design development and the Air Force’s role in managing requirements.  It describes recommendations of an Air Force/Industry CDRL Corrective Action Team, implementation on recent contracts, and feedback from the simulator community.  The goal of the Air Force/Industry partnership was to minimize cost and time for preparation, review and use of documentation while ensuring effective and continued sustaining support through the life cycle of the simulator system.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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EFFECTIVE SELECTION AND USE OF CONFLICT SIMULATIONS (WARGAMES) FOR OPERATION TRAINING OR CAMPAIGN ANALYSIS

Squadron Leader Patrick Beautement

Air Warfare Center, Royal Air Force

This paper will cover the reasons why conflict simulations (better known as wargames) are used, the types of wargames that exist, how wargames are selected, how they need to be set up and what is required to make the best use of them.  Some of the more common myths in wargaming will be dispelled.  The impact of future technologies will also be highlighted.

Wargames (including models/simulations) have, in general terms, been used mainly for both analysis and training.  This paper looks at the context in which gaming is carried out and asks “What types of wargames are available?”  The games and simulations available fall into many categories depending on the level of integration (political to tactical) the style of “play” and the type of execution (eg manual or automated in some way).  This paper considers what wargame choices are available and what selection criteria should be used.  Above all, there should be a clear need for a wargame and the game selected should fulfill that need.  Also considered in the paper is the impact of new technologies such as synthetic environments and inter-model protocols like ALSP.

Setting up a game correctly involves considerations beyond simply the game itself:  ie, the selection of equipment and staff, data, rules and scenarios.  Once a game is provided, using the game effectively involves further effort.  How is the game to be used?  Whether the game is to be used for training or analysis, seminar directors, i.e. subject experts, will be needed to interface with the users.  Interpretation is a tricky business and needs to be done with care, as is deciding on the criteria by which “success” or “failure” is to be judged.

Overall, the paper will inform readers about wargaming issues and provide methodologies for effective selection and use of wargames.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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INFORMATION AGE COMMAND AND CONTROL TRAINING

Colonel Michael J. Swords and Jeff O’Byrne

Training Resources Management Division

Marine Corps Base, Camp Lejeune, North Carolina

Until recently, command and control moved combat forces into position and watched them win the fight.  New managerial techniques made possible by broad band communications and the organization and storage of information in machine searchable data bases, have made command and control a battlefield of its own.  These improved capabilities require major changes in the training required for commanders and their control agencies.

The commander’s decision support system must provide appropriate information in time to support effective decision-making.  Decision-makers must be able to maintain situational awareness from computer displayed information.  Support for the training of these skills requires understanding of both the concepts of command and control and the technological capabilities becoming available.

On the cutting edge of these events is the Marine Air Ground Task Force.  Command and control of Marine Air Ground Task forces must be exercised during the most difficult of warfare operations, an assault from the sea to enemy occupied territory.  The command and control training for such a force therefore provides valid lessons for l services and a framework for the command and control of events in civilian contexts.

THE COST EFFECTIVENESS OF SYSTEMATICALLY DESIGNED TRAINING: LESSONS FROM THE FAA’s AQP PROGRAM

J.S. Bresee and A.G. Whitley

Delex Systems, Inc.

Instructional designers have claimed for years that systematically designed, outcome-oriented training is not only better but is also cheaper.   As the argument runs, properly designed training addresses specific needs that have been accurately identified by prior analysis; only the training needed is developed and administered, thus saving wasted time and motion in the training of irrelevant or already acquired skills and knowledge.  This argument has always had strong appeal, but has seldom been supported by data.  This is probably partly because much systematically designed training is implemented for emerging systems where no basis of comparison with past training practices exists.  Moreover, when systematic training design practices are used to revise training practices for existing systems, the effort is typically coupled with a major revision in content so that the effect of new training practices cannot be clearly distinguished from the effect of new training content.

The Advanced Qualification Program (AQP) for the initial and continuing qualification of commercial airline pilots offers a good opportunity for assessing the effects of systematic training design without the intervening effect of new and different training content.  As an initiative to allow airlines to replace current training practices with an approach driven by well-documented analysis of training needs and requirements, the AQP will allow training professionals to observe the effect of new design on existing content in a well-bounded and well-understood domain.

This paper provides an overview of the AQP development process and shows how an AQP provides opportunities for assessing the cost effectiveness of the products of instructional systems development.  A training cost model is introduced as a potential dependent measure for use in assessing cost effectiveness and in predicting the costs/benefits of specific training design options.  Preliminary results of the application of the model show support for the positive economic impact of systematically designed training.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE COMBINED ARMS TACTICAL TRAINER FOR THE BRITISH ARMY

Roger Burch and Brian Rush

Procurement Executives, Ministry of Defense

Changes to the political situation and threat in Europe together with a greater public awareness of environmental conservation have resulted in pressure to reduce live military training.  Additionally, the British Army is facing other training constraints due to cost, safety and range availability.  Against this background is the need to maintain operational effectiveness and any substantial shortfall in field training will need to be made good in other ways.

The Army Strategy for simulation in Training has stressed the priority that must be given to systems that compensate for the lack of field training resources by allowing basic skills and work-up training to be completed in barracks.  The core of the Army’s simulation program is to be the Combined Arms Tactical Trainer (CATT) that will allow approximately two hundred armored vehicle and helicopter simulators to be networked together in a realistic combat scenario.  The CATT must allow all battlefield assets to be deployed and fully integrated in two-sided exercises from platoon to battle-group level.

A number of Pre-Feasibility Studies into CATT were conducted in 1992/3 and five Feasibility Study contracts were let during 1993 and reported in mid 1994.  These show there are obvious comparisons to be drawn between the CATT and the very similar US Army’s Close combat Tactical Trainer (CCTT).  Their respective In-Service dates are also virtually coincident.  However, a number of significant differences have been identified, which are discussed.

The methods used by the Procurement Executive of the Ministry of Defense vary from United States methods, and these are explained.  The procurement options available to the Ministry of Defense are also highlighted and discussed, together with specific areas of risk as perceived by the Procurement Executive.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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INTEGRATNG USERS INTO SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

USER EXERCISES IN CCTT

Thomas W. Mastaglio, Everett A. Goodwin, III

Loral Federal Systems

CCTT is a networked training simulation system being developed for the United States Army STRICOM through a series of seven incremental builds.  These builds will progressively add system components and increase the complexity of components delivered in previous build.  Each build will integrate the previously built system with newly delivered hardware and software components into a system, which is partially functional.  Total system functionality incrementally increases until at the conclusion of build seven the system is complete and can enter qualification testing.  To increase assurance that system testing will be successful and that CCTT is ultimately training effective, a user assessment of each incremental build is conducted.  These assessments are conducted in the context of operational user exercise scenarios with Army users.  Each scenario is designed to train those collective tasks which can be performed using the technical capabilities provided by the system functionality in the CCTT system built thus far in the program.  The user exercises provide both a checkpoint on progress toward meeting the technical requirements of the CCTT program and a way to assess the system’s training effectiveness.  Training effectiveness is assessed based upon collective tasks that are going to be evaluated for training transfer during the system’s initial operational test and evaluation (IOT&E).  The approach supports a continuous test and evaluation philosophy while gauging the training effectiveness of a system throughout its development.  The methodology used in CCTT is key to integrating a user focus into a concurrently engineered training system being incrementally developed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DEFINING THE USER’S TRAINING TECHNOLOGY NEEDS

THE ARMY’S  EXPERIENCE

Marta J. Bailey and Diana Tierney, Ph.D.

Headquarters, US Army Training and Doctrine Command

User acceptability of new technology is directly related to the degree to which the technology satisfies the user’s needs.  The salience of the relationship between user needs and user acceptability is underscored by the tenets of Total Quality Management (TQM).  According to TQM philosophy, the technology user is defined as the customer and the appropriate role of the research and development (R&D) community is to satisfy customer needs.  But, how knowledgeable is the training technology user of his/her own needs?  Can trainers influence the course of technology development to maximize gains from their technology investment?

Conceptually, success in this endeavor requires the training technology user to have a strategic vision of where training is going in the next 5-10-20 years.  The vision needs to be translated into technology requirements for the near-, mid-, and long-term.  Finally, the requirements need to be communicated to the R&D community so work is focused on the identified goals.

The United States Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) has an effort underway to identify, prioritize, and communicate the Army training community’s science and technology (S&T) requirements to the R&D community.  In this paper, we discuss some of our experiences setting up this management process, interfacing with the R&D community and lessons learned.  Clearly, the process requires communication between the users/customers and researchers to clarify requirements and identify useful directions for research.  In addition, it is important to form alliances with users from other services, commands, and agencies.  Lessons learned from our experiences so far indicate users need to be smart about what they need, be smart about science, work together, and be proactive in order to effectively manage technological change.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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RESOURCE TRADEOFFS FOR AVCATT

AVIATION COMBINED ARMS TACTICAL TRAINER

Alan R. Keller, Directorate of Training, Doctrine, and Simulation

Fort Rucker, Alabama

In times of acquisition budget constraint, we must show realistic trade-offs to justify future simulators.  The Aviation Combined Arms Tactical Trainer (AVCATT) will permit critical collective training in exchange for minimal operating tempo (OPTEMPO) tradeoff.  Three approaches to determining resource trade-offs are presented: the Augmentation Approach, the Futuristic Approach, and the Budget Constraint Approach.  The break-even cost analysis for the Budget Constraint Approach reflects that AVCATT could pay for itself during its life cycle in exchange for an OPTEMPO trade-off of approximately one flying hour per crew per month.  This tradeoff translates to 26 operating hours of AVCATT per crew per month.  Prior to deploying for “Operation Desert Storm,” crews from the AH-64 Apache and the OH-58 Kiowa equipped 2/229^th Attack Helicopter Battalion (ATKHB) trained gunnery and battle drill tasks in the Apache Combat Mission Simulator (CMS).  Also during this time, companies trained combined arms collective tasks in eight reconfigurable simulators that were networked to form a collective training system.  Using the collective training system, the company commanders were able to gain valuable unit cohesion before going into combat.  In this scenario, the concept of simulation-based collective training passed the ultimate test—that of actual warfighting!  The results of reconfigurable cockpit training experiments can be added to the Desert Storm evidence.  Experiments involving 361 aviation officers reflect a need for a company level, combined arms collective training system, accessible to each battalion.  During a time of defense budget constraints, the cost effectiveness of reconfigurble cockpits and reusable software must be considered in future acquisition strategies.  Specifically, when the AVCATT acquisition effort comes before the scrutiny of milestone decision review officials, monetary savings and cost avoidance can be achieved by taking advantage of new simulation technologies.  The time has come for not only accepting the cost and training quality benefits of simulation, but to also consider the AVCATT for both combined arms collective training and individual sustainment training.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SOURCE DATA ACQUISITION FOR THE CLOSE COMBAT TACTICAL TRAINER (CCTT)

Dr. Robert H. Wright

Resource Consultants, Inc.

With the DOD reduction in funds for the research and development of major weapon systems and the need to continue training soldiers under austere funding constraints, the need for simulators like the close Combat Tactical trainer (CCTT) becomes even greater.  Information is vital to the effective and economical development of training aids, devices and simulators.  As a part of the army’s information management initiative, the Simulation, Training and Instrumentation Command (STRICOM) through its support contractor, Resource Consultants inc. (RCI) has taken the lead in collecting, collating, recording, storing and distributing information vital to the production of the CCTT.   This data will be re-used in the development and procurement of follow-on trainers.

To build training devices like CCTT, the production contractor and the various government agencies responsible for verification, validation and accreditation of the devices must have detailed data concerning the weapon systems that are to be modeled.  To support this data collection requirement, RCI has developed four user-oriented databases.  This paper discusses these databases: the Document Cataloging System (DOCATS), the Equipment Characteristics Database (ECDB), the Combined Arms Tactical Trainer Task (CATTASK) database, and the CATT Tracker database.  The tremendous cost and schedule savings that accrue by having data available at contract award make this approach viable for follow-on Combined Arms Tactical Trainers as well as other simulations or simulators that need data.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE CHALLENGE OF MANAGING DOMAIN ENGNEERING

Glen W. Dillard

Naval Air Warfare Center Training System Division

Michael R. Welch

RDR, Inc.

The shift of DOD software development practices toward the megaprogramming paradigm is creating new challenges for project management.  Megaprogrammng is a twin lifecycle paradigm, which separates domain engineering from product acquisition.  While the product acquisition lifecycle is not new territory for project managers, the domain engineering lifecycle requires fundamental changes in technical management and organizational practices.  Some of the challenges raised by Domain Engineering are: adopting a product-line focus, planning Domain Engineering, establishing a Domain Engineering organization, staffing a Domain Engineering organization, and integrating Domain Engineering from several suppliers.

Unlike the classical software development lifecycle, the products of the Domain engineering lifecycle persist beyond the lifecycle of any single product.  This effect creates the opportunity for leveraged reuse between products; the purpose of megaprograming.  However, the persistent nature of Domain Engineering products has naturally motivated the customer to take a much more active interest in their formulation, including even active participation in the domain engineering process.  While understandable and even desirable, this interest has raised additional domain Management challenges in re-balancing traditional customer/contractor relationships and managing joint organizations.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SOFTWARE CONFIGURATION MANAGEMENT

A MODERN PERSPECTIVE

John W. Schulke

CAE-Link Corporation

Software development has come a long way in the last decade, but Software Configuration Management (SCM) is just beginning to adapt to the latest technology.  Improvements in this area have become key to the success of a number of new initiatives, including Reusable Software and System Concurrency.  SCM should not be a burden to engineers.  It should not be an overhead to managers.  In fact, SCM, done well, can be one of the most significant cost savings and avoidance factors available to industry today.  Presented in this paper is a refreshing look at SCM as a vehicle for improvements in the software engineering process and philosophy of control.

The increased complexity of modern training devices and advances in the technology of the development environment have dramatically increased the size and complexity of the  SCM problem, thus demanding more discipline and control.   To meet this demand, SCM must be inherent in the very way business is done.  It must be owned by the entire development team and be supported by efficient tools that enforce the process.  This control must include every aspect of the development process the term used for this discipline is “self-governance”.

Applied correctly, self-governance will result in significant cost savings and process improvements.  Paybacks result from improved maintainability, reductions in process cycle time, and the ability to properly support reuse.  This paper advocates a phased approach to SCM that fits naturally into the engineering process.  The right amount of control is placed into the hands of the people who are best able to accomplish the required tasks during each project phase.  By having SCM tasks, such as software release and change control, performed as a simple part of each software developers day to day activities, the costly “crisis events” that tend to occur doe to loss of control can be prevented.

The information age is upon us.  Future advances will increase the demand for discipline and control.  The concepts presented in this paper are simple and the potential pay-back is great.  The challenge is to implement self-governance effectively in order to meet the technical challenges of the future.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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INTRODUCTION TO THE INTERNET

Dr. Ann E. Barron

University of South Florida

The Internet is a worldwide telecommunications system that provides connectivity for thousands of other smaller networks.  The “backbone” for the Internet consists of high-speed, long-distance data lines that were build by the national science Foundation in the 1980’s.

No one owns the Internet; the costs of operations are shared jointly by its users: educational organizations, government research agencies, the military and private organizations.  Several sources estimate that as many as 30 million people may be connected to the Internet and that the Internet is growing at a staggering rate of over ten percent per month.

The benefits of the internet for industry and military are enormous—information can be located in international databases; up-to-the-minute weather data, economic information, and images can be obtained; messages can be sent throughout the world in a matter of seconds, and huge electronic files can be transferred quickly and cost-effectively.  This presentation will provide an introduction and overview of the Internet and its applications in industrial training.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SECTION TWO: EDUCATION, INSTRUCTION AND TRAINING METHODOLOGY

INTERFACING INTERACTIVE ELECTRONIC TECHNICAL MANUALS WITH INTERACTIVE COURSEWARE

James D. Chenvert

Unisys Government System Group Training

The current trend of converting technical documentation to magnetic media could be a boon for training organizations, especially those developing Interactive Courseware.  This paper describes the process of integrating Interactive Electronic Technical Manuals (IETMs) with Interactive Courseware (ICW), as performed during a United States Navy-sponsored demonstration project.  The initial concept of putting technical references on-screen along with the interactive training material is introduced.  The tools being used for the IETMs and ICW are listed with some supporting rationale.  The roles of the ICW and IETM components are expanded on to provide a background for the subsequent explanation of the implementation.  The contrasting (or even conflicting) goals of ICW and IETMs are presented to illustrate the reason for the implementation choices.  The implementation itself is described with emphasis on the control of the IETM display from within the ICW.  The problems associated with exercising that control are discussed and the solutions are presented.  Finally, the resultant courseware is described.  The description provides details of training screen layout including the instructions to the trainee, the navigation control bar, and the flow chart mechanization.  The rationale for placement and sizing of the training window is also exposed.  Additionally, the IETM window, with its size and placement are discussed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ADVENTURE GAMES FOR TECHNICAL EDUCATION

Henry M. Halff

Mei Technology Corporation

This paper describes the use of adventure games for technical and scientific education.  The topics most appropriate for instruction via adventure games are those such as chemistry and physics that require knowledge of abstract concepts and mastery of advanced problem-solving skills.  Adventure games that teach such topics can be constructed as a network of rooms in which each room represents a concept or skill and the paths among the rooms reflect the conceptual structure of the subject matter.  Each room offers the player an opportunity to practice the focus skill or explore the focus concept for the room.  Ancillary support for learning can be provided via conventional computer- or text-based instruction, hypertext, and visualization techniques.

Games of this sort offer signal advantages over conventional computer-based or classroom instruction.  Their motivational advantages are clear.  Properly constructed they allow the student to conceptualize the structure of the subject matter in terms of the game topology, thus bringing the power of spatial cognition to bear on the difficult task of conceptual organization.  The adventure environment can immerse the student in the subject matte in a way that is often impossible in the real world.  Instructional exercises can be focused on critical learning objectives thus increasing time on task.  Instruction can be adaptive so those students devote only the time needed to master the subject matter.  Visualization techniques can be used to convey difficult abstract concepts.

Cost effective development of computer games can only be accomplished if the dual nature (instruction and entertainment is recognized.  The market for instructional adventure games is often not the same as the market for commercial games.  Special mechanisms (e.g., hypertext) are required to meet instructional objectives.  Prototypes and other mechanisms needed to ensure that instructional methods and content are effective.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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HIGH TRANSFER TRAINING (HITT)–INSTRUCTION DEVELOPMENT PROCEDURES AND IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES

Dorothy L. Finley, Michael G. Sanders

United States Army Research Institute Field Unit

Some jobs, including many Army Military Occupational Specialties (MOSs), require the job incumbent to perform operations maintenance tasks on several different objects (e.g., items of equipment, reporting forms) or different object configurations.  It has often been observed that job incumbents in Army units resist performing tasks on equipments, for example, on which they say they have not been specifically trained.  A problem, however, is that the training time needed to train persons on many different objects and in every configuration is prohibitively costly.  Any, given limited equipment availability, for example, such training may not be possible even if it were affordable.

High Transfer Training (HITT) is a new methodology for developing training programs which can be applied when needed to resolve the problem of meeting training requirements for multiple sets of related objects.  HITT is an extension of the Systems Approach to Training (SAT) in that it adds some analytical steps and training implementation strategies to SAT.  The HITT analysis enables the training developer to identify and codify similarities between objects and between object configurations, and then to group them into families according to the similarities.  The family groupings provide the basis for implementing training strategies which enable soldiers to transfer school knowledge to equipment sets and configurations which differ from those on which they received specific training.

The HITT methodology consists of a two-phased training development process, Task Generalization and Generic Design.  The emphasis in this paper will be on Task Generalization phase and the HITT training strategies.  This paper will also briefly recount the history of HITT and evidences of its value-added effectiveness.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

INTEGRATION OF COGNITIVE STYLE AND TECHNICAL CONTENT

Linda J. Brent, Richard P. Brent

Loral Defense Systems

Basic research in neuropsychology, learning theory, and cognitive psychology has contributed to knowledge concerning human learning.  This research has been applied to the identification of cognitive styles, which are defined as an individual’s unique method of processing information.  Investigations into ways to apply this knowledge through computer-based instruction, the increased use of multimedia technologies, and the integration of artificial intelligence techniques have enhanced occasions for more effective use of computer-based instruction in training applications.  While technological advances permit more cost-effective solutions for individualized training, instructional designers may lack adequate techniques for integrating the advances in learning theory and cognitive style with the technology.

The current research literature acknowledges the importance of accounting for the nature of the subject-matter content.  Guidelines concerning information presentation in computer-based instruction are needed by instructional designers to accommodate the individual cognitive style of the learner and for the differences in presentation format relative to subject-matter content.

This paper reviews current research, and discusses how instructional designers can integrate the research findings into a paradigm for the effective instructional design of interactive computer-based instruction.  The paper describes appropriate design strategies, which integrate the application of cognitive style research findings with subject matter content and multimedia capabilities.  Specific examples of situations, learning scenarios, and strategies are provided.  Directions for future research are also presented.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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IMPACT OF TOTAL TRAINING SYSTEMS ACQUISITON ON INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT

Conrad G. Bills

Loral Defense Systems

Traditionally, the Instructional System Development (ISD) process was applied for creating instruction in a classroom or a learning center.  Historically, ISD grew out of a systems engineering methodology applied in development of self-paced programmed instruction.  Successful programmed instruction resulted from a systematic development process.  The system-engineering concept provided a model for input, output, process, and feedback loop.  The application of ISD to total training system acquisition brought a new perspective, the instructional system infrastructure.  Top-level training system functions were identified and included in the systematic development model.  The analysis phase was expanded to include functional analysis.  The process for designing to function incorporated tools used in total quality management.  This paper presents the impact of the expanded total training system perspective on the ISD process.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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AN ANALYSIS OF DISTANCE LEANING APPLICATION FOR JOINT TRAINING

Commander Kenneth P. Pisel

United States Navy, Armed Forces Staff College

Today’s constraints on manpower and funding have done little to constrain the ever-increasing demands for training.  If we are to continue to meet these demands, innovation and technology must be applied through distance learning techniques to do more with less.  Achieving the full potential of distance learning requires an analytical approach to selecting and implementing distance learning media.  We must first understand the needs of the training program and the customers, media capabilities, and the costs and benefits of distance learning.  But equally important is the knowledge of existing distance learning systems.  How can we minimize costs and increase impact through interoperability?  This paper models the analytical decision-making process used by the armed forces Staff College in evaluating distance learning alternatives to its current three-day traveling Joint Planning Orientation Course.

PARTNERS IN EDUCATION

CHANGING THE WAY STUDENTS LEARN

Michael D. Williams, Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division

Marsha C. Vandivort, Edgewater High School

Chairman, Visual Arts Department

Jason Ahmanson, Edgewater High School, Student

Using outdated traditional processes for education will never cure the overwhelming ills faced by education today.  Worn-out lectures, tests and homework fall far short in challenging high school students to learn the skills they desperately need to face their rapidly changing future.  The process is changing in orange County, Florida, where the Naval Air Warfare Center Training systems Division (TSD) and Edgewater High School, supported by Apple Computer, Inc., have joined under the Partners in Education Agreement to provide a new learning paradigm in one classroom environment.

The Training Systems Division needed a method to explain the underlying concepts of distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) and Edgewater High School was looking for ways to utilize their computer animation lab.  Edgewater and NAWCTSD jointly planned a learning venture for the students to produce the DIS Instructional animation.  This project provided “real-world” multi-media production, which would enrich students’ skills in visual arts, group dynamics, computer operation, and problem solving in a multi-disciplined team environment.

Students were encouraged to learn to structure a task from conception to completion, work in groups and independently, communicate ideas verb ally and visually, mange time and set priorities.  Students reported learning important skills from participation in this project such as cooperation, drawing, color theory, organization, public speaking, advertising, brainstorming, animation, working with others, problem solving and business planning.  What started as a simple classroom project evolved into a revolutionary teaching and learning experience.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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PROVIDING MILITARY OCCUPATIONAL TRAINING USING COMMUNITY COLLEGES AND VIDEO TELETRAINING

Neill H. Foshee

University of Central Florida, Institute for Simulation and Training

Barbara L. Martin, Ph.D.

University of Central Florida

Research Sponsored by

Department of Defense Manpower Data Center

Training and Readiness Evaluation and Analysis Division

The need for increased training ha prompted the military services, industry and academia to research several different distance education strategies (i.e. courses of instruction packaged for delivery at remote locations), including video teletraining (VIT).  Two of the key reasons the military is exploring new methods of distributed training are the size and importance of the reserve components (RC) and continuing reductions in military training budgets.  Since RC personnel are only available for an equivalent of 48 training days a year, less expensive, more accessible training methods must be found for reclassifying RC personnel in their occupational specialties.

The purpose of this research effort was to assess the feasibility of using two-year community colleges to offer military courses to RC and active component personnel using a two-way audio and video teletraining system.  Five courses were reconfigured for delivery on the United States Army Teletraining Network (TNET).  Three United States Army Reserve Component Configured Courses (RC) and two United States Navy special topics courses were presented during a four month period in late 1992 and early 1993.

The courses were evaluated on the basis of student performance on standard military proficiency tests and forty (40) other data gathering instruments.  The research demonstrated that VIT is a reliable and effective means for delivering training to military personnel.  The VIT approach appears to be acceptable to both students and instructors.  Furthermore, the results of the quantitative and self-report data indicate that the VIT instruction was successful in helping students master the learning objectives.  The findings also support the premise that community colleges can effectively develop and deliver occupational training to the military.

COMPUTER-ASSISTED TRAINING IN THE GERMAN ARMED FORCES

LTC Albert H. Wimmel,

Staff Officer, GE DOD

Training Technology and Internation pOC NATO

Training working Group on Training Technology

During the last forth years the German Federal Armed Forces have sought to increase training efficiency by using available training tools properly.  “Properly” in the context of training refers to the ability to tailor training approaches to meet requirements in a way that is both technically and economically feasible as well as coordinated in methodic and didactic terms. 

Today’s training environment is one in which resources are becoming scarcer while the amount of training time available is becoming shorter and shorter.  It has become very important to achieve training objectives in a timely and cost effective manner.

The introductory speech, at the 15th Interservice Industry Training Systems and Education Conference (I/ITSEC) in Orlando, Florida during November, 1993, described the current training of United States officers in the following terms:  “The total training period of officers today has changed insignificantly compared to officers thirty years ago.  What has changed is the volume of training subjects to be covered.  It has more than doubled.”

The knowledge explosion situation in the United States Military is also present for the German Armed Forces.  In order to impart an increased volume of knowledge, more efficient training methods and procedures are required.  The German military has opted to introduce advanced training technologies that are capable of putting the emphasis on learning and not on teaching.  These technologies can make use of idle time and make the learning process more successful and intensive through individualization of instruction to the student’s needs.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A STRATEGY MODEL FOR COMPUTER BASED TRAINING

William A. Platt and Stephen J. Guynn

Improving the state of the art regarding computer based training can be directly linked to the validity and completeness of instructional strategy and the clarity and utility of the terminology and models surrounding the design and development of instructional strategy.  Current research emphasis on isolated media variables has not yielded practical results for field practitioners.  An alternative holistic approach is to focus on strategy and tactics of computer based training. 

The purpose of this paper is to create a model of strategy and tactics that could lead to a more uniform communications between researchers and developers with categories of strategy that fit the emerging technology.  Relevant research issues must be converted into practical guidance of use to designers.  Abstract theories must be fortified with working case examples and applications.  In a move to operationalize key concepts, four key terms (Interaction, Adaptive Remediation, and Simulation) were defined in terms of levels of increasing complexity.  The proposed model takes into consideration expanded use of artificial intelligence, expert systems, and future use of virtual reality.  Learner centered design criteria were identified, with emphasis on interactive formats.  The proposed model consists of three levels. 

The General Strategy Level consists of a pool of options dealing with the overall training approach.  These training approaches can be used in combination to provide a large number of possible general strategies.  A sample pool consists of:

1)    Active Interactive Simulation

2)    Interactive Approximated Simulation

3)    Random Access Discovery Learning

4)    Controlled Path Rehearsal

5)    Scenario Driven Free-play with Active Coaching

6)    Scenario Driven Free-play with Computer Generated Feedback

7)    Opposing Force Game with Active Coaching

8)    Opposing Force Game with Computer Generated Feedback

The Sub Strategy Level (meso tactics) deals with the order and use of motivational, evaluative, practice, testing and informational elements. 

The Working Strategy Level (basic tactics) is realized through implementation of a variety of tactics, which includes path-option tactics, presentation tactics, learner input or response tactics and feedback tactics.  The tactics determine how the audio visual elements will be used as the learner interacts with the program.  This is the level that either makes the overall sequence of events an effective learning experience or a boring, painful and ineffective exercise.  A wider selection and mixing of strategy types and tactics along with tighter specification by level of interaction, degree of adaptation, level of remediation, and complexity of simulation could improve the probability of successful programs. 

The intended outcome of this model is to provide that opportunity to designers.  This will permit Instructional Design for CBT to be a flexible exercise, where learning outcomes are more important than rigid formulas for format.  The empirical efficacy of various strategies can be established in practice.  Training solutions must be evaluated on training effect rather than a tenuous (and often weak) linkage to general theory.  Strategy, as used here, should not be confused with theory.  Theory must hold over all cases and is therefore general.  Strategy bridges the gap from the general to the specific and must only be effective in its intended application.  Theory provides guidance and explanation.  Strategy leads to accomplishment and the realization of goals and objectives.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TRAINING DISMOUNTED SOLDIERS IN VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS ROUTE LEARNING AND TRANSFER

Bob G. Witmer, John H. Bailey, Bruce W. Knerr

United States Army Research Institute Simulator Systems Research Unit

Kimberly Abel

University of Central Florida Institute for Simulation and Training

The United States Army Research Institute is conducting a research program with the goal of using virtual environments (VE) to train dismounted soldiers.  To accomplish this goal, the conditions necessary for transfer of training from VE to real world environments must be identified.  This paper reports the results of two experiments investigating the use of VE to real world environments must be identified.  This paper reports the results of two experiments investigating the use of VE for training spatial knowledge s it related to learning routes through large buildings.  This task is especially relevant to a hostage rescue situation or other missions performed by special operations forces.  Both experiments used the same highly detailed computer model of a large office building.  In the first experiment, 60 college students first studied directions and photographs of landmarks for a complex route, then rehearsed the route using the VE model, the actual building, or verbal directions and photographs.  Everyone was then tested in the actual building.  Building-trained students made fewer wrong turns and traveled less distance than did VE-trained students, who in turn made fewer wrong turns and took less time to traverse the route than did verbally-trained students.  In the second experiment, 64 students practiced a different route using either a landmark-oriented or a left-right direction-oriented instructional strategy, and with their field of view either linked solely to body orientation or controlled by both body orientation and head movements.  These data indicate that the use of an instructional strategy that increases the amount of exploration of a VE tends to improve route learning.  The use of head tracking, however, had no effect on learning.  The results indicate that individuals can learn how to navigate through real world places by training in a VE.  While the building model was not quite as effective in training subjects as the actual building, it was much better than verbally rehearsing route directions.  The results also suggest that instructional strategy is an important determinant of learning in a VE.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS IN TRAINING

NASA’s HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE MISSION

R. Bowen Loftin, Patrick J. Kenney, Robin Benedetti, Chris Culbert,

Mark Engelberg, Robert Jones, Paige Lucas, Sean McRae, Mason Menninger,

 John Muratore, Lac Nguyen, Laura Pusch, Tim Saito, Robert T. Servile, Mark Vons

Virtual environment (VE) technology was used to construct a model of the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) and those elements that were replaced or serviced during the December, 1993 repair and maintenance mission conducted by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).  The VE also included the payload bay of the Space Shuttle and the fixtures used for transporting replacement systems into orbit.  Beginning in September, 1993, approximately 100 members of the NASA HST flight team received over 200 hours of training using the VE.  In addition to faithfully replicating the physical structure of the HST and the interrelationships of many of its elements, the VE also modeled the constraints associated with all maintenance and repair procedures.  For the first time, a VE was integrated with a limited capability Intelligent Computer-Aided Training (ICAT) system.  The ICAT component of the training provided identification of all relevant features of the HST, monitored procedures carried out by the trainees in real time, and intervened with assistance in response to procedural errors or requests for assistance.  Data collected from trainees, after completion of the HST mission, demonstrated that, for most trainees, the VE training enhanced the effectiveness of their job performance.  The results of this project serve to define the future role of VEs in training within NASA and to provide evidence that VEs can successfully support training in the performance of complex procedural tasks.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SECTION THREE:   TRAINING, DEVELOPMENT AND DELIVERY

A METHODOLOGY FOR SELECTION OF TRAINING TO APPLY COMPUTER-BASED INSTRUCTION

LTC David W. Raes, ARPA SIMITAR Project

Camp Dodge Support Team

The purpose of this paper is to present a methodology for identification of training that computer-based instruction can be applied to in order to maximize training effectiveness.  The process described is being developed as part of the Advanced Research Projects Agency SIMITAR (Simulation in training for Advanced Readiness) initiative.

The project objective was to develop prototype individual and leader training approach for forward Support Battalions of the Army National Guard.  The scope of the problem included fifty-two separate Military Occupational Specialties, as well as six different career field for officers.  The goal is to achieve 200-300% improvement in training effectiveness in the available time.

A “Lane Training” approach was used to isolate hard to train, high payoff, tasks to be developed using Computer-based Instruction.  Lanes are developed using a top down analysis of missions, critical collective sub-tasks, as well as supporting leader and individual tasks.  This pyramidal approach allows subject matter experts to filter critical tasks from the myriad of knowledges, skills, and abilities, which seemingly carry the same level of importance.

Although this methodology is being applied to a military organization, the lane training approach can be applied to any entity.  It effectively focuses organizational training objectives by breaking down priority organizational goals and the critical management and individual knowledges, skills, and abilities that are essential to organizational success.

The results of this project include: methodology for focusing training priorities from the organizational mission to every leader/manager, and soldier/employee; a methodology for selecting high payoff tasks for CBI development; and a Training Management system to track individual and organizational status of training.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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AUTOMATED AUTHORING–SOME PRELIMINARY RESULTS

William J. Walsh

Mei Technology Corporation

This paper reports preliminary results of research into automated authoring currently being conducted by MEI Technology for Armstrong Laboratory.  The preliminary results reported here are based on an internal try-out of the eXperimental Advanced Instructional Design Advisor (XAIDA).  XAIDA is an expert system, which automatically generates computer-based training from system information provided by a subject matter expert.  XAIDA is not a finished product.  The system is undergoing formative evaluation at this time.  Currently, a small group of experienced instructional designers and some novices are using XAIDA to develop courseware.  These internal tryouts will result in modifications to the system prior to more extensive tests with actual Air Force users (both authors and students).  A brief description of the research foundations of the program is followed by an outline of the authoring process and student presentation.  Some XAIDA features, which affect authors and students, are also described.  Experienced and novice authors’ reactions to the system from internal try-outs are reported, including problems encountered, time to author, authors preferences and lessons learned.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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APPLICATION OF TRAINING ANLYSIS AND DESIGN TOOLS

Dr. Michael Reakes, Westland System Assessment Limited

William Carpenter, Westland Helicopters Limited

This paper describes the application of a software tool in the training analysis and curriculum design of a large multi-national helicopter project.  Requirements for the tool are outlined, and the selection process is described.  Commercially available tools are reviewed, and the application of such a tool at Westland Helicopter’s Customer training School is described. 

When a new helicopter is developed, airframe manufacturers consider training requirements as part of the overall logistics plan.  A training curriculum and an integrated suite of training media) typically ranging from Computer-Based Training to Simulators) are specified and procured.  A systematic approach to the training analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation is required to provide an objective, audible record of the decision making process, and to allow project controls to be applied.  The analysis of maintenance and operator tasks, selection of tasks for training, development and sequencing of learning objectives, and the specification of appropriate training media, are some of the key steps in creating a successful and cost-effective training system.

Software tools are very effective in supporting training analysis and design by guiding analysts through the required decision making processes, allowing them to make quicker and more consistent training decisions.  The tools automatically create audible and traceable records of the decision processes.  Logistics Support analysis Records can be imported as the starting point for the maintenance analysis, helping to integrate the training system with the evolving aircraft design.  Training data can be easily and quickly stored, retrieved, shared and exchanged - resulting in a reduction in duplicated data.  Configuration control facilities allow changes to be tracked as the aircraft design evolves.  Use of a common software too, data dictionary and database structure allows interchange of computer-readable training data amongst geographically distant organizations.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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USE OF “OFF-THE-SHELF” APPLICATION SOFTWARE FOR INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT

Mark C. Stevens

Boeing Defense and Space Group

Gregory S. Davis, Ph.D.

Andersen Consulting

 Unlike many training systems that were developed after a weapon system had reached design maturity or even after it was fielded, the F-22 Training System was tasked to be developed concurrent with the weapon system design.  Additionally, the F-22 Training System Development Team was challenged to be innovative, look into the future, not accept “non value added effort,” to be cost effective and develop an integrated training system.  This brought unique analysis requirements.  Database and analysis support software was required that could grow with the system, respond to changes in emphasis, data formats and contents, provide insight into the analysis and technical performance, and manage the analysis effort.

A review of existing database and analysis support software built specifically for Instructional systems Development (ISD) found that none fully met the needs of the program and supported both the pilot and maintenance analysis efforts.  It was found, however, that personal computer application software had matured to the point where special purpose software applications could quickly be assembled without special purpose coding, providing a responsive, and cost effective means of managing the analysis effort.

Using the same general ISD analysis methodology, both the pilot and the maintenance analysts use “off-the-shelf” software products to acquire, store, manipulate and present analysis data.  The major categories of applications included: database management, decision support, analysis support, program management tools.    We present the results of our efforts to create an integrated local area network environment using commercially available software including software selected, the adaptations we made, and the lessons we have learned to date.

THE USAF T-3A TRAINING SYSTEM

NEW DIRECTIONS IN FLIGHT SCREENING

Lieutenant Colonel James Mohan and Major John Paterson

619^th Training Support Squadron, Randolph AFB

The 619th Training Support Squadron (AETC) received formal direction to develop the T-3A training system in the spring of 1993.  The tasking included the development of a comprehensive training system including aircraft sorties, ground training missions, and academic training in the area of aircraft systems, basic aerodynamics, and flight physiology.  The 619th was also directed to provide all supporting materials for these topics such as how-to-information on aircraft systems and maneuvers, and audio-visual materials used in classroom presentations.  This task was begun even though the air vehicle was not readily available for view and flight manuals were in various stages of development.

At the same time, the AETC requirements and acquisition division requested the 619th provide feedback on a new Air force Handbook, AFH 36-2235, Volume 8, Information for Designers of Instructional systems - Application to aircrew Training, the new instructional systems development handbook.  Merging these tasks, the T-3A development team relied heavily on the aircrew Training volume, making a special effort to follow its recommendations.

This paper describes the fielding of the T-3A Training system.  It examines the process prescribed in the handbook and how its use affected the development of the training system.  The examination will include descriptions of development tools derived from the handbook and the decision-making processes.  It will also examine the task analysis, media selection factors and decisions, and the results of the analysis.  It reviews system and personal interactions that both advanced and hindered the development of the T-3A training system.  Among those was the limited availability of subject specific information such as aircraft flight manuals and operating limitations.  Finally, the paper will describe the finished product including the syllabus of instruction and courseware.  It will also include feedback from the students and instructors engaged in this new program.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TIME COMPRESSED TANK GUNNERY TRAINING IN THE ARMY NATIONAL GUARD

Joseph D. Hagman

United States Army Research Institute

 John E. Morrison

Human Resources Research Organization

Charles P. Lambert

Advanced Research Projects Agency

A device-based strategy is proposed for reducing or compressing the training time required t prepare army National guard armor tank crews for intermediate-level gunnery qualification on table VIII.  Using two computer-based devices, that is, the Conduct-of-Fire Trainer (COFT) and guard unit armory Device Full-Crew interactive Simulation Trainer - Armor (GUARDFIST 1), time compression is accomplished in three ways.  First, only Table VIII-related skills are trained on the devices.  Second, emphasis is placed on training Table VIII engagements typically not performed to standard.  And third, training time is allocated primarily to crews that need it most, as determined through device-based competency pretesting.  The strategy is designed for company-level implementation over three consecutive inactive duty training weekends.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DIGITAL VIDEO IN TRAINNG

Dr. Ann E. Barron

University of South Florida

Susan Varnadoe

Analysis and Technology

The training industry is witnessing a transition from analog video stored on tape or videodisc to digital video stored on computer disks or CD-ROM.  New compression techniques are making digital video technology more feasible for instructional applications such as interactive training, desktop video editing, and video conferencing.

There are several advantages to storing video in digital form.  Digital video can be copied and reproduced without any loss of quality; whereas, each time an analog format is duplicated, the quality decreases and the noise level (imperfections) increases.  In addition, digital formats offer the potential for increased manipulation; the images can be repositioned, resized, and recolored by a computer.  Video in digital formats is also easier to transmit over computer networks.

This presentation will provide an overview of various digitizing and compression techniques for video.  In addition, digital technologies such as QuickTime, Video For windows, and digital video Interactive will be outlined.  Demonstrations of various compression techniques will be included, and guidelines will be provided for selecting and implementing digital video in training applications.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DIGITAL VIDEO FOR MULTIMEDIA–WHAT ARE THE ALTERNATIVES?

Dr. David J. Sakes and Paul C. Swinscoe

Hughes Training, Inc.

Digital video is becoming viable alternative to the analog videodisc for multimedia in Computer Based Training (CBT) and other applications.  The benefits of digital video are lower cost delivery platform hardware and more efficient processes for production, distribution, and maintenance.  Today, there is a wide variety of hardware and software products available to implement digital video for multimedia including PLV, DVI, RTV, Motion JPEG, MPEG, Indeo, Quicktime, Cinepak, Ultimotion, and others.  Thee are a wide variation in the quality and cost of these alternative solutions.  Consequently, multimedia content developers are faced with a confusing array of options when it comes to using digital video.  The objective of this paper is to compare the available methods of providing digital video to facilitate selection of the best approach for a given application.  The paper included a tabulation of performance, quality, and cost parameters t enable making informed choices.  The different techniques of compression/decompression are briefly described together with the hardware and/or software needed to implement them.  Decompression by software is particularly attractive since it does not increase the cost of the delivery platform.  Hardware to play back the compressed video is also becoming more affordable and is the preferred solution when full motion, full screen video is required.  Networking of digital video is briefly covered.  The impact of emerging standards on the development of future products is discussed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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AN INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA TUTOR FOR SOFTWARE SYSTEM MAINTENANCE

Jean D. Garthwaite, George A. Huff

The MITRE Corporation

Eighty percent of the life-cycle cost of a software-intensive system is for maintenance, and the cost of fixing software increases by an order of magnitude as it is passed from developer to maintainer.  Much of the requisite knowledge about the system’s mission, software structure, and maintenance toolset and procedures resides with the developers of a software-intensive system.  The software maintainers must painstakingly recreate it.

Current acquisition documentation and training approaches, such as those required by DOD-STD-2167A, do not effectively covey software system knowledge to the maintenance organizations.  Typically, these approaches consist of one-time only system-specific training coupled with large volumes of procured documentation that provide information in a format that is more relevant to those acquiring and developing the system rather than those maintaining it.  In general, maintainers fin this training too brief and the documentation too hard to understand and use, so they resort to spending large amounts o time reading the source code to derive the information they need.  To reduce the learning curve among software maintainers and the associated life-cycle costs for specific systems, new software maintenance training approaches must be developed that effectively capture and transfer this system-specific knowledge to the maintenance organizations.

This paper describes the effort to develop a new software maintenance approach, a computer-based tutor, for the Higher Authority Communication/Rapid message Processing element (HAC/RMPE).  The HAC/RMPE tutor prototype, with its training system and on-line performance aid features, is a unique approach for supplementing the software maintenance training process.  It captures the knowledge about the system mission, software structure and maintenance environment.  Thus, it addresses the steep learning curve associated with a new maintenance trainee gaining proficiency with an unfamiliar project, software system, and maintenance environment.  It also packages information in a format, hypermedia that to data is atypical for software maintenance.  The concept of a system-specific software maintenance tutor as exemplified in the HAC/RMPE prototype shows great promise for filling a critical gap in the training of software maintainers and thereby reducing the life-cycle cost of system maintenance.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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INTELLIGENT EMBEDDED TRAINERS:

A NEXT STEP FOR COMPUTER BASED TRAINING

Jonathan P. Gluckman, Ph.D.

Intelligent Control Technologies Division of JJM Systems, Inc.

Ruth P. Willis, Ph.D.

Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division

Acquiring the cognitive skills necessary to perform effectively as a member of a tactical decision-making team is neither smooth nor a consistent endeavor.  In order to extend training technology into a more dynamic domain we have created a system tat utilizes expert defined problem solving skills and strategies, and compares them to those used by the trainee.  Trainee models are inferred on the bases of monitored trainee behaviors and the use of probe techniques (such as verbal reports or questioning).  Concurrence and divergence between the trainee and expert models, assessed as a function of outcome (was the answer correct and was it gained using a process similar to that of an expert), serves as the basis for feedback and skill building.  Such systems could be embedded within the operational context to meet (train like you fight, fight like you train” requirements.  This new generation of training systems is referred to as Intelligent Embedded Trainers (IET).

One ongoing program directed by the Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division is to develop a standard, modular architecture for the development of IET systems.  Critical aspects of the architecture include the use of a proven process model of human decision making and flexible knowledge engineering/artificial intelligence technique in combination with structured training objectives, cognitive feedback techniques, performance assessment and tracking methods.  The objectives of this paper are to describe the architecture used, outline the functional modes for development and operation of the IET systems, and to demonstrate how the architecture addresses shipboard electronic warfare training.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DETERMINING TRAINING RESOURCES AND REQUIREMENTS FOR NEW WEAPON SYSTEMS

First Lieutenant David M. Quick

Armstrong Laboratory, Human Resources Directorate

Brooks Air Force Base, Texas, United States Air Force

This paper presents research being done to develop a training analysis tool that will allow training decisions to influence the design of weapon systems earlier in system development than ever before possible and to update these decisions throughout the system’s life cycle.  Integration of training into the acquisition and engineering process is often a very slow process.  The air Force has developed operational systems without qualified maintenance and support personnel assigned to the systems.  Under current operations in the acquisition arena, funding is available for only a single training analysis.  By implementing a method to influence design with training issues early in development, a trained and equipped force prepared to maintain and support new weapon systems will be available as the systems become operational.  The objective of the tool is to select tasks for training, assign tasks to instructional settings, determine task-training times, and determine training resource requirements for new systems by using an empirical data set associated with existing systems.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE FUTURE OF SELECTIVE FIDELITY IN TRAINING DEVICES

Dee H. Andrews, Lynn A. Carroll, Herbert H. Bell

Aircrew Training Research Division, United States Air Force Armstrong Laboratory

Since the inception of modern simulation the designers and users of training devices have attempted to replicate as many physical and functional stimuli as possible in the training device.  There are three primary impediments to this activity:  our frequent inability to specify the kinds of stimuli that are required, our technological difficulty in replicating some stimuli, and the cost of replicating stimuli.

The constraints cited above have led the training device community to develop the concept of “selective fidelity”, meaning that e have to be very selective about the stimuli that we choose to replicate.  This paper presents arguments that our definitions of selective fidelity now need to be altered to fit recent behavioral and engineering developments.  Over the years we have improved our ability through research and analysis to define the important stimuli.  Also, our engineering capability to replicate formerly difficult stimuli has improved significantly.  Finally, there have been dramatic decreases in the cost of providing high fidelity simulation.  In this paper, we discuss our belief that while the concept of selective fidelity will remain important to the training device community, the definition of selective fidelity will be more focused on trainee learning requirements than on analytical and technological shortcomings.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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VOICE RECOGNITION:  A REBORN TECHNOLOGY FOR EDUCATION AND TRAINING

Wayne E. Creech

Hughes Training, Inc.

Both the development of the computer and the concept of voice recognition date back prior to World War II.  While the advancement of computer technology has been steady since the early 940’s, it has boomed since the late 1970’s.  Conversely, the progress of voice recognition has not been well received by the scientific and technical communities until the last decade.   A key reason has been the degree of accuracy with voice input compared to that of keyboard or manual input.  Ironically, it is the manual interface that has become an obstacle for humans to handle the data entry and systems control functions.  The need for an improved interface between the information systems and their users is a prime factor in the current technology research efforts.  Voice recognition offers a potential for a more user friendly interface and is the object of renewed interest in both military and civilian communities.  This paper will examine the latest advances that have triggered the new interest in this technology, current applications of voice recognition systems, and explore the development of a new application.  The structure will be in five parts.  Part One is an introduction that defines voice recognition and terms, presents an illustration of a generic voice recognition system, and describes the categories of voice recognition systems.  Part Two discusses the current systems’ capabilities, identifies the constraints that presently prevent the development of the ideal system, and describes the most popular speech recognition model.  Parts Three and Four discuss the potential training application of voice recognition in business, industrial, military, and education communities.  Part Five describes the creation of a training application using a developer’s kit.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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COMPUTER-BASED ENGLISH LANGUAGE TRAINING

FOR THE ROYAL SAUDI NAVAL FORCES

Katharine C. Golas, Ph.D.

Southwest Research Institute

Ronald C. Fredrickson, Margery A. Negri

Naval Education and Training Security Assistance Field Activity

The Defense Language Institute English Language Center (DLIELC) is responsible for the American Language Program.  DLIELC training materials are used in large-group classroom and individualized language laboratory instruction.  Materials may include printed texts for students and instructors, lesson audio tapes, book quizzes, performance tests, and training aids.  With recent advances in training and speech recognition technologies, it is now possible to augment such materials with interactive computer-based exercises that use multimedia and voce input to teach English as a second language more effectively.  Interactive training that combines audio with full-motion video, still photos, and graphic or animated visual cues has been shown to increase learner motivation by actively involving learners and providing individualized feedback and remediation.

This paper describes a program in which speech recognition technology has been combines with multimedia scenarios that simulate real-life situations and draw the learner into active use of the language.  Using speech recognition allows students to improve their speaking skills by requiring them to repeat words and phrases until they are proficient.  The system recognizes over 50 words and phrases.  The system is currently being evaluated in Saudi Arabia.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SECTION FOUR:  MODELING AND SIMULATION

TESTING CONFORMANCE FOR DISTRIBUTED INTERACTIVE SIMULATION (DIS) STANDARDS

Amy Vanzant-Hodge, Sandra Cheung, and Scott Smith

Institute for Simulation and Training (IST)

 The standards for the interoperability of networked defense simulations, also known as the Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) standards, have been prototyped, implemented, and put to the test through interoperability demonstrations at I/ITSEC 1992 and I/ITSEC 1993 conferences as well as in military programs such as Warbreaker, BFTT, and CCTT.  To achieve interoperability between the various DIS systems, all systems must implement the same agreed-to criteria.  To ensure that this occurred for the demonstrations at the previous I/ITSEC conferences, the Institute for Simulation and Training (IST) was tasked with testing each system for its level of conformance with the criteria, i.e. parts of the DIS Protocol Data Unit (PDU) draft standard and the Communication Architecture for DIS (CADIS) draft standard.  To perform this testing, IST created the DIS Testbed.

This paper describes the DIS Testbed, which consists of hardware equipment, test tools, and test documents, and the test methodologies used for testing.  For the I/ITSEC DIS demonstrations a system could be tested in-house at IST, via long-haul connection over phone lines,  or on-site at the organization’s location.  The test methodology used by IST uses a Capabilities Statement filled out for the System Under Test (SUT) and tests the SUT based on its stated capabilities.  The tests are outlined in detail in the Test Procedures document.  Data from tests is logged with data recoding tools and then analyzed to determine if the data is correct.  Results from the tests are recorded on a Results Sheet, which is updated for retesting or continuation of tests.  A Summary Sheet is filled out when testing is completed and sent to the organization for their review.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DYNAMIC LATENCY MEASUREMENT USING THE SIMULATOR NETWORK ANALYSIS PROJECT (SNAP)

Richard Barry Bryant, Captain D. Scott Douglass, and Ronald Ewart

WL/FIGD, Wright Patterson Air force Base

Gary Jeff Slutz,

EAI Services, Division of Halifax Corporation

The purpose of the Simulator Network Analysis Project (SNAP) is to develop networked simulation analysis hardware, which measures network delays and simulator accuracies.  Latencies introduced by simulations affect the research and training value of the simulator.  Critical tasks such as handling qualities evaluations can only be accomplished on high fidelity simulations with very short time delays.  In order to be an effective simulation, the pilot’s stick input must cause the proper time phased responses from the aircraft’s simulated instrumentation, motion base, and visual displays.  The introduction of additional time delays between networked simulators, due to line communication links and protocol hardware, reduces the types of tasks, which can be accomplished.  A thorough understanding of the end-to-end simulation time delays is required to know what types of tasks can be accomplished on the simulation network.

The SNAP hardware and software consists of portable test units, which can be located at two or more simulator network nodes.  These units have the capability to accurately record and correlate, raw pilot inputs such as stick position, instrumentation, simulation states, network PDUs (Protocol Data Units) and visual display parameters.  Each SNAP unit records data at its simulation nodes; the data is time stamped using GPS (global Positioning system) clocks for subsequent correlation.  SNAP provides the unique capability of correlating the inputs of a pilot at one simulation site to the perception of those actions at a second site.   SNAP also measures the display attitude and aircraft target position directly from the video going into the pilot’s display using an Electronic Visual Display Attitude Sensor (EVDAS).

This paper discusses the development of the SNAP simulator analysis tool as well as experiments and results of the use of the tool on an existing simulator network.  Techniques for using SNAP as a simulation verification tool are discussed.  Future applications of the tool are proposed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DYNAMIC MULTICAST ON ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE FOR DISTRIBUTED INTERACTIVE SIMUATION

Thomas L. Gehl

Sprint, Government Systems Division

The concept of Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) needs advanced network technologies and services to communicate real-time state updates between autonomous simulators.  The network architecture, consisting of these technologies and services, must provide high throughput messaging between multiple peer simulators that create the virtual environment.  As the number of entities in the virtual environment increases, the message throughput becomes a major performance issue.  Recently, scalability estimates and analysis have been performed as to how to handle tens of thousands (up to 100,000) of entities in a distributed interactive simulation scenario.  Filtering techniques have been studied to determine how the message interaction between the distributed simulators can be reduced.  These filtering techniques need to be performed, as appropriate, with commercially available network services to ease interoperability and enable migration to future technologies.

This paper discusses an architecture that incorporates dynamic multicast over Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) to reduce the state update traffic between the distributed simulators.  In discussing a dynamic multicast approach, the DIS multicast requirements of multipoint communication, group addressing, group definition, group membership, and group change are redefined.  These requirements are then applied to a network architecture consisting of a baseline topology and functional capabilities.  Finally, the method of scaling DIS applications up to 100,000 interactive entities through the integration of  the proposed network technologies and services is presented.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE IRIS ARCHITECTURE—INTEGRATING CONSTRUCTIVE,

LIVE, AND VIRTUAL SIMULATIONS

Jason Paul Kazarian and Marjorie Ann Shultz

Naval Air Warfare Center China Lake

The Internetted Range Interactive Simulations (IRIS) project links three functionally and geographically disparate simulations via the Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) protocols.  This paper describes the IRIS system architecture, including components portable to other projects.  The paper also raises issues regarding integrating simulations into DIS and discusses candidate solutions to those issues.

IRIS integrates three simulation nodes:  constructive, live, and virtual.  These nodes were developed independently, without regard towards interoperability.  The architecture allows all three nodes to participate in a joint DIS exercise, while minimizing modifications to the nodes themselves.

Each of the three nodes has unique characteristics.  For example, the constructive node executes war games, the live node receives multiple data streams, and the virtual node incorporates avionics hardware.  The paper discusses these characteristics for IRIS simulation nodes in particular.  Similar projects may find these characteristics apply to other nodes in general.

Issues raised during integration are discussed.  These include model, interface, and operator knowledge fidelity for all three nodes.  Issues unique to each simulation class are also addressed.  Further, some lessons learned are presented for the benefit of others attempting similar projects.

For further information on the IRIS project, please contact Clifford H. Stone, C)243, Naval air Warfare Center, One Administration Circle, China Lake, CA  93555-6001, telephone (619) 939-2353.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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INTEGRATING CONSTRUCTIVE AND VIRTUAL SIMULATIONS

Clark R. Karr and Eric Root

Institute for Simulation and Training

“Constructive” battlefield simulations/models typically control groups of entities (e.g. the tanks in a tank company) as aggregates rather than as sets of individual simulated entities.  Constructive models also are typically “time-stepped”; that is, time proceeds in discrete steps with each step covering several seconds or minutes.  The position, movement, status, and composition of aggregate units are maintained for the unit as a whole and are the result of statistical analysis of the units’ actions rather than the result of the actions of individual entities.

In contrast, “virtual” simulations typically represent each tank or vehicle as a distinct simulation entity and operate in “real-time”.  Manned virtual simulators each represent a single vehicle.  The human crews in their simulators interact in a common, simulated (virtual) battlefield through the exchange of information packets on the network that connects the simulators.  Additional, unmanned entities in the virtual environment are generated and controlled by Computer Generated Force (or Semi-Automated Force) computer systems.

The interoperation of time-stepped, aggregate constructive simulations with real-time, entity level virtual simulations provides benefits to both the analytic and training communities but poses several technical challenges.  This project’s goal has been to demonstrate the feasibility of the interoperability of constructive and virtual simulations through the integration of the Eagle constructive model and the SIMNET virtual environment.  A network architecture, network protocol, and specialized interface computer systems have been developed.  Solutions to space and time correlation, to movement of entities between the two environments, to the transmission of orders and commanders’ intentions between environments, and to combat between environments have been developed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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CONSTRUCTIVE TO VIRTUAL SIMULATION INTERCONNECTION FOR THE SOFNET-JCM INTERFACE PROJECT

Commander Dave Babcock, Major Jim Molnar, Major George Selix, Mark Castle,

 Glen Conrad, Jim Dunbar, Steve Gendreau, Tony Irvin, JoAnn Matone, and Mike Uzelac,

Martin Marietta Information Systems

Under the sponsorship and direction of the Joint WarFighting Center (JWFC) at Hurlburt Field, Special Operations Command (SOCOM) at McDill Air Force Base, the 58th Special Operations Wing (SOW) at Kirtland Air Force Base, and the Department of the Air Force Headquarters, Ogden Air Logistics Center (AFMC) at Hill Air Force Base, Martin Marietta has developed a Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) compliant node which links the existing SOFNET virtual simulator network with a theater level constructive simulation, Joint Conflict Model (JCM).  The JCM simulation and the DIS compliant interface for the JCM simulation has been developed by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL)/Department of Energy (DOE).

On 8 June 1994, the SOFTNET-JCM Interface Project performed a highly successful, long haul demonstration between Kirtland Air Force Base and Hurlburt Field.  This Proof of Principle demonstration culminated a fast paced, nine-month development effort.  The objective of the demonstration was to interconnect a virtual simulator network with a joint, theater level constructive simulation.  The virtual simulation network (SOFNET), located at the 58 SOW consists of three high fidelity helicopter simulators (MH-60G, MH-53J, and TH-53A) and the Training Observation Center (TOC).  The project introduced a new developmental node, the Network Interface Unit (NIU) which connects the existing network to the outside world.  The constructive simulation was the JCM simulation, which is used by the JWFC to conduct JTF and theater level training exercises.  The communications between the simulator network and the constructive simulation were implemented via a T1 line and used the DIS protocol (V2.03) to control the data interfaces.  This paper describes the architecture and the design that  supported this demonstration.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ACHIEVING CONSISTENT COLORS AND TEXTURES

IN VISUAL SIMULATION

Roy Latham, Computer Graphics Systems Development Corporation

With increased emphasis on the verification and validation of simulations, it is increasingly important to match the colors and contrasts of the real world in the visual scene simulation.  For example, in military simulations, the ability to detect and recognize targets depends in part upon the colors and contrasts rendered for the target objects relative to background objects.  Visual simulations are produced by digital image generators based upon polygon databases.  Each polygon in the database is tagged with a color description or a texture description that ultimately leads to the appearance of the polygon in the rendered image.  This paper addresses the problems of ensuring that the rendered appearance is both in accord with the real world and with other simulators.  The suggested approach to achieving traceable colors involves (1) cataloging a selection of real world colors by measuring them as they occur, (2) obtaining texture patterns from photographs of real world textures either directly through image processing or indirectly by synthesizing patterns to match the characteristics of the photographs, (3) color correcting the texture images by identifying two or more colors in the pattern that also appear in the catalog of real objects and transforming the pattern colors accordingly, and (4) calibrating the image generator and display system to reproduce assigned colors as accurately as possible.  Practical limitations due to the color gamuts of display systems are discussed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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VISIONICS DATA BASE GENERATION--AN INTEGRAL PART OF TRAINING, PLANNING, AND MISSION REHEARSAL

J. Jeffrey Lombardi

Martin Marietta Flight Systems

Lieutenant Colonel Edward T. Reed, United States Air Force 58^th OG/OGU

Kirtland Air Force Base

The 58^th Special Operations Wing (SOW) of the Air Force Air Education and Training Command and Martin Marietta currently operate the largest data base generation facility on the Department of Defense (DOD) tasked with producing high fidelity photo specific simulation data bases for DOD customers world wide.  Started in August 1990, initial data base support was limited to five data base engineers producing basic training environments within western United States and the development of small mission rehearsal areas that were utilized by Air Force personnel only.  Today, this facility has grown to twenty data base engineers and three full time intelligence personnel working around-the-clock seven days a week.  Utilizing a dedicated state of the art
Sun and Silicon Graphics Network encompassing the latest technologically advanced applications, this team has produced nearly seven hundred thousand square nautical miles of visual data base supporting multiple customers in the Department of Defense.

This paper addresses the high fidelity simulation data base generation and the application of the standardization scheme developed at Kirtland to overcome the many challenges inherent in the construction of data bases.  The joint contractor, government team at Kirtland has developed a standardization methodology that promotes efficiency, reduces cost, and improves quality.  The technological barriers overcome involved integrating multiple disjointed databases into a single contiguous landmass, converting databases into multiple Image Generator formats, and scrutinizing the DMA specifications.  The development of these standards and the substantial expe4rience of the 58^th SOW data base generation facility was instrumental in DOD's decision to co-locate the Project 2851 Simulator Data Base Facility (SDBF) at Kirtland.  This facility will be networked with the 58 SOW database facility for data base production and transformation synergy with will benefit all of DOD and industry.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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STATISTICAL CERTIFICATION OF TERRAIN DATABASES

Dr. Guy A. Schiavone, Russell S. Nelson, and Brian Goldiez

Institute for Simulation and Training

Consistency in terrain representations between run-time databases is a prerequisite for interoperability in Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS).  It has been suggested in previous research that one hundred percent alignment of databases will never occur in a simulation that utilizes distributed geometric databases.  However, statistical certification of terrain database elevations offers a means of ensuring the degree of consistency necessary for interoperability.  In this paper we define a statistical metric for terrain database certification.  Starting with a review of the existing work on quantitative terrain database metrics, we examine a basis for specification and statistical certification of terrain elevation data.  Using classical acceptance sampling, hypothesis testing will be introduced as a method by which a terrain database (TDB) is certified.  A method for determining the critical error value for thee desired accuracy proportion and consumers risk (Type II error) will be discussed.  From these results the producer's risk associated with the test is evaluated for several different accuracy proportions.  Using data collected at the 1992 I/ITSEC as a basis for comparison, the utility of acceptance sampling is demonstrated using data collected at the 1994 I/ITSEC.  A distinction is drawn between tests designed for TDB certification and tests with inherent diagnostic capability.  As an example of the latter, the use of the cross-correlation metric is introduced for the purpose of detecting linear shifts between the terrain skins of a baseline database and a trial database.  Using a portion of the Hunter-Liggett high definition area, an example of linear shift detection is provided for the case of a shift by an integer number of samples.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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MODELING THE CLOUD ENVIRONMENT IN DISTRIBUTED INTERACTIVE SIMULATIONS

Maureen E. Cianciolo

TASC

Brian Soderberg

LORAL Advanced Distributed Simulation

This paper describes an ongoing effort to develop and integrate an empirical cloud model within a Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) environment in support of high-fidelity training and simulation applications.  TASC is developing a cloud model (known as the Cloud Scene Simulation Model) to simulate realistic high-resolution cloud features within domains defined by larger-scale weather conditions.  The cloud model generates four-dimensional (three spatial and time), multi-layer cloud fields using a combination of stochastic field generation techniques and convection physics, where internal model parameters are tuned to fit observed cloud data.  One data set is generated for each specified output time and contains cloud water density values arranged on a regular volumetric grid.  A typical output field contains tens of thousands of data points covering simulation domains of 50 km or more.

Because these data sets are too dense to be transferred across the DIS network or rendered in real-time, we have developed an approach that approximates the complex cloud formations generated by the model as a series of geometric primitives.  The cloud data sets are filtered to the level-of-detail appropriate for a particular simulator.  The approach uses a planer-wise approximation of a volumetric phenomenon that takes advantage of today's state-of-the-art image generator hardware.  The cloud model runs in real-time, allowing for smooth transitions as the weather conditions evolve over the simulation domain.

In this paper, we present an overview of the Cloud Scene Simulation Model (CSSM), its inputs, outputs, and overall methodology.  We describe a DIS architecture which enables distributed real-time calculation of large cloud fields, and addresses usage of and extensions to the standard DIS network protocol.  We follow with a description of the volumetric rendering techniques employed in this effort.  Finally, we summarize and briefly discuss the application of our methodology to other atmospheric phenomena in future implementations.  We conclude our oral presentation with a videotape showing real-time cloud field generation and visualization within a DIS training environment.
 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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MODELING SIMULATION OBJECTS WITH RASP, NIAM, AND HCPN

Bo Hagerf, Celsius Tech

To achieve efficient interoperability, horizontal as well as vertical, between the nodes in a DIS network and thus ensure that the simulations will be truly interactive, it is essential that the various simulation objects in different simulation models are structurally correlated or equal.  This is especially important for the development of computer generated forces for computer based training for different command levels, operational as well as tactical, where the artificial forces, equipped with sensor models, weapon models and internal decision models will give the trainees a realistic though virtual combat and war gaming environment.

The methodology presented in this paper focuses on the means of developing an effective and unbroken tractability chain from computer simulation models that describe the concepts, information objects and constraints and evolves to fully-fledged systems models, back to the real world models that describe and represent the human endeavors, goals and means in warfighting.

The important side effects of this methodology are high quality and practical database designs for tactical battlefield C3 systems and computer-based training that have advanced demands on information consistency and flexibility.

The methods used are RASP (Requirements Analysis and Specification, developed at Chalmers Institute of Technology, Sweden), NIAM (Nijssen Information Analysis Methodology or Natural Language Analysis Method, by professor Nijssen, Holland) and HCPN (Hierarchical Colored Petri Nets, developed by professor Petri, Germany and professor Jensen, Denmark et al).

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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MODELING THE LITTORAL OCEAN FOR MILITARY APPLICATIONS

Steven D. Haeger

Naval Oceanographic Office, Stennis Space Center

Describing the ocean environment for military applications in shallow as opposed to deep water requires not only a shift in technology but also a change in our management and planning perspectives.  The purpose of this paper is to discuss some of the issues that the training community should consider early on in the planning stages for modeling and simulating the coastal ocean in order to estimate funding levels, computer resources, communication capabilities, etc.  Although the Navy has enjoyed relative success in modeling deep water for mainly ASW applications, our capability to model the coastal ocean is very limited.  In shallow water, there are more warfare communities to address and more environmental parameters to model, including currents, waves, surf, visibility, bioluminescence, sediment dynamics, and temperature/salinity (with related variables of sound speed, density, and conductivity).

Defining how well we can model the complex littoral region is relative to exactly how much and what type of information we need to know for a specific application.  Environmental prediction models running in "real-time mode" describe what is happening in the ocean at a specific site and time but often must be run at a central site, are more expensive to implement/validate/run, and have a greater chance of not passing validation.  Models running in a "typical scenario mode" provide time-varying answers that are statistically correct over some time period but are not accurate for real-time; they do not have the severe restraints listed for the real-time models.

Other issues include research and development models versus "operational models, intentional rejection of assimilation data for ocean models; and determination of unfair fight criteria for platforms that are not capable of receiving model output from central sites for use in tactical decision aids.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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LARGE DIS EXERCISES–100 ENTITIES OUT OF 100,000

Steven D. Swaine and Matthew A. Stapf

McDonnell Douglas Training Systems, McDonnell Douglas Aerospace

Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) is being promoted as a tool to aid in design, prototyping and manufacturing of weapon systems, development of joint doctrine, mission planning, after mission reviews and historical analysis.  Future networked exercises promise hundreds of thousands of users interacting in a single "Seamless Battlefield".  To achieve this goal, the evolving DIS standards have addressed the protocol for the data, which must be exchanged between participants, and they embody a data reduction method known as "dead reckoning" to help reduce network bandwidth utilization.  But this is only part of the solution.  Connecting a simulator to a large exercise has been likened to "drinking from a firehose"; and most simulations, especially legacy simulators, simply cannot process the envisioned number of external entities.  This paper discusses techniques for managing large quantities of entities, by filtering, organizing, and prioritizing the DIS data for presentation to the simulation host.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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A DIS NETWORK FOR EVALUATING TRAINING SYSTEMS

EFFECTIVENESS

Christina L. Bouwens and Robert E. Jones

CAE-Link Corporation

Dr. Linda Pierce

Army Research Laboratory, Fort Sill Field Element, Fort Sill, Oklahoma

Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) has recently received widespread acceptance in the DOD community as the standard for networking simulations.  Although DIS has its roots in interfacing virtual simulations (entity level, typically main-in-the-loop training), it is also being adapted for use with construct6ive simulations (wargame and analysis) and live simulations (real, fielded equipment).  This paper describes a DIS
network combining live constructive and virtual simulations.  The live simulation components, provided by fielded command and control equipment, were able to interact with a constructive simulation called CIMUL8™ and a part task trainer (virtual simulation) for training in Multiple Launch Rocket System (MLRS) Fire Control Panel operations.  Besides providing the first demonstration of its kind, this configuration was used for the purpose of evaluating a new training system (the MLRS Fire Control Panel Trainer (FCPT)) using real equipment inputs as well as inputs from a constructive simulation representation of the real equipment.  The paper will describe the design of the evaluation, present some preliminary training evaluation results, and make recommendations for future use of the system for evaluation.  The paper will also recommend additions to the DIS standards for better support of similar test systems.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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APPLICATION OF GPS TO HYBRID LIVE/CONSTRUCTIVE/VIRTUAL TRAINING SYSTEMS

R. J. Van Wechel and R. P. Jarrell

Interstate Electronics Corporation

GPS user equipment has matured and is now available to support the use of live players in networked live/constructive/virtual wargaming simulations.  GPS provides true

WGS-84 based coordinate information anywhere in the world at any time and to accuracies at the 5-ft level (demonstrated in high dynamic aircraft using differential GPS.

In supporting DIS-based hybrid live/constructive/virtual networked team training, GPS is directly applicable to the dead reckoning requirements of DIS.  The on-board state vector for an integrated GPS/Inertial Reference Unit provides accurate position, velocity and acceleration as well as attitude and attitude rate information so that dead reckoning thresholds can be both position and attitude driven.  A simplified analysis is presented in the paper to derive dead reckoning update rates from the G loading levels of various player dynamics.  Also, information is provided which results in word length requirements for GPS-based state vector information for transmission over minimum word length DIS Field Instrumentation Protocol Data Units (PDUs, which are the data block formats).  The coordinate frame problem is use of GPS-based state vector information from fixed ranges is also addressed, showing that the use of a local geodetic frame is preferable to the use of an earth centered earth fixed frame, in that it is more efficient of network PDU word length.  Weapon scoring requirements using GPS-based state vectors are addressed in terms of GPS state vector accuracy required to score various weapons and provide "positive training".  These requirements are all applicable to the JTCTS and NGTCS programs, which are in the formative stages and will use GPS-based information in the DIS Field Instrumentation PDUs.

Results are presented of a combined Northrop/IEC demonstration using the China Lake RAJPO GPS assets linked into a DIS demo for I/ITSEC in November 1993.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SIMULATION MANAGEMENT IN DISTRIBUTED INTERACTIVE SIMULATION

Huat K. Ng, Ronald S. Klasky, and Kenneth P. Kelly

Veda Incorporated

The standardization of simulation protocols through the SIMulator NETworking (SIMNET) and Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) concepts has allowed the interconnection of dissimilar simulators into an electronic battlefield.  A distributed simulation may encompass many different types of systems and the number of entities in an exercise can grow to thousands.  As the network traffic increases, an exercise control and management system is critical in order to successfully control the scenario.  In DIS, a host computer designated as the Simulation Manager (SM) performs exercise management functions via 12 SImulation MANagement (SIMAN) PDUs.  Some functions performed by the SM include: Start, Restart, Maintenance, and Shutdown of an exercise.  The focus of this paper is to describe an on-going design and development effort, which will result in the test, validation and implementation of the 12 new SIMAN PDUs on a workstation.  From this workstation, a DIS exercise manager will be able to utilize the SM software to control all of the entities (live, constructive and virtual) on the battlefield.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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IMPLEMENTATION OF THE LASER MESSAGE PROTOCOL

IN A DIS NETWORK

Randall K. Standridge, John D. Micheletti, and Richard P. Weyrauch

Southwest Research Institute

This paper presents the results of the integration of the Deployable Forward Observer/Modular Universal Laser Equipment (DIS) evaluation testbed, representing one of the first documented implementations of the Laser Protocol Data Unit (PDU).  The DFO/MULE system provides target acquisition and tracking training for artillery Forward Observers, Naval Gun Fire Spotters, and Forward Air Controllers as well as laser designation and rangefinding training.  This stand-alone training system was modified to add a DIS networking capability, allowing ground-based Forward Observers to identify and designate targets for attack by artillery and aviation assets distributed within the Multi-service Distributed Training Testbed (MDTT) network.  In addition to providing an overview of the system design and integration approach, this paper explores key issues which directly relate to implementation of the Laser PDU such as laser spot correlation with respect to terrain and targets, laser designation versus laser rangefinding, and laser-guided munitions modeling.  The lessons learned from this implementation are discussed, along with suggestions and recommendations for future study and development.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DYNAMIC ENVIRONMENT SIMULATION WITH DIS TECHNOLOGY

Martin Altman, Mark Kilby, Curtis Lisle, and Michelle Sartor

University of Central Florida, Institute for Simulation and Training

During the latest DIS workshops, the addition of a Terrain Manager or Environment Manager to DIS brought out understandable differences of opinion.  Options discussed have covered the responsibilities of the Terrain and/or Environment Manager, its effect on the entities, and how entities keep track of the changing environment while considering whether any fundamental goals of the DIS paradigm such as "No central computer for even scheduling or conflict resolution" are violated.  However, providing a consistent and dynamic environment in DIS exercises requires more than single environment management module, whether it is per network or per node.  Instead, modifications to the simulation support architecture, as a whole must be contemplated.

Issues such as network bandwidth, CPU performance, and scalability must be considered by a system architecture that supports dynamic environments in a distributed interactive simulation.  To address this need, several architectures are presented which could support dynamic entity/environment interaction.  As each architecture is discussed, results and measurements made from prototype software are presented to point out strengths and weaknesses.  IST demonstrated networked Dynamic Terrain (DT) capability using the most recent architecture at the I/ITSEC 1993 conference.  The architecture supported changes to the terrain profile, an extended IDS protocol, and provided a consistent way to manage changes made by entities. 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DEPLOYABLE ELECTRONIC COMBAT MISSION REHEARSAL, TRAINING, AND PERFORMANCE SUPPORT

Patrick G. Heffernan and David W. Galloway

TRW Avionics and Surveillance Group, Warner Robins Avionics Laboratory

This paper presents the approach and results of an internally funded project at TRW to develop a portable, self-contained electronic combat (EC) simulation system.  This system, known as the Portable Electronic Combat Simulation (PECS) system, provides the ability to conduct EC mission rehearsal, part-task training, and performance support functions in a deployed state using one stand-alone package.  For mission rehearsal and part-task training, this tool provides a real-time simulation of the threat environment, a high-fidelity aircraft flight path generator, an electronic warfare (EW) defensive systems processing and environment interaction, a countermeasures effectiveness model, and an audio and video interface to the user via a graphical user interface.  For performance support functions, the system provides an encyclopedia of threat information and a tool for conducting initial and refresher training for specific EW defensive systems.

The PECS system real-time and off-line software is hosted on a single VME chassis and employs multiple 68030 and SPARC CPUs.  The real-time simulations software was developed in a building block style allowing the user to rapidly reconfigure his EW defensive systems suite from the models available.  The off-line software includes a toolset of editors to build mission files and the performance support functions.

This development effort demonstrated that effective real-time EC mission rehearsal and training and off-line performance support could be employed without large weapon system or aircraft part-task trainers.  The PECS system software architecture also illustrated tremendous flexibility in supporting a number of different EW configurations, allowing new and qualified air crew members, from several different airframes, to learn and practice on a single turnkey system.  The performance support function shows that air crew members can improve their EW knowledge base without the formal constraints of a CBT system.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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DISMOUNTED INFANTRY IN DISTRIBUTED INTERFACE SIMULATION

Robert W. Franceschini, Mikel D. Petty, and Douglas A. Reece

Institute for Simulation and Training

Simulation of discounted infantry in realistic numbers and behaviors was omitted from SIMNET, the prototype DIS-type simulation.  Representation and simulation of discounted infantry are not obviously fitted into the same framework as vehicles because models of humans are more complicated and not well understood.  This paper describes a dismounted infantry simulation system developed at the Institute for Simulation and Training, and reports on lessons learned about simulating dismounted infantry in DIStype simulations.

IST's Semi-Automated Forces Discounted Infantry (SAFDI) project developed a Computer Generated Forces system with specialized capabilities for dismounted infantry.  The goals of the SAFDI project are twofold:  first, to provide a realistic simulation of dismounted infantry for the benefit of SIMNET trainees, and second, to learn about the simulation of dismounted infantry in support of future DIS simulations (like CCTT).  The SAFDI system has been installed at training sites and has been used in training scenarios involving United States Army soldiers.  This paper provides an overview of the SAFDI system, including the project's goals, the system's capabilities, and the results of its evaluation at training sites.

IST's dismounted infantry research has led to a number of lessons learned of general applicability in the area of simulating dismounted infantry in DIS-type simulations, including SIMNET, BDS-D, and CCTT.  This paper will address the following questions:

1)       Why simulate discounted infantry in DIS-type scenarios?

2)       What are the distinctive characteristics of dismounted infantry that are important to its simulation?

3)       How does one simulate dismounted infantry in DIS-type scenarios?

4)       What mistakes were made in the design of SIMNET that made retrofitting it with dismounted infantry problematic?

5)       How well does the emerging DIS network protocol standard support special requirements of dismounted infantry?

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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HIGH FIDELITY VIRTUAL PROTOTYPING TO SUPPORT GROUND VEHICLE ACQUISITION

Jon G. Kuhl, Ph.D.

Center for Computer-Aided Design, The University of Iowa

LTC James Wargo, Ph.D., P.E.

Advanced Research Projects Agency

This paper describes an ARPA initiative to develop a comprehensive simulation-based design environment for ground vehicles.  A central component of this environment is the use of high fidelity, operator-in-the-loop simulation for virtual prototyping, and a necessity if the user is to participate actively and meaningfully in the development of a new ground vehicle.

A ground vehicle virtual prototyping capability is being developed, using the Iowa Driving Simulator (IDS) that employs real-time vehicle performance models with engineering detail comparable to models typically used for off-line design and analysis purposes, and employs terrain models that characterize surface type and geometry at fine resolution.  This fidelity allows factors that previously could be evaluated only via physical prototypes to be evaluated through virtual prototyping, including detailed operator-vehicle performance characteristics and collection of specific vehicle performance data, such as component load histories, in realistic operational scenarios.

A "virtual proving ground" demonstration project conducted in July 1994 is described.   For this test, the environment of two Aberdeen Proving Ground test courses has been duplicated on the IDS.  A series of instrumented tests were conducted on the actual Aberdeen course and in the IDS-based virtual prototyping environment.  Data, ranging from basic human factors measures to specific vehicle performance parameters, was collected and compared to assess the ability of the virtual environment to represent real-world conditions.

The paper also discusses additional aspects of the ARPA project, including ties to the synthetic battlefield, development of reconfigurable, virtual-prototyping environments, and integration of the virtual prototyping capabilities into a comprehensive integrated product and process development (IPPD) framework.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ADA STRUCTURAL MODELING DESIGN EXPERIENCE FROM AN ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVE

T. Michel Moriarity

AAI Corporation

Ada Structural Modeling (ASM) is a software development concept that emphasizes the architectural aspects of a real-time software system.  The concept was developed by the Aeronautical Systems Center, Wright-Patterson air force Base, with assistance from the Software Engineering Institute, Carnegie Mellon University.  The concept was originally developed for flight trainers, but has recently been used to design the Simulator for Electronic combat Training (SECT), a high-fidelity, classroom trainer used to train Air Force Electronic Warfare Officers.

As might be expected, the infusion of a new technological concept presented the development team with numerous technical challenges and opportunities.  While the specific technical responses to those demands are of interest to the design analyst, the effect of the responses on the program is of interest to the engineering manager.  This paper reviews the ASM design experience on SECT, summarizes its effects on the program, and documents lessons learned for using ASM concepts on future programs.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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PERFORMANCE LIMITATIONS OF THE DIS INTERFACE

Rodney A. Long, Eric E. Anschuetz, and Lawrence R. Smith

Naval Air Warfare Center,

Training Systems Division

Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) Standards are being established to allow for connectivity and interoperability of dispersed simulations through the standardization of application layer protocols.  However, the underlying datagram design is governed by the network bandwidth thus limiting what information can be shared between simulations.  The finite bandwidth of serial networks limits how much information can be transferred from one point to another within a specified period.  In addition, interfacing to a DIS environment requires a computational element capable of filtering information needed by the individual simulator and performing common functions necessary to interact in this distributed environment.  Filtering of simulation data is required since most PDUs are transmitted using broadcast addressing.  Dead reckoning provides an engineering tgradeoff which reduces network bandwidth, but increases the computation necessary at the simulation interface.

Functions like filtering, dead reckoning, simulation management, collision detection, and time stamping are performed at the DIS interface.  The time required accomplishing these functions as well as reliable Ethernet and FDDI communication for DIS is deterministic.  The purpose of this paper is to identify the performance limitations of accomplishing the DIS interface as well as to identify the time required to perform the basic functions that make up the DIS interface. 

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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USING BENCHMARKS AND SIMULATOR LOADS FOR

MULTI-PROCESSOR COMPUTER SYSTEM EVALUATION

Carl Mickelson, Scott Hill,  and Steve Scibetta

Loral Defense Systems

Traditionally, the selection of computer systems for simulation has been made on the basis of synthetic benchmarks.  Advances in computer technology have caused this traditional method to poorly predict the requirements of full training system loads.  Modern, commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) simulation computer systems often include multiple processors, shared memory, time-shared system busses, and coherent multi-level cache memories.  These systems are notoriously hard to benchmark since traditional benchmarks fail to accurately model a multi-processor simulation load with respect to cache memory and shared resource utilization.

The technique presented uses computer system theory and round-robin resource contention to consume a known portion of the processing capacity of the system being evaluated.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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PREDICTING NETWORK PERFORMANCE IN HETEROGENEOUS, MULTI-FIDELITY, SIMULATION NETWORKS

Christina Bouwens and Ron Matusof

CAE-Link Corporation

Simulation networking is no longer new or novel.  Heterogeneous, multi-fidelity networks have been successfully demonstrated using either proprietary protocols such as SIGNET, or Distributed Interactive Simulation (IDS) protocols.  As the technology for simulation networking has matured, it has resolved some major issues.  For example, we now have a standard for the exchange of information between networked simulations (IEEE-1278-1993).  There has been very little work done toward prediction and accurate measurement of simulator network loading, and little significant work has been published concerning the implications of network loading toward the overall network fidelity and the successful transfer of training.  Implicit in the underlying structure of the IDS is an assumption that network performance is purely an issue of applying appropriate technology to support a particular set of objectives.  However, network loading imposes limitations upon these objectives and it is unclear what effect unexpected network performance has upon meeting a particular set of objectives.

This paper addresses the problem of predicting network loading in a heterogeneous, multi-fidelity simulation network.  It discusses the issues associated with heterogeneous networks and multi-fidelity simulation.  Using objective data obtained from a variety of networked exercises (both DIS  and non-DIS) for context, this paper discusses the detailed issues involved in measuring network loading.  Finally, it makes some recommendations for the future.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SECTION FIVE:  SIMULATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS

INNOVATIVE SONAR TRAINING DESIGN:

LINKING SONAR CONCEPTS WITH FAMILIAR HUMAN CONCEPTS

Dr. Thomas J. Hammell and Frederick M. Ewalt

Paradigm Associates

Dr. Robert Ahlers and Cathy Matthews

Navel Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division

An instructional approach was developed for training applied sonar skills.  The approach allows a student to effectively apply concepts learned in a classroom to problems presented on a training simulator.  Instruction is in the form of visualizations integrated with the training simulation.  These visualizations of environmental, tactical, and acousic variables facilitate training by providing links from simulation elements to their more abstract representations on the tactical console.  Information that addresses the procedural aspects of operating the tactical console is included in the training approach.  This approach was presented to submarine sonar instructors and students, as a series of status display snap-shots in the context of specific training scenarios.  Evaluation was based on their judgments, obtained with a structured-interview questionnaire, addressing the overall instructional approach and prototype display/control design features.  The value of this type of instructional assistance was found to be very high.

THE RADAR SYSTEM CONTROLLER INTELLIGENT TRAINING AID

James E. McCarthy, Stephen Pacheco, H. George Banta

John L. Wayne and David S. Coleman

Sonalysts, Inc.

The AN/SPY-1 is a phased array radar system that functions as part of the AEGIS combat system aboard modern United States Navy Cruisers and Destroyers.  Enlisted personnel, known as radar system controllers (RSCs) operate and maintain the radar system.  The RSC must optimize radar performance in a number of disparate environments.  In order to enhance a new operator's ability to maintain this optimization, the AEGIS Training Center contracted for the development of a training aid.  The resultant Radar System Controller Intelligent Training Aid (RSC ITA) is a PC-based training aid that makes use of a master/apprentice training paradigm.  We describe it below.

MULTISHIP SIMULATION AS A TOOL FOR MEASURING AND TRAINING SITUATION AWARENESS

Wayne L. Waag, Ph.D.

United States Air Force, Armstrong Laboratory

In 1991 the United States Air Force Chief of Staff posed a series of questions regarding situation awareness (SA) in fighter operations including the following.  Can SA be measured?  Can SA be trained?  This paper presents the findings of a research investigation that explored the use of networked multiship simulation as a tool for measuring and training SA.  The Division's MULTIRAD simulation facility was used which permitted two F15s to fly against a suite of manned and unmanned adversaries in a realistic combat environment.  Controller support was provided using a long-haul network linked to an AWACS simulation located at Brooks Air Force Base, Texas.  A weeklong evaluation syllabus was designed consisting of nine sorties with four engagements per sortie.  A building block approach was taken so those scenarios increased in difficulty over the week.  Sixty-three mission ready F15 pilots participated in the study.  Critical incident/event data and performance ratings of SA were gathered using two trained observers.  Additionally, mission outcome, network communications, video recordings, and eye movement data were gathered.  As expected, SA was found to be related to previous experience with Fighter Weapons School graduates, as a group, performing the best.  Performance was found to improve for identical engagements flown early and late in the syllabus.  Study participants regarding the potential value of multiship simulation for training SA skills expressed positive opinions.  Areas of greatest payoff appear to be the training of flight resource management and decision-making skills.  It was concluded that multiship simulation can be an effective tool for both measuring and training SA.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SYSTEMS ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE:

LESSONS FROM THE F-22 TRAINER PROGRAM

Tony DalSasso

F-22 System Program Office

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base

George R. Rovny

Lockheed Fort Worth Company

The successful implementation of a training simulation system requires that engineering constraints be communicated from the Systems Engineer to the designers in an unambiguous manner.  This paper proposes that an architectural framework can be developed, providing the Systems Engineer with a tool to aid in this communication.

The paper documents the F-22 Pilot Training System team's observation that the term "architecture" has no universally-accepted definition.  It chronicles the process used to resolve this problem, eliminating the confusion concerning both the terminology and the process of developing an architecture.  It describes a hierarchy of definitions, allowing consensus to be reached among a group with widely varying experience levels, without creating a "least common denominator" definition.  It explains the term by means of analogy–what "architecture" means to a builder, and how this maps into the trainer engineering context.

Emphasis is given to how an architecture needs to address hardware and software as a system.  A preferred process for creating the architecture and managing the subsequent development of the product, using architecture as a systems engineering tool, is discussed.  The paper describes the "litmus test" developed to determine whether an approach constitutes an architecture and describes the attributes of an architecture that allow its relative quality to be measured.  It observes that most of what is touted as architecture doesn't pass the "litmus test," and why it does not.

Believing that the F-22 program is a microcosm of a trend throughout industry, the paper suggests that lessons learned by the F-22 can be effectively applied elsewhere.  It discusses why this subject is so vital to a simulation development effort, and concludes with some thoughts on how a properly developed architecture can provide significant advantages to a system integrator.

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LESSONS LEARNED IN DEVELOPING MULTIUSE

SIMULATION FOR F-22

Dorothy M. Baldwin, James H. Gault, and Stephen S. Zimmel

Lockheed Fort Worth Company (LFWC)

 Multiuse Simulations are even more critical in light of current budget constraints.  Early planning during F-22 development has provided a unique opportunity to maximize simulation synergism across an entire Weapon System.  Via Integrated Product Teams (Pits), the Air Vehicle, the Support System, and the Training System are being developed concurrently.  Potential simulations for REUSE by the Training System were identified early to be able to incorporate training requirements into Air Vehicle and Engineering lab development.

This paper describes "Lessons Learned" in developing simulations to satisfy multiple engineering laboratory and training requirements and also provides examples of specific cases where Training System personnel have acted as "integrators" between various Air Vehicle Pits.

A good example is the development of the Flight Dynamics Simulation (FDS).  FDS has completed Preliminary Design Review (PDR), Critical Design Review (CDR), coding, integration and testing, and will be operational in the Vehicle Management System (VMS) Integration Facility (a full-up pilot-in-the-loop engineering flight simulator) by the time this paper is presented.  All potential users, including training system personnel, were involved in requirements, review, and approval cycles. All identified training requirements have been met.  Examples are given of how FDS development "Lessons Learned" have been shared with other REUSE engineering simulation developers.

Challenges that lie ahead and the processes being put in place include (1) how to develop a robust, flexible design based on early requirements that we know will change, i.e., how to incorporate REUSE simulations into the final media that result from Instructional System Development (ISD) and provide these REUSE simulations to the ultimate training simulator designer and integrator and (2) how to update the REUSE simulations during the Weapon System life-cycle while satisfying the requirements of diverse users.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE HERITAGE OF THE AIR VEHICLE TRAINING SYSTEMS DOMAIN

David C. Gross and Lynn D. Stuckey, Jr.

Boeing Defense and Space Group

One of the Holy Grails of software development has been reusability.   Everyone is frustrated with continually reinventing the wheel; everyone knows that reuse would dramatically cut costs; and no one has shown an effective reuse paradigm.  The trend has been to develop reuse paradigms without regard to past successful projects.  Historically, successes with reuse have been accidental–based on personnel, not on process.  Now a new paradigm has emerged that includes a focus on past investments in forming a reuse process.  This initiative is DOD's push toward the megaprogramming paradigm.  Megaprogramming divides system development into two lifecycles, the first focusing on the problem of leveraging assets through a family of related products, and the second focusing on the problem of delivering a single product.  The process for the first lifecycle is domain engineering.

Domain engineering is not easy.  It resolves around all kinds of questions that simulation software engineers are not used to asking such as:  (a) Is this a viable domain?, (b) Is there an acceptable standard partition of the domain?, (c) Is this domain definable?, (d) What granularity is best for domain work products?, and so forth.  Yet, if the DOD is going to successfully transition its approach for the development of software intensive systems to the megaprogramming paradigm, software development organizations are going to have to be empowered to meet these challenges.

The United States Navy and the Advanced Research Projects Administration are presently funding a megaprogramming demonstration project in the domain of air Vehicle Training Systems.  How has this project come to grips with the technical challenges of domain engineering?   Mostly by leveraging the investments of previous research and development projects in this domain such as the Ada Simulation Validation Program (ASVP), the HAVE Module (Mod Sim) Project, the Software Engineering Institute's Structural Model Initiative, the Manned Flight Simulator (MFS), and a series of planned pilot efforts.  This paper discusses the advantages and disadvantages of leveraging previous investments into new domain engineering efforts.  Its discussion captures valuable lessons about the transition of existing organizational assets into the megaprogramming paradigm.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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CUSTOMIZING AN OBJECT-ORIENTED DESIGN OF LEADSHIP EFFECTS

Jerome M. Weiss

CAE–Link Corporation

An Object Oriented Design (OOD) approach to the simulation of Leadship effects was presented at the 1991 I/ITSEC Conference.  These Leadship effects were coded in Ada, contained within the Othership Subsystem and used on the B-2 Aircrew Training Device (ATD).  This paper will illustrate the success of this subsystem's structure during subjective pilot evaluations and limited flight test data correlation.  These Leadship effects were necessary to provide realistic aerial refueling and base escape training.   The Othership subsystem was structured to be generic in form, highly transportable and easily maintainable.

Subjective pilot evaluations and a limited test data correlation have been performed for the training task of aerial refueling.  The ease of conducting these evaluations and correlation support the 1991 stated advantages to this subsystem's structure.  Ease of maintainability was demonstrated by customizing this subsystem for two different tankers (KC-135R and KC-10A) with tanker-unique data modifications within the same evaluation session.  Customizing only the significant leadship effects and eliminating the insignificant leadship effects without altering the subsystem's basic form showed high transportability or reusability.  Generic engineering notation supported both maintainability and reusability.  The short time required to customize this subsystem is additional support of the lessons learned.  Additional lessons learned during these evaluations and correlation has led to a second generation OOD structure for the Othership subsystem.

The second generation OOD structure would be the preferred architecture of an Othership subsystem slated for a training device with similar training requirements.

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MEGAPROGRAMMING AND METHODS OF REUSE: THE NAVY/STARS PILOT PROJECT

Brian E. Cahill

DUAL Incorporated

Constance N. Lambert

Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division

Many software organizations have not adopted software development practices that foster reuse in any formal manner.  As the simulation and training industry moves into the twenty-first century, these organizations must evolve or they will become less and less effective in an increasingly competitive marketplace.  A reuse strategy is invaluable as a method of risk reduction.  There are five levels of risk reduction based upon degrees of reuse.

An organization that has no formal organizational or project-level reuse strategy generally does accomplish some unmeasurable amount of ad hoc reuse.  A common example of this is when an engineer has to provide certain functionality, and they reach into their "bag of tricks" and pull out a piece of code from another application, possibly in another language.  The lowest level of quantifiable reuse-based risk management is opportunistic reuse, which is implemented at a project level, making use of some automated tools, with little or no unifying direction from the organization.  The next degree of risk reduction is integrated reuse, in which the organization has adopted some form of reuse strategy, which is used consistently throughout the organization.  The fourth level is leveraged reuse, which adopts a product line philosophy and integrates reuse tools with the software development environment.  The software engineer recognizes commonalities and variabilities in their current design task within the product family, and creates a design that reflects those elements, anticipating future reuse of the code.  The highest form of reuse-based risk management is anticipated reuse, in which the organization pursues new business opportunities that take advantage of the organization's reusable assets, as well as opportunities that will further develop the product line.

On the Navy/STARS pilot project, using the process-driven, two life-cycle approach of megaprogramming, the strategy of choice was leveraged reuse.  This paper outlines the various methods of creating reusable code, as well as the structural and environmental considerations that can make reuse an attainable goal or a sizeable effort.  It also addresses the experience gained and lessons learned in fulfilling the concepts of leveraged reuse on the Navy/STARS pilot project.

WEAPONS SIMULATION EXECUTION, IN THE TARGET?

OR IN THE SHOOTER?

Ted Clowes

Cubic Defense Systems, Inc.

As the DIS community moves towards incorporating live training range players into their games, a number of issues arise.  This paper provides background on the set of problems unique to the range community and addresses them relative to the issue of weapon simulations and whether their execution should be based at the target or within the shooter.  The issues addressed include low communications bandwidth compared to simulators; intermittent communications paths or dropouts; available processing power; and classification.  These issues are primarily related to live training ranges that impose real-time and real-world constraints.  Since it is desirable to have simulators provide pseudo threats and players that interact with real players, it is necessary to understand these constraints.

Examination of some Army, Air Force, and Navy ranges and their restrictions relative to rate of player communication, and amount of data that can be passed is presented.  This is contrasted with the typical capability of simulators.  The effects of communication dropouts or path unreliability are then added.  Some ranges and types of players are less susceptible to this problem than others.  Next is a brief discussion of the class of processing power available at the player unit and the restrictions this imposes on the approach to simulation execution.  Some time is also spent on the issue of classification and the problems that are introduced when you want to use classified weapons models in a world that is inherently easy to monitor.  The conclusion presents a recommendation about where the weapons simulations should be executed when dealing with live ranges and a mix of real and pseudo players.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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ARPA RECONFIGURABLE SIMULATOR INITIATIVE (ARSI)

Duke Buster and Jim King

Texas Instruments Incorporated

ARSI is a low cost, Distributed Interactive Simulator (DIS)-compliant simulation that can easily change shape into different vehicles.  ARPA will use ARSI to explore the viability of such simulators for training and the research, development, and evaluation of future vehicle concepts.  We contend that a single reconfigurable simulator will maintain the required fidelity and be less expensive than a collection of single configuration simulators.

ARSI has five areas of reconfigurability:  mechanical enclosure, distribution of simulation functions, crew/vehicle interface, tactical interaction with other vehicles, and scenario/battlefield database.  The keys to easy configuration are a flexible "core" from which hardware and software modules can be hung, and emphasizing the use of models whose behaviors are table-driven or parameter-driven.  The baseline ARSI program will deliver this "reconfigurable core" and modules for five vehicle configurations, which are:  M1A1 Abrams; M1A2 Abrams; M2A1 Bradley, M2A2 Bradley; and HMMWV scout.

Keywords:  simulator, reconfigurable, DIS, platoon training, concept development

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INSTRUCTOR OPERATOR SYSTEMS:

EFFECTIVE DESIGN TO MAXIMIZE STUDENT LEARNING

Linda J. Brent and John B. Heisler

Loral Defense Systems-Akron

This paper describes a study conducted during the design phase of a weapons system trainer (WST) for the United States Air Force Special Operations Aircrew Training System.  The purpose of the study was to identify key instructor requirements of the instructor operating station (IOS) for the WST.  During the pre-design and early design phases, an analysis of existing IOS stations was conducted to determine their strengths and weaknesses.  The analysis considered instructor tasking requirements, along with task saturation points in the mission training from the perspectives of both student crew members and instructors.  The results indicated that many required human factors and instructional design features were not effectively built into many of the existing stations.  Several factors also complicated the IOS for this system.  The requirement for instructors to have both over-the-shoulder and IOS access to students, combines with the multiple crew positions involved, created complex design problems to solve.  Following the analysis of existing systems, a study was developed to determine the critical elements of instructor interface both to the IOS and to the student during both crew station (individual) and weapons system (crew) training exercises.  Mission scenarios were designed for use in this study, which paralleled real-world situations.  The segments of the missions most subject to task saturation for instructors and students were identified.  The scenarios were then run under controlled, simulated conditions.  The scenarios were videotaped for analysis and systematic debriefing sessions were held following each scenario.  Instructor and mission tasking requirements analyzed the data.  Study results were used to define specific design requirements, which would meet the instructional needs of the students, and the tasking and operational requirements of the instructor.  Refinements to the design and the instructor operating stations were made to maximize both the station's human factor capabilities and the instructor-student interactions.  General design guidelines are provided for future research in this area. 

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THREAT SIMULATION:

TRADEOFFS BETWEEN TACTICAL REALISM AND TRAINING VALUE

Samuel F. Bass

AAI Corporation

Threat simulation in electronic warfare training requires both signal fidelity and tactical realism.  These aspects of simulation are generally not in conflict.  However, as tactical realism is increased–through the use of autonomous tactics models responsive to simulated ownship position and crew countermeasures–training value can be compromised.  Specific problems can include: inability to "schedule" the hostile signal environment to avoid trainee overload or to present very specific signal combinations; loss of insight into exactly what situation confronted the trainee at any given moment; and loss of repeatability in a given mission, hence loss of the ability to deliver equivalent, objective-oriented training to successive trainees.

Modern training systems must balance these issues to assure the development and maintenance of superior skills in the electronic combat community.  This paper describes the tradeoffs to be considered in the design of threat libraries, selection algorithms, and tactics models.  It further indicates approaches to be considered as a function of purpose of the simulation and the level of training to be delivered.

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SECTION SIX:   RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT TECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS

A PC-BASED PHOTOGRAPHIC-QUALITY IMAGE GENERATOR FOR FLIGHT SIMULATION

Izidor C. Gertner and George Wolberg

Department of Computer Science

City College of New York

George A. Geri and George R. Kelly

University of Dayton Research Institute

Byron J. Pierce, Melvin Thomas, and Elizabeth L. Martin

United States Air Force Armstrong Laboratory

Conventional image generation techniques rely largely on polygon rendering techniques.  We describe here a system that uses off-the-shelf hardware to realize high-end image generation.  We have developed a prototype image generator based on two Intel i860 processors and a host 486-PC.  This hardware performs perspective transformations, clipping, and texture mapping.  Parametric surfaces are generated by fitting either a bilinear or bicubic polynomial to standard Defense Mapping Agency (DMA) terrain height data.  Real-time texture mapping algorithms are then used to place realistic textures, obtained from real-world photographs, onto the terrain height map.  In our implementation, a multiresolution image pyramid is used to generate properly filtered images on demand at the resolution required by the viewing geometry.  A wide range of terrain data approximations is used depending on altitude.  Course (fine) approximations are implemented for high (low) altitude flight.  A multiresolution terrain pyramid is used to achieve this approximation.  This pyramidal approach is embedded into our real-time texture mapping system with the use of an incremental scanline algorithm.  The current prototype can generate a 256 x 256 x 8-bit image at 15 frames/second using only two i860 processors, and the algorithms scale sub-linearly with the number of processors.

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IMPLEMENTATION OF A HIGH PERFORMANCE DATABASE GENERATION SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

Kenneth L. Merchant and Lee R. Willis

Loral Defense Systems

As part of the Special Operations Forces Aircrew Training System, a production facility has been developed which offers a significant increase in database generation capability.  This system will produce a layered, correlated database from a variety of input data sources including Defense Mapping Agency digital data, imagery, and hard copy maps.  Outputs from this database are prepared for visual, infrared, or radar simulations.  This system will be able to produce a 500,000 square nautical mile mission area database within 48 hours of operational tasking.  This performance is made possible by a combination of state-of-the-art hardware for image and graphics processing, and specialized software tools for editing, merging, and quality control of the various data sources, and for production management.

The system is managed by a system supervisor software package, which tracks available data and job resources, and allocates jobs to the workstations.  An optimum schedule for processing is generated by use of a simulation model of the entire system which predicts performance based on job requirements, available resources including hardware, software, and personnel, and job execution times estimated from past performance.

A prototype workstation has been in operation at Hurlburt Field, Florida since February 1993 with the complete system delivered in the fall of 1994.

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DYNAMIC TERRAIN DATABASE DESIGN

FOR REAL TIME IMAGE GENERATION

Xin Li, Dale D. Miller, Mark Illing, Mark Kenworthy, and Mark Heinen

LORAL Advanced Distributed Simulation

Substantial interest in a Dynamic Terrain (DT) database has been expressed by users and developers of real time distributed simulation and training environments.  This capability allows the dynamic reconstruction of the landscape or rearrangement of the terrain surface during a simulation.  One of the most challenging issues for DT in distributed simulation is the tessellation and management of the terrain database with a desired resolution meeting the real-time requirements of polygon throughput, memory allotments and interface bandwidth of the image generator.

Our research work is the first attempt of developing such capability for SIMNET image generators and databases.  In this paper, the database partitioning strategies are proposed, which can be conceptually adopted by other image generators.  The dynamic soil model simulating excavating activities on the terrain surface is described.  The management of runtime terrain database and interface messages is presented.  Implementation issues on the image generator are also discussed.

INCREMENTAL REAL TIME DELAUNAY TRIANGULATION FOR TERRAIN SKIN GENERATION

Ravi Sundaram, Donald McArthur and Venkat Devarajan

University of Texas at Arlington

Several approaches exist in visual systems to create the terrain databases needed to simulate flight.  Terrain skin can be generated on-line by combining multiple levels of detail polygons, which were originally created off-line.  However, Delaunay triangulation to regenerate the terrain skin every frame time has some advantages like avoiding crack filler polygons which occur when adjacent regions are depicted in varying levels of detail.  In this paper, a feasibility study is reported of the use of Dealunay triangulation in real time to regenerate the display triangles as the eye point changes.  Bowyer's algorithm was used to insert new points and the Tantrum algorithm to delete points.  A generic terrain model was created using fractal methods and used as input to the simulation.  A time-line study using different data storage structures showed that the time taken to add a point varies when N is the number of vertices and, the time taken to remove a point is a constant independent of the size of the current triangulation.  Potential exists to reduce this to O (N log N).    ?????  This abstract needs symbols.

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NONINVASIVE MONITORING OF HELICOPTER PILOTS’ INSTRUMENT  SCAN PATTERNS IN A MOTION BASED SIMULATOR

P.W. Kerr, L.A. Temme, G.A. Ouellette, and D.L. Still

Naval Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, NAS Pensacola

The ability of a pilot to acquire and integrate information provided by the aircraft instrument console is one of the determinants of how well the aircraft is controlled.  Thus, one important area of instruction of novice pilots is the selection of which instruments to attend within a given flight context and how to coordinate the information available from several instruments.  However, evaluation of the effectiveness of a pilot's instrument scan is generally limited to whether he or she is able to perform a given flight maneuver successfully.  Diagnosis of ineffective instrument scans and specification of remedial training would be facilitated by the knowledge of which instruments are viewed during the course of the maneuver.  An eye-tracking device has been installed in a motion-based helicopter simulator at NAS Whiting Field to obtain information concerning pilot instrument scan.  This device provides a noninvasive on-line video record of where a pilot is looking on the instrument panel as he or she "flies" the simulator.  In addition, flight context variables, such as instrument readings, attitude of the craft, and pilot control inputs, are time-locked to the pilot's instrument scan data and digitally recorded.  A description of the noninvasiveness and accuracy of the system will be made, and pilots' and instructors' reactions to the system will be reported.  A brief video tape presentation will demonstrate the information provided by the system.  Plans for a connectionist modeling of the data will be described.  By monitoring a pilot's eye movements in the context of the flight demands, we believe we have developed a powerful and useful research platform to study an important characteristic of pilot competence.

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THE IMPACT OF CUE FIDELITY

ON PILOT BEHAVIOR AND PERFORMANCE

Alan D. White

FDS Department, Defence Research Agency

Bedford, United Kingdom

For almost as long as flight simulators have been used for pilot training, concerns have persisted that the difference in cueing environments between simulation and flight could compromise transfer of training, and therefore the training effectiveness, of synthetic devices.  If these differences are intrusive then confidence in the training value of these devices will suffer and, in extreme cases, pilots may actually experience discomfort or feel sick in a way which is unrepresentative of flight.  Reduced motion cues and restricted field of view are well-known differences from flight but the effects of simulator delays and harmonization between motion and visual cues are less well understood.  A knowledge of these effects is necessary if deficiencies are successfully to be countered using cue compensation techniques.  Such techniques potentially offer either improved training effectiveness through better use of available cues or cheaper training devices through less-stringent cue requirements.

This paper presents the results of a study to assess the effects of inadequate and poorly harmonized cues on pilot perception (handling qualities, workload and discomfort), pilot control behavior and task performance.  The study showed that a degraded cue environment, in the form of restricted or delayed motion and visual cues, always leads to increased workload and discomfort, modified pilot control behavior and degraded performance.  Adequate and well-harmonized cues have a major beneficial influence on pilot perception and performance, giving considerable scope for cue compensation techniques to make an impact on training effectiveness.

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FEEDING HUNGRY PROCESSORS:  REAL-TIME I/O DEMANDS OF

HIGH-PERFORMANCE MULTIPROCESSING COMPUTERS

Bruce H. Johnson

Silicon Graphics Computer Systems

It has been documented that microprocessor performance doubles about every 21 months.  Much is published and reported on the technology that delivers this impressive computing power.  Much less is said, however, about the unique Input/Output (I/O) demands that are presented when using these microprocessors in high-performance, real-time, multiprocessing environments.  Raw computing power is seldom questioned anymore.  Of more concern today is the ability of a computer system to deliver data to and from these high-performance processors.

For example, it is not difficult to select a computing engine that is capable of performing the computations necessary to drive a Full Flight Simulator (FFS) or a weapons Systems Trainer (WST).  It is, however, a significantly greater challenge to determine how the simulation I/O can be performed so as to eliminate bottlenecks and latencies.  The training value of a simulator can easily be lowered by the stepping or jumping of an instrument, visual system, or motion base that is due to the inability of the I/O to keep up with the processors.

This paper will explore some of the technology available that can be used to "feed" today's high-performance, real-time, multiprocessing systems.  Both advances in hardware and software will be discussed; advances that give developers the tools they need to deliver I/O to and from a simulator with determinism and realism.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TECHNICAL EXPECTATIONS  FOR A FULL SCALE DOMAIN ENGINEERING DEMONSTRATION PROJECT

Lynn D. Stuckey, Jr. and David C. Gross

Boeing Defense and Space Group

Greg D. Pryor

Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division

STARS (Software Technology for adaptable, Reliable systems) is a long-term ARPA project aimed at advancing the management, quality, adaptability, and reliability of DOD software intensive systems.  Over the years, the STARS project has gradually focused on enabling a paradigm shift of DOD software practices to megaprogramming.  The central megaprogramming concept is a process-driven, two-life-cycle approach to software development.  One life-cycle spans the creation and enrichment of an organization's capabilities for a family of related products, or domain engineering.  The other life-cycle spans the construction and delivery of individual products, or instances from the domain.  This approach may provide substantial opportunity for leveraged reuse; that is, planned use of adapted software components in multiple products.  Much of the effort to data has been for developing tools and processes that support megaprogramming.  The STARS project is now in a transition and demonstration phase.  One of the demonstration projects is in the domain of simulator-based training, specifically the United States Navy's domain of air Vehicle Training Systems.  If megaprogramming proves useful in this domain, it promises dramatic increases in productivity along with corresponding reductions in the cost of building simulations.

Previous experience reports have focused on pilot efforts in domain engineering for sub-domains of the Air Vehicle Training Systems (AVTS) domain such as environment and navigation simulation.  These pilot efforts have demonstrated that the processes and tools are sufficiently mature for full-scale domain engineering for AVTS–which the demonstration project is proceeding to do.  This paper summarizes the lessons learned from the pilot efforts and looks ahead to the technical challenges and opportunities we anticipate in the full-scale demonstration.  Expected technical challenges and opportunities include:

1)       Integrating many sub-domains

2)       Relation to non-domain engineered models

3)       Integrating dramatically larger staffs

4)       Relating to a real product acquisition project

5)       Controlling adaptation, and

6)       Leveraging extra-domain assets.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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THE MAPPING OF OBJECT-ORIENTED DESIGN TO ADA IMPLEMENTATION

John Glaize, Staff Scientist

CAE-Link Corporation

Object-oriented development (OOD) methodology is rapidly emerging as the technology of choice for producing maintainable and reusable software.  The Ada programming language was formulated to accomplish these same objectives.  Therefore it becomes critical to develop proper mappings for implementing the structures of OOD into the Ada language.  A "proper" mapping is one that exploits the inherent advantages of both OOD and Ada, preserves a natural and understandable correspondence between the design and the implementation phases of a project, and minimizes redesign and rework costs by easing the transition from design to implementation.  As companies seek to adopt OOD and Ada, there are usually significant costs associated with training the engineering staff to use these methodologies.  These costs and their attendant risks can be greatly ameliorated by choosing mappings that simplify and improve consistency between design and implementation.  This paper investigates mappings of such OOD concepts as classes, objects, generalization–specialization structures, whole-part structures, and object services (methods) to Ada 83 programming constructs.  Judicious application of these mappings can result in significant savings in training, development, maintenance, and reuse costs, and ease the transition to OOD and Ada.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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INTERFACES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT IN A LARGE ADA PROJECT

Walter E. Zink, Senior Systems Engineer

Richard E. Poupore, Systems Engineer

CAE-Link Corporation

The Department of Defense continues to require that Ada be the sole programming language for all new software related projects.  In addition, these new projects are expected to achieve higher levels of maintainability from a software perspective.  Ada and its related compilation/software engineering issues have given interfaces and their management a whole new perspective.  In today's environment of dwindling defense dollars, extensive rework during the development or maintenance phase of a project due to interface changes, is prohibitive.  Therefore, it is crucial to the success of large Ada projects to address interface issues from the highest perspective.  For example, in a simulation environment, as the real-world device changes, the simulator must remain concurrent to provide maximum training benefit.  These changes often result in changes to interfaces.  In order to keep pace with the development and subsequent upgrades, it is necessary to provide reliable, maintainable and flexible interface structures.  By combining a successful software architecture, a data base-driven interface management tool and auto-generated connection software, major interface updates can be made in a timely and efficient manner.  Experience has shown that with the proper interface design strategy, maximum cost savings can be realized over the entire life cycle of the simulator.  An approach to interfaces, their management and connection software is discussed.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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APPLICATION OF MULTI-MEDIA TECHNOLOGY TO TRAINING FOR KNOWLEDGE-RICH SYSTEMS

Janis A. Cannon-Bowers and Eduardo Salas

Naval Air Warfare Center

Phillip Duncan

Search Technology

Captain E.J. Halley, Jr.

United States Navy, OPNAV N912

Tactical decision making (TDM) can be defined as a process whereby an individual must gather, process, integrate and assimilate information in order to choose or develop a course of action that will lead to attainment of tactical goals.  In order to support this process, tactical knowledge must be cognitively accessible to tactical decision-makers so that they are able to recall and apply it in crucial situations.  At present, the bulk of tactical knowledge is presented initially to surface warfare tactical decision-makers in print format (e.g., tactical notes, and other publications).  However, recent research into decision making in complex environments has shed light on the manner in which expert decision makers use knowledge in support of a decision, suggesting alternative strategies for presenting tactical knowledge in the learning process so that it is easier for tactical decision makers to remember and apply in required situations.

The purpose of this paper is to address the issue of how tactical knowledge can be presented to tactical decision makers so as to improve its retainability and usability in crucial decision making situations.  To accomplish this goal, several activities were completed:

1)       Leveraging the work conducted under Tactical Decision Making Under Stress (TADMUS) project, a description of manner in which expert tactical decision makers employ knowledge in crucial decision making situations was formulated.

2)       Using this information, conclusions regarding the manner in which tactical knowledge must be initially presented to decision-makers were drawn.

3)       Based on the first two activities, a description of an automated system for presenting tactical knowledge that increases its retainability and accessibility in crucial decision making situations was formulated.

The results of these activities are documented in this paper.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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TRAINING EXERCISE PLANNING:  

LEVERAGING TECHNOLOGIES AND DATA

Dr. Mona Crissey, Major George Stone and Captain David Briggs

Simulation, Training and Instrumentation Command

Dr. Mansooreh Mollaghasemi

University of Central Florida

Recognizing that future battlefield training and preparation for "other than war" missions will rely more and more on simulators and simulations, unit commanders must incorporate new ways to efficiently use their limited resources to develop effective training plans.  Currently, commanders spend hours referring to training and field manuals, training records, unit standard operating procedures and directives to develop how best to train under resource-declining conditions and limited training opportunities.  Innovative methodologies must be applied to the planning process to match essential task lists against proper training resources.  Also, assessments of previous training events must be fully integrated into the planning process to ensure a unit learns, and returns to train at a higher state of readiness.  This paper describes a technology demonstration program being developed by Simulation, Training and Instrumentation Command (STRICOM) called Combined Arms Tactical Trainer Training Exercise Development System (CATT TREDS).  The system will provide unit commanders with an intelligent decision support tool to save planning time, enhance unit training options, and automatically apply after-action review feedback in a process applicable to planing maneuver, combat support, and combat service support training, as well as, military operations other than was exercises.  Some state-of-the-art technologies such as expert systems, multi-criteria decision-making, voice recognition, and neural networks have been investigated for their use, adaptability, and applicability for the tool.  Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) software packages with capabilities to link applications in an object-oriented, intuitively user-friendly manner have been evaluated.  Leveraging capabilities inherent in these technologies, software packages, and previously developed databases shows great promise for development of a tool allowing unit commanders to optimize training exercise planning time.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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AUTOMATED EXERCISE PREPARATION AND DISTRIBUTION

FOR LARGE SCALE DIS EXERCISES

Barbara J. Pemberton and Douglas J. Classe

Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division

Charles W. Bradley and Mike Wilson

Hughes Surface Ship Division

New automated approaches for preparation and electronic distribution of large scale Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) exercises are required to accommodate the increasing number of DIS exercises and geographically dispersed exercise participants.

This paper describes two prototype tools -- 1) automated DIS exercise preparation tool, and 2) an automated electronic distribution tool.  The preparation tool uses an expert system to reduce the time to prepare large-scale DIS exercises from weeks/months to minutes/days.  The electronic distribution tool demonstrates a first implementation of the DIS "Set Data" protocol data unit (PDU) for electronic exercise initialization.

Three viewpoints of the automated tools are combined in this paper: 1) Government–requirement statement and DIS implementation, 2) contractor–systems analysis and expert system implementation, and 3) military–ease of use, validation.

Future direction and joint applications of the automated DIS tools are also presented.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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APPLYING ARTIFICIAL NEUTRAL NETWORKS TO GENERATE RADAR SIMULATION DATA BASES

Harry H. Heaton, III

Science Applications International Corporation

Modern combat aircraft sensor systems such as synthetic aperture radar (SAR) produce highly detailed information rich displays.  The simulation of such displays for training has demanded ever-increasing computational resources as well as data sources more detailed than normally available digital feature analysis data (DFAD).  By focusing on the correct reproduction of the content of a radar display rather than on a detailed model of radar physics, a novel Digital Radar Land Mass Simulator (DRAMS) for training is briefly described.  A prototype of the system reproduces realistic real-beam, Doppler beam sharpened (DBS), and SAR ground maps from readily available data sources.

This radar simulation technique depends upon highly detailed, modified phototexture databases that contain both dimensional and effective radar cross-section information for broad area clutter and specific radar targets.  This paper discusses the application of artificial neural networks in generating such databases from readily available data sources including Project 2851 and commercial satellite data.  The issues, differences and solution approaches necessary to generate databases from such disparate sources as overhead imagery, DFAD feature data and existing simulator visual system databases are examined.

The techniques discussed have broad applications to the low-cost simulation of imaging sensor displays including millimeter microwave (MMW) and forward looking infrared (FLIR).  The approach also drastically reduces the computational needs for a DRLMS system.  The prototype, capable of generating SAR maps, was hosted on a single Motorola 68040 processor in a Macintosh personal computer.  A simulation of the APG-68 radar, including real beam, expanded and DBS modes, is targeted to run in real time on a single MIPS R-4400 microprocessor.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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RAPID SIMULATION DATABASE BUILD USING HARDCOPY INPUT

Edward W. Quinn and Gregory S. De Lozler

Cartographic Systems Engineering, Loral Defense Systems

 This paper describes the result of a research and development effort focused on developing technologies supporting rapid extraction of simulation databases.  The specific goal of the project during this period of time was to significantly reduce the time required to extract features (roads, contours, streams, etc.) from graphic hardcopy sources (i.e., maps and charts).

This problem is significant to overall database construction cost and timelines.  Currently, attempts are being made to use large maps, scanners, and commercial vectorization software to improve extraction efficiency.  Unfortunately, the result of the use of only color or intensity to separate objects is that substantial interactive editing of the final product is necessary.  This restricts the use of maps as an effective information source.

A new process was defined as a result of this task.  It represents an integration of insights gained through the technologies of image processing, pattern recognition and neural network based learning.  It represents two kinds of improvement: 

1)       A reduction in setup time (the operator need only identify typical objects, not define a complete color lookup table, and

2)       Reduction in interactive editing (by on the order of 90%) due to the higher quality of the output.

Examples are presented of images that illustrate the new process.  They show the very significant capability that has resulted.  In addition, possibilities for extension of the process to multi-spectral image data are defined.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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SMART JARMS­–COMPUTATIONAL INTELLIGENCE IN SIMULATION

Debbie Berry, Shelia Burgess, Steve Manzi

Martin Marietta Information Systems Company, Flight Systems Group

The ability to simulate Electronic Combat (EC) is a vital part of networked virtual reality simulation.  At Kirtland Air Force Base in Albuquerque, New Mexico, the 542^nd Combat Crew Training Wing utilizes this capability to support Special Operations Forces mission rehearsal and training.  Importance to National Command Authorities of successful missions rehearsed at this facility cannot be overstated.  Therefore, the highest level of fidelity to the real world must be achieved during simulation.

Pursuing an upgrade to the EC simulation as proposed herein would enhance overall mission rehearsal capability.  EC simulation consists of software developed in the late 1970s rehosted on modern hardware.  Although adequate, improvements are possible.  This study examines the EC simulation to determine where computational intelligence techniques can be applied to provide an improved solution.

The purpose of this study is to investigate two Computational Intelligence (CI) candidates for replacement of the Offensive Tactics Simulation.  The two techniques employed are Fuzzy Systems (FSs) and Neural Networks (NNs).  FSs are knowledge based systems that allow subjective manipulation of inexact concepts.  NNs are an idealization of the interconnections and functions of a nervous system which mimic the brain's learning and thought processes.  Initial modeling of both techniques is performed and the results are reported.  Implementation of either system could potentially yield performance improvements.

Overviews of real world weapon systems and the current EC simulation are provided.  Then, the approach used to develop CI solutions is defined.  The FS and NN solutions are examined along with implementation considerations, empirical results, and conclusions.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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OPERATIONAL PROTOTYPE FOR AN INSTRUCTOR/OPERATOR STATION

Dick Fulton and Ankur Hajare

Enhanced Technologies

Tom Diegelman

NASA Johnson Space Center

Dave Webster

CAE-Link Corporation

This paper describes the implementation process for technology insertion into a real-time, human-in-the-loop, flight simulator of the Space Shuttle used for astronaut training.  The Instructor/Operator Station (IOS) is a twelve-year-old, highly tailored substation that was not designed to easily accommodate changes in hardware and software technology.  Since the Shuttle program is anticipated to run another 15 years, the objectives of the project were to identify and evaluate commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) hardware and software that meet defined requirements for the upgrade of the IOS in the training facility.  The rationale for conducting the prototype was to find the best possible way to upgrade the IOS and minimize the life cycle costs for continuing operations.  The paper illustrates the prototype architecture that was successfully used to establish the confidence of NASA management in the concept and to refine the technical requirements for the IOS upgrade.  The paper also discusses the lessons learned in implementing an operational prototype in a complex real-time simulator as well as the plans for the future of the IOS.

This paper is available on the I/ITSEC Compendium CD-ROM.

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