I/ITSEC 1995
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Training, Development and Delivery
Distributed Professional Education And The Internet
Architectural Analysis Of Distributed Multimedia Training Libraries For Home-Based Users
Distributed Curriculum Development Environments Techniques And Tools
After Action Review And Debriefing Methods Technique And Technology
Enhancing Team Performance In Tactical Environments: The Team Model Trainer
Team Performance Measurement Issues In DIS-Based Training Environments
Technical Issues In Accessing IETM Data For CBT Application Development
Instructor Training Using Embedded Training Courseware (ETC)
Advances In Automated Authoring: Linking Technical Data With Computer-Based Training Courseware
Implementation And Evaluation Of A Classroom Multimedia Presentation System
Integration Of Today's Interactive Television & DIS Into Tomorrow's Educational Solutions
The New Media - Interactive 3D
Mission Adaptable Learning system (MAPL) For Out Of Area Missions
Training System Design For The Crusader
Guidelines For Facilitating Shipboard Team Training
Education, Instruction, and Training Methodology
Training For Performance Under Stress: Degradation, Recovery, And Transfer
Team Performance In Multi-Service Distributed Interactive Simulation Exercises: Initial Results
Team Performance Measurement Issues In DIS-Based Training Environments
Breaking The Paper Paridigm: A Revolution In Professional Military Education
Joint Network Simulations
A Revolution In Professional Military Education
Multi-Media: A Journey From The Presentation Platforms Of Tomorrow
Synthetic Environment For Education: Vision For The Future
Evaluation Of CBT Programs In The German Armed Forces
Application Of The Systems Engineering Approach To Training System Acquisition And Development:
Tailoring Training Analysis For Foreign Military Sales
Simulation and Training Systems
Plowshares: Emergency Management Training With A Military Constructive Simulation
ADAMS: An Advanced Driving and Maneuvering Simulator For A Variety Of Training Needs
Challenges In Air Traffic Control Simulation
A Low-Cost Solution To Simulated Ground-Based Radar Systems
An Algorithm For Transforming Planned View Visual
PC-Based Electronic Combat Simulators
COTS Integration In Software Solutions - A Cost Model
Frameworks - COTS Integration Through Encapsulation
Instructors And Graphical User Interfaces
ASTUTE: An Architecture For Intelligent Tutor Development
Scaleable Simulation Technology - Approach To High-Fidelity Simulator Training At Lower Cost
The Synergism Of USAREUR's Total Training System
Accessing Threat Data And Simulation Software For Training Simulators
Simulation-Based Mission Rehearsal As A Human Activity System
Modeling and Simulation
Using DoD Databases For Automatic Emissions Protocol Data Unit Generation And Modeling
Implementing Electronic Warfare Simulation On The DIS Network
Air Synthetic Force Development
Implementing Synthetic Forces Software On Massively Parallel Processors
TMD Support To The Warfighter Using Modeling And Simulation
Conserving Network Bandwidth: Investigating An Alternate Approach To Laser Designation In DIS
Data Modeling as a Tool to Understanding Simulator Data Requirements
Genetic Algorithms Based Scenario Generation For Networked Simulations
Internet Multicast Over Asynchronous Transfer Mode for Modeling and Simulation
Interoperability Issues Associated With The Use Of Dissimilar Simulators
A Legacy Model For Tomorrow's Training
The Conflict Between Heterogeneous Simulations And Interoperability
Real-Time Communications Network Simulator For Training
DIS Compatible Mission Planning For Improved Rehearsal & Training Effectiveness
Lessons Learned In Building An Ads Infrastructure
Anti Armor Advanced Technology Demonstration (A2ATD) Experiment 1
DIS Logger Interchange Format (DLIF-95) Draft Standard
Case Tools As An Aid To Training SystemVerification And Validation
Effect Of High Resolution Atmospheric Models On Wargame Simulations
A Server To Provide The State Of The Atmosphere To Distributed Interactive Simulations
Research & Development Technology Application
Enhancing DIS to Support the Million Player Scenario
PISCES - Precision Integrated Strike Concept Evaluation Suite
Speech Recognition As An Interface For CBT
Real Time Noise Tolerant Speech Recognition
Memory Architectures For Real-Time Computing
Cue-Synchronization Measurement Using The Piloted Frequency Sweep Technique
The Use of Head Tracking Technology in Armored Vehicle Simulation
Monitor-Based, Non-Collimated CPH Display For CCTT Tank Trainers
Physics-Based Environmental And Embedded Process Models For Virtual Simulations
Geo-Specific Weather-Dependent Diurnal Infrared Image Simulation
Human Factors Evaluation Of Helmet Mounted Displays For Training Applications
Policy and Management
A Comparative Analysis Of ISD/SAT Process Models
Standardization Of Automated Support For ISD And Requirements
Training Systems Requirements Analysis And Planning A Space Systems Perspective
Re-Thinking How We Develop Leaders: A Process Approach To Leadership Development
True Confessions Of A Process Action Team
Applying Manprint To A New Training Simulation System
Implications of Megaprogramming for the Training Systems Community
COTS Integration and Support Model
Simulation Interoperability in NATO; Trends and Future Opportunities
Total Training Concept: A Comprehensive Design For Aircrew Training Systems
Aircrew Training System Life Cycle Cost Model
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Traditional education and training programs distribute knowledge in a format that is convenient for the organizers, expecting the students to form his/her life to that mold. This paradigm works well for young adults who can commit themselves to a university environment without having to pursue a career simultaneously, or for large, well funded organizations who can release their people from projects and send them to conferences. Some adjustments have been made to this model in recent years, but this still does not provide the extended access needed to serve the millions of people who could continue their education within a less restrictive structure. The explosion of the Internet in recent years has created an environment for delivering information and education that has not existed before. As more and more people are connected to this global nervous system, the natural question will be "What is on in cyberspace?"; The exchange of mail, news, software, and games is one answer, but there is also an unparalleled opportunity to create educational events with global access. These would not require physical presence at the event as is necessary today, which has serious implications for those who are physically disabled, visually or auditorially impaired, or learning disabled. This paper will explore the power of Internet-based, professional education. It will describe how Internet conferences are being conducted in the simulation field today through the ELECSIM Conference Series. These have allowed hundreds of people throughout the world to access and discuss the most current topics in simulation without the burden of work interruption, expenses, and the practical limitations of travel. All information is available using common Internet tools like E-Mail, World Wide Web (WWW), and File Transfer Protocol (FTP). Finally, the paper will discuss future plans for these types of conferences and consider some of the long-range implications to professional development and economic expansion.
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Research concerning the use of multimedia training modules in a distributed environment generally assumes a large amount of bandwidth is available for transporting data. This paper, based on observations from the Distributed Digital Library System for Training Materials (DDLSTM) project funded by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) and the United States Army National Guard (ANG) in conjunction with the Simulation in Training for Advanced Readiness (SIMITAR) project, addresses technical challenges associated with providing average users with on demand; access to multimedia training materials, regardless of user location. Typical users will employ modems to retrieve training materials, either in batch mode, or interactively. Based on the mode of retrieval, specific time and resource constraints are engendered. These constraints, in conjunction with the data throughput characteristics of a modem-accessible network, determine what types of multimedia data a dial-in user can reasonably retrieve from a remote library. Based on this analysis, a hybrid architecture, combining both remote and local multimedia data, is presented as a training delivery solution for the average user that can work in today's distributed environment. Training materials are composed of different multimedia data types. Those data types whose typical size exceeds reasonable data throughput rates can be stored separately from the other data types locally on CD-ROM. Users may choose either to view these large data items using CD-ROM capability, or bypass the large data items. Using this hybrid approach, distributed multimedia training libraries can achieve the maximum level of accessibility for all users, while still providing full multimedia training for those who possess CD-ROM access.
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Current off-the-shelf software tools for development of World Wide Web hypertext markup language (HTML) offer an environment to develop both static and interactive training and educational tools for distributed use. The combination of these low cost tools with a robust interactive environment such as the World Wide Web provides a medium for the development, maintenance and delivery of dynamic lesson plans and training aids. The widespread availability of World Wide Web browsers, typically written for the Windows or Mac-based graphical user interfaces, provides a training medium that requires little learning time and consistency across the personal computing industry. The integration of text, sound and graphics into lesson plans offers a standard delivery mechanism across platforms. As the computer industry develops more robust HTML additions, this environment will offer greater capabilities in the future at a very low cost. Developing training plans for joint use by ROTC and Maritime Academies has already begun on an informal basis. Existing college and university access to the Internet means that courses may be developed and viewed on existing hardware, requiring only the addition of a WWW server as a common network location. Internet access allows these training plans to include sources of material beyond the capability of a single command to provide. Development procedures aside, this environment also enables nearly instantaneous user feedback to developers via email. Network based curriculum development will facilitate adoption of resources such as the Internet and world wide Web, as well as provide a medium for remote collaboration. On a very basic level, a file may be created and updated by instructors from remote locations by uploading and downloading via Internet FTP. For a more rigorous control over HTML files, groupware can be implement over a TCP/IP network. Furthermore, real-time collaboration is possible via remote application sharing software such as Intel's ProShare. Each of these technologies builds on the others, and are based on industry standard applications. This will assure longevity and low cost as such a development and training system is developed and expanded in the future.
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State-of-the art, well-crafted After Action Reviews (AARs) can increase unit learning and aid in speedy, but comprehensive, exercise evaluation. AARs can be powerful training tools that can visually document performance improvements and help develop strategic learning. Improved techniques and advanced technological features can increase AAR effectiveness. Technology now exists to allow chronological analysis of simulation-based training events, enabling review of exercises from both friendly and opposing-side perspective; and take-home packages; that allow analysis of results when the unit returns home. Research demonstrates that improved AAR procedures can be more effective than traditional approaches. Today, with a choice of AAR methods and available technologies, unit commanders can select the most appropriate for the situation and desired outcome. For example, essential training points can be captured by taking advantage of current AAR systems. Also, reports can be developed for both the immediate review situation and for take-home package replays. This paper presents recommended AAR procedures based on research, current automation capabilities, and compares selected AAR systems and their technological features that could help commanders gain maximum performance improvement from each training exercise.
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In order to solve complex decision problems, a ship's Combat Information Center (CIC) team members must develop the ability to manage information flow among themselves. This paper describes research conducted using a Multimedia training simulation, called the Team Model Trainer (TMT), that was designed to enhance knowledge of communication flow. Observations of and interviews with CIC training teams resulted in a description of team knowledge structures. Details about information flow regarding who says what, to whom, and when it is said were developed. This team knowledge structure, or mental model, became the training goal for individuals learning with the TMT. The TMT is a PC-based training device that employs an audio simulation of team member communications and a visual simulation of scenarios designed to shape the mental model of team role structures. Findings based on participation by Navy personnel suggest that TMT not only improves individual knowledge about other team member roles, but also improves team performance. Recommendations for application and future research include: a) providing opportunities to practice team communications, b) providing immediate feedback on performance, c) using a standalone PC-based system in conjunction with other team training, and d) developing strategies for measuring team mental models of complex knowledge structures.
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Daniel J. Dwyer, Ruth P. Willis, &; Randall Oser Realizing the considerable training potential of Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) technology will require training and performance evaluation methodologies. The objective of this paper is to identify key performance measurement issues in DIS-based training environments. The major premise is that, in DIS-based training systems, problems precluding reliable measurement are likely to be aggravated over those encountered in conventional simulation, presenting unusually complex measurement challenges. As a way to describe the inherent problems, a framework is described which a) identifies those factors which adversely affect measurement and feedback in conventional simulators, and b) describes how those factors tend to have greater impact in DIS environments. The identification of these issues is based on consideration of factors known to affect measurement in operational or simulated operational settings. They encompass task sampling, measurement procedures and the nature of trainee differences. Each of the factors is discussed and recommendations are provided for the reduction of their impact.
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Interactive Electronic Technical Manuals (IETM's) are replacing cumbersome paper-based Technical Orders (TO's) for many job classifications. The text and technical drawings which comprise the TO's are being stored digitally using the Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML) so that they can be accessed and formatted for on-demand printing and use by Employee Performance Support Systems (EPSS) such as the Integrated Maintenance Information System (IMIS). However, we believe these technical data may have equal value as instructional resource. SGML uses a variety of special tags to specify the various component elements of a TO such as preconditions, cautions, explanations and graphics. The structure of each IETM provides a guide for instructional sequencing of steps and substeps. Working with the Armstrong Laboratory, we have successfully extracted data from an F16 IETM using a prototype parser which examines the tags in the SGML documents to identify and sequence instructionally relevant materials, then formats them as a training database. It should be possible to extend this methodology to IETM databases for other weapons systems by examining the SGML Document Type Definition (DTD) files to determine the differences in tagging conventions, then adapting the parser to extract data for use by both automated and conventional instructional development systems. However, to fully realize this training vision, work should continue 1) to identify browsing and indexing mechanisms which can help instructional developers and subject matter experts find relevant TO's in the vast IETM databases; 2) to determine additional media types which might be added to the IETM databases for instructional uses; and 3) to examine ways to create permanent links to the IETM data and distribute the resultant training using a data network such as the Internet.
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Gerald St. George The Seawolf Ship Control Operator Trainer (SCOT) uses Embedded Training Courseware (ETC) as the primary method to train and familiarize instructors with the trainer's operational and instructional capabilities. The ETC consists of a series of self-paced interactive, computer-controlled, branched tutorial lessons arrayed on two separate levels of instruction according to complexity and dynamics. The level 1 lessons include instructor tasks, familiarization, and power-up/power-down procedures. The level 2 ETC lessons include interactive practice at the Instructor Operator Station (IOS) in a real time environment in developing, setting-up and conducting an exercise as well as measuring individual progress. This paper examines how the Seawolf SCOT ETC provides an effective self-paced training and practice environment for instructors to develop individual skills related to conducting training exercises.
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Capt. Paul K. Daly, USAF This paper describes the concept of linking automated authoring tools such as the eXperimental Advanced Instructional Design Advisor (XAIDA) with electronic technical data. The ultimate goal of the research is to significantly reduce, as much as possible, the need for human intervention in the creation of computer-based training courseware. Weapon system developers are required to provide DOD agencies with technical information about systems they develop. System developers routinely conduct costly analyses which result in voluminous data such as task analyses, technical manuals, graphics art, and other documentation that could be used for training. Recently, DOD specified that data be delivered in electronic format sometimes called Interactive Electronic Technical Manuals (IETMs). Later in a system life-cycle when training courseware is developed, paper documents derived from the IETMs are frequently used as a basis for creating computer-based training courseware -- also in electronic format. By utilizing the IETM data originally created by the weapon system developer several benefits can accrue to DOD. They can: 1) achieve true concurrency in training by establishing a dynamic link between weapon system documentation and the training that supports it; 2) reduce or eliminate the need for paper-based documentation of the training development process as specified by ISD; 3) simplify the long logistics trail following the acquisition of weapon systems; 4) streamline the ISD process; and 5) save costs as a result of the decreased amount of time and manpower needed to create and maintain the courseware and audit trail of support documentation required for weapon system training programs.
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Multimedia has charged onto the scene. Companies throughout the nation are putting a wide variety of subject matter onto CD ROM for use on home computers. Learners are beginning to expect fairly high levels of media sophistication in all aspects of learning whether individual CBT or in more exciting and visually stimulating classroom presentations. This paper discusses the evolution of a multimedia classroom upgrade for academic classes taught to Specialized Undergraduate Pilot Training (SUPT) students in the Air Education and Training Command. The paper outlines the development of presentation requirements, constraints and product options. It also describes multimedia presentation development. The paper will also describe results obtained in both quantitative and qualitative reviews of the first fielded courseware. Beginning in January 1995, a comparison was begun to measure the effectiveness of the newly installed multimedia presentation systems and the accompanying courseware. Quantitative evaluation included quizzes and end-of-course examinations administered to student pilots at 3 different SUPT bases. Quizzes were given to students taking a T-37 Systems Course. Quizzes were administered to the last class to use the older version of the courseware as well as the multimedia version. The same groups final exams were also examined. The qualitative portion of the study included interviews with students and instructors involved with the multimedia version of the course. These interviews focused on issues such as the motivating aspects of the courseware and lesson aesthetics. Quantitative analysis showed no statistically significant difference in student test-score performance. Qualitative analysis showed considerable satisfaction with the courseware ability to show complex concepts, keep student attention and the presentation system's ease of use.
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Johnny Greene / Time Warner Cable
Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) Synthesis with Interactive Television (DISSIT) is a technological quantum leap made possible by
combining two existing network technologies. DISSIT is an entirely new and innovative method for harnessing the power of video compression (i.e.,
MPEG/JPEG), DIS, and network systems to deliver high quality simulations to homes, schools and military personnel. The key concept to emphasize is that the
DISSIT system allows EXISTING Simulations and Computer Applications (military and commercial) to be utilized across EXISTING communication networks
including the prototype Interactive Television (ITV) systems. This concept leverages already spent dollars to be reused to a larger, wider, more diverse
consumer base and provide a new foundation for future Training Development and Delivery paradigms. The expansion of DIS in this fashion will allow enhanced
distance learning including hands-on user interaction and remote simulator training. Further, this use of DIS compliant simulators fulfills the promise of
distance learning by providing a cooperative interactive environment that enables large numbers of participants to team train or interact together. The
objective of this research was to demonstrate a synthesis of the DIS &; ITV network technologies. The case for DISSIT is supported by theoretical
calculations, The implementations presented in this paper include a low-cost PC / MPEG solution and an innovative method DIS Stealth Visual Solution. Both methods enable existing analog cable, telephone, and satellite links to be utilized. Future implementations will run over Time Warner Cable's Full Service Network (TWC-FSN) and be included as one of the new technologies being tested by TWC-FSN. Application of DISSIT to Multi-Channel, Virtual Reality, World-Wide Distribution and Tele-presence issues are demonstrated, plus the actual design and implementation details. Discussion of the key software concepts and structures of the MPEG Virtual Disc, and Server-Pass-Through-Commands are presented along with design calculations. The results of the pilot implementations are given with discussion to improve performance in future versions. Future Research and Applications for Military, Civilian, and Education are discussed in the context of Training Development and Delivery including: _ Automatic integration with Real-World Data via the DIS Interactive Playback Unit _ Revolution of simulation architecture and paradigm, using Interactive Television Networks to allow low cost mass produced simulators. (The local simulator requirements become the I/O system, and TVs for the visual displays, with the expensive computational and image generation systems being shared across the ITV network)
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3D media has emerged as a powerful capability for interactive courseware (ICW) development. Since the late 1970s, proven multimedia products for use in ICW programs have included full-motion and still-frame video, film, photographs and slides, 2D graphics and animation, audio, and text. The new media consists of real-time graphics and interactive 3D modeling. Instructional content is often best conveyed and illustrated in three dimensions of space. Interactive 3D graphics and animation allow a designer to develop visual simulations and dynamic scenarios that enhance the student's conceptual understanding, resulting in faster knowledge acquisition. Instructional content areas in which the new media is an appropriate choice for presentation of visuals include electronic warfare concepts such as target angle aspect effects, countermeasure techniques, antenna beam-forming methods, integrated air defense operations, terrain masking, and coordinated air combat tactics methods for suppression of enemy air defenses. This paper describes the new media and addresses the appropriateness of using it in ICW programs. Information on the hardware and software systems commonly used to develop and deliver the new media is provided. Because the process of designing and developing the new media for ICW is unique, the paper focuses on the specific tasks performed, the personnel required to produce 3D media, the ICW products produced at each phase of the process, and the amount of time required to develop various types of 3D graphics. The paper summarizes the advantages of using the new media in terms of instructional effectiveness and software reusability.
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Lt. Colonel Albert Wimmel
Senior Engineer Gustav Schulz For the participation of the German Armed Forces in out of area missions the contingents have to be prepared for the mission area before being deployed. After the political decision has been taken the necessary training has to be accomplished in a very short period of time. The fact that in many cases we do not know the mission area in advance because of the increasing number of crisis areas in the world makes matters more complex. On the other hand, training quality will be affected if training media are not provided and the relevant data on the mission area are not available. The solution being considered in the described study is a Mission Adaptable L earning System (MAPL); consisting of a central database providing all information on the probable mission areas including text, graphics, pictures, video spots combined with a multi-media system designed to be fed with a mission relevant subset of the central database, a CBT-software designed to present different subsets of the central database to the learners in the same efficient way and an easy way to handle systems to distribute mission relevant subsets of the central database to the troops assigned to take part in a mission.
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Traci Jones, Systems Engineer Training system design for major weapons historically began with a mature weapons system design, having been overlooked during the critical design and development phases. The Crusader program will reshape the Army's training system design paradigm through concurrent development of training. The Crusader program will field the cornerstone 21st century cannon artillery and artillery resupply systems, the Crusader Self Propelled Howitzer (SPH) and the Crusader Resupply Vehicle (RSV). In order to meet the requirements of the United States Field Artillery School, the Crusader prime contractor must consider technologies such as Embedded Training, Distributed Interactive Simulation, and Tactical Engagement Simulation during the early phases of weapons system development. The Crusader materiel developer must make decisions regarding training and the allocation of training tasks to various training media early in the acquisition process, prior to Crusader design freeze. The Crusader training program will examine training needs with early soldier-in-the-loop simulators and will leverage concepts from these simulators into the emerging training system design. This paper examines the goals, philosophies, and challenges faced by the Army as it develops a total training system for Crusader.
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Tactical decision-making teams in the modern warfare environment are faced with situations characterized by rapidly unfolding events, multiple plausible hypotheses, high information ambiguity, severe time pressure, and severe consequences for errors. In order to adapt to these stressors, team members must learn to coordinate their actions so that they can gather, process, integrate, and communicate information in a timely and effective manner. A key factor toward ensuring a team's success in a cognitively complex and stressful task environment is training that incorporates explanation, demonstration, practice, dialogue and feedback. However, evaluating teamwork skills, and providing meaningful performance feedback is a complex and demanding task for combat systems'; trainers. In support of facilitating real-time shipboard team training assessment and feedback, the Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division developed the On-line Anti-Air Warfare Team Observation measure (ATOM) and Debriefing Guide. These performance measurement tools facilitate the capture of on-line performance measures, and provide diagnostic feedback to a team. Both instruments were tested in conjunction with the Battle Force Tactical Training developmental test on-board an AEGIS capable ship in October 1994. The On-line ATOM was used to assess team processes with respect to each scenario, and shipboard trainers used the Debriefing Guide to provide feedback to the team within 15 minutes following each scenario. Trends during the DT-IIA training period showed an improvement in the team's teamwork skills. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to provide guidelines for facilitating shipboard team training. Guidelines will include (a) designing trigger event-based training scenarios, (b) developing measures of team performance, (c) designing a performance feedback system, and (d) developing training for assessing and providing feedback to facilitate teamwork skills.
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The effects of stress on performance have been documented in the literature for years. Typically, the research finds that performance degradation can be expected to occur when stressors are suddenly encountered during task performance. In operational environments, the consequences can be severe. The purpose of this paper is to present the results of an experiment which examined (1) the extent to which introducing stressors during skill acquisition affected performance on a simulated radar task; (2) if, and how rapidly performance recovery would occur; and (3) whether the recovery would continue when a novel stressor was later encountered. The data clearly demonstrated significant performance deterioration as a function of stressor presence. However, the results also indicated that participants adapted to the stressors as evidenced by rapid recovery. Finally, the data suggested that performance recovery did not continue when a previously experienced stressor was replaced with a novel one. It appears that the adaptability and recovery were stressor-specific and not generalizable to other stressors.
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Jennifer E. Fowlkes Desert Storm has clearly demonstrated the growing reliance on geographically separated, multi-service teams who are called upon to execute specific missions. Future conflicts can similarly be expected to require close coordination between teams from different services. Fortunately, advances in distributed interactive simulation (DIS) technology are paving the way for members of different commands and different services to simultaneously come together to fight a simulated war on a synthetic battlefield. While advancements in simulation and networking technologies hold great promise for training applications, little is known about how multi-service teams perform in a DIS environment. The Multi-Service Distributed Training Testbed (MDT2) was recently used in one of the first tryouts of DIS technology for training personnel from all services in multi-service Close Air Support (CAS). The MDT2 exercises represented a unique opportunity to systematically collect multi-service team performance data in a DIS training environment. The team performance data were collected during a 4-day series of exercises conducted in May 1994 and from a 5-day series of exercises conducted in February 1995. This paper describes one of the techniques used for the team performance measurement, presents trends in the data, delineates the lessons learned, and provides recommendations for evaluating team performance and mission effectiveness in DIS training environments.
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K. Paul Nesselroade, Jr. and James Anthony With a smaller U.S. Army active force, the readiness of Army National Guard and Reserve units has greater importance. To support needed training, Congress funded a Virtual Training Program (VTP) for Reserve Component units using simulator facilities available at Fort Knox, KY, including the Simulation Networking (SIMNET) system. This research examined the effectiveness of the VTP during initial developmental trials with SIMNET exercises to validate the training approach adopted in the program. The program design established a structured framework for training across a sequence of exercises and for the training process within exercises. The SIMNET VTP includes about 100 exercises (called tables) that provide practice on tasks critical to performing fundamental tactical operations, and to offensive and defensive missions. Subgroups of tables deliver intensive training for specific types of platoon, company, or battalion-sized units in a two-day weekend drill period. The training is guided by highly trained observer/controllers (O/Cs) who conduct the SIMNET exercises and lead after-action reviews with the participants. During table execution, the O/Cs follow detailed event guides to ensure that conditions requiring performance of specific planned tasks occur during each table exercise. More than 75% of the National Guard and Reserve units in the VTP trials completed 4-6 SIMNET tables in a two-day training period. Measures obtained from trained observers, VTP O/Cs, and VTP participants were used as training effectiveness indicators. Observers recorded the: (a) time taken to complete a table, (b) unit tactical errors, and (c) coaching provided by the O/Cs. The O/Cs rated unit performance in each table, identifying subtasks that the units performed adequately, and subtasks needing improvement. Soldiers serving in leadership positions with the participating units estimated their unit's proficiency before and after training on a seven-point scale. Results from all of these indicators provided convergent evidence for training effectiveness.
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LTC Michael Tucker, USA
Lt. Col. (Select) Woody Wilson, USAF It was during the fiscal year 1993 the Air Command and Staff College (ACSC) undertook the most significant change in its approach to military education since the school's inception. In a total departure from the military norm, the school moved from a traditional lecture-based, passive learning environment to a demanding state-of-the-art computer-based curriculum, supported by world-class hyper-information systems. This architecture allows the student to access the multitude of information superhighway products both internal to the Air University (AU) and national on-line systems. Moving beyond the 600 student residence program, these systems are rapidly revolutionizing our Distance Learning effort supporting over 6,000 students. This exciting thrust includes three major prongs: multimedia hyperlinked curriculum on CD-ROMs, on-line cyber seminars, and video-teleconferencing to complete the student/faculty interaction.
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LTC Michael Tucker, USA
Lt. Col. (Select) Woody Wilson, USAF, Chief, Distance Learning Technologies
It was during the fiscal year 1993 the Air Command and Staff College (ACSC) undertook the most significant change in its approach to
military education since the school's inception. In a total departure from the military norm, the school moved from a traditional lecture-based, passive
learning environment to a demanding state-of-the-art computer-based curriculum, supported by world-class hyper-information systems. This architecture allows
the student to access the multitude of information superhighway products both internal to the Air University (AU) and national on-line systems. Moving beyond the 600 student residence program, these systems are rapidly revolutionizing our Distance Learning effort supporting over 6,000 students. This exciting thrust includes three major prongs: multimedia hyperlinked curriculum on CD-ROMs, on-line cyber; seminars, and video-teleconferencing to complete the student/faculty interaction.
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Thomas H. Beebe, Ph.D A critical training issue as we approach the 21st century is how to deal with the influx of new technologies. As the media options and their costs increase, managers need decision models to help select among the vast array of alternatives. The advent of level I Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) and its initial incorporation into aircrew training in the early 1980s was seen at the time to be the answer to the challenge of training for more complex and integrated aircraft, electronic, and navigational systems. CAI was selected over other media because of the following advantages: availability, self-pacing, distribution, changeability, and task simulation, in addition to projected cost savings. While training situations may make use of these advantages, CAI should not be viewed as a panacea for all training problems. Level I CAI effectiveness has not proven itself in many cases. By definition, level I offers limited student interaction that is often little more than electronic page turning. It is often perceived by the students to be repetitious and boring. With multi-media as the new kid on the block, the face of training is again rapidly changing.
Multi-media courseware is very powerful, if designed correctly. It can also have just as negative an effect if produced incorrectly. This
paper discusses the evolution of Kirtland AFB MH-53J and MH/HH-60G courses from their traditional classroom settings with 35mm slides and viewgraphs,
through the conversion to level I CAI, and the subsequent conversion to multi-media based instruction. It focuses on decisions and lessons learned in the
sometimes difficult development process to include: hardware and software configuration, design specifications, developmental considerations, coordination,
evaluation, and distribution on CD-ROM. It also discusses the integration, development, and use of an electronic presentation classroom environment, and its
effectiveness
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Public K-12 education in the United States is perceived to be in a crisis by leaders in government, industry, and education. This paper reviews the relevant issues in education today, assesses the current state of education, and identifies the roadblocks to technology infusion in the schools. Taking these factors into account, a new approach to education is proposed. Then, using a systems approach, leveraging from the ongoing development of the distributed simulation environment for military applications, the concept of a Synthetic Environment for Education (SEE) to support the proposed education approach is presented. The SEE discussion includes a framework, functional description, and a concrete example of how the SEE might be operationally employed in the schools. The SEE components discussed consist of the following: a simulation environment based on core modules of interrelated physical world models hosted on an appropriate computational system; audio-visual interface and audio-visual systems to allow connection to any desired type and vendor's viewport device; environment interface tools for student visualization and interaction with the simulated environment; a student learning support system to aid students in problem analysis, problem solving, and reporting their findings; a teacher support system to provide teacher friendly access to the simulated environment, internal and external information sources, and network connections to students, parents, and colleagues; a simulation environment management system to provide intelligent construction of, and control over, the simulated environment; a student feedback system; and a communication network interface to provide connectivity between students, classrooms, schools, and any other desired location. The paper also develops a concept for a national/state education communications network to support the deployment of the SEE and other education applications. The paper concludes with a recommendation for a planned and coordinated approach between government, industry, academia, and public education to bring simulation and information technology to the classroom. Through a properly orchestrated program, the SEE will effectively integrate technology into education in America.
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Since 1991 Army NCOs are trained by CBT programs. This new approach in vocational training has been evaluated from 1991 to 1994. Especially important is a long term study. Eight CBT programs and nearly 5000 NCOs were included. The eight CBT programs are concerned with cognitive and especially social and emotional effects of leadership. These programs have many branches and offer a wide range of possible decisions, which do not always lead to correct solutions. The learner has to do his personal decision in order to learn how to solve conflicts in social settings.
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Bringing together all of the functions involved in the training system acquisition and development process is a daunting task. Existing paradigms can virtually paralyze training system analysis efforts, making it difficult to acquire a completely integrated training system. Applying a systems engineering approach to the updated United States Air Force (USAF) Instructional Systems Development (ISD) process will result in an integrated training system.
This paper identifies alternate approaches for the acquisition and development of Foreign Military Sales (FMS) training systems and
describes how training requirements were generated for various F-16 customers. The paper focuses on the importance of using an integrated process instead of
stove pipe processes currently used in the design and development of FMS This paper describes how a Training System Team; working within a matrix organization structure (integrated product team) will produce an integrated training system. As team leader, US Government Training Managers have the ability to ensure that FMS customers are not provided "cookie" cutter training systems. because cultures and Air Forces are unique within individual governments, training systems should also reflect those unique characteristics while meeting individual training requirements.
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Bringing together all of the functions involved in the training system acquisition and development process is a daunting task. Existing paradigms can virtually paralyze training system analysis efforts, making it difficult to acquire a completely integrated training system. Applying a systems engineering approach to the updated United States Air Force (USAF) Instructional Systems Development (ISD) process will result in an integrated training system. This paper identifies alternate approaches for the acquisition and development of Foreign Military Sales (FMS) training systems and describes how training requirements were generated for various F-16 customers. The paper focuses on the importance of using an integrated process instead of stove pipe processes currently used in the design and development of FMS training systems. Examples describe how in using only the weapon system as a baseline for determining training requirements, unnecessary training equipment purchases are sometimes made. This paper describes how a Training System Team working within a matrix organization structure (integrated product team) will produce an integrated training system. As team leader, US Government Training Managers have the ability to ensure that FMS customers are not provided cookie cutter training systems. Because cultures and Air Forces are unique within individual governments, training systems should also reflect those unique characteristics while meeting individual training requirements.
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The Plowshares project is applying military constructive simulation technology to training for emergency management. The project team has
enhanced the U. S. Army's Janus simulation model to support emergency management scenarios that include hurricanes, fires, and chemical spills. The enhanced
Janus software, known as TERRA, will be used in a county Emergency Operations Center to provide the stimulus for training events structured as command post
exercises. The first phase of the project culminated in a "Proof of Principle Demonstration"; that occurred in August 1995. In that demonstration
the Emergency Operations Center of Orange County Florida
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The Advanced Driving and Maneuvering Simulator (ADAMS) is a new high-end truck driving simulator. It has been designed to meet the various customers' training needs at a reasonable price in order to substitute a considerable part of conventional on-the-road training by highly efficient simulator training. Furthermore, a simulator allows training appropriate reactions in situations that are impossible to arrange identically for all trainees in reality. The requirements for a modern driver training system are first analyzed in depth. The main demands are that training be realistic and effective, unified and efficient, safe and non-polluting, and also economical. From these requirements, the design considerations for the driving simulator are deduced. Due to modular construction, the driver's cabin is independent of the remaining simulator system. The cabin can therefore be adapted to any truck type. It is fully equipped with working controls and instruments. The collimated visual system consists of a panoramic front view display system plus rear view mirrors. The computer-generated images (CGI) are of high resolution and include all state-of-the-art features. The trainee is given realistic feedback on the vehicle behavior through his view of the road and of traffic, appropriate vehicle noise, and a motion system. Instantaneous feedback on the driving performance is provided through spoken messages and through signs appearing in the sight. After a lesson, a training report is displayed on the control screen. Additionally, a detailed report generated by the automated assessment system can be printed and stored in the trainee database. The lessons are carefully designed and contain training topics which have been thoughtfully selected in order to create a well-balanced training course. Life-like traffic simulations interacting with the trainee's ride support the reality of the road scenes. Several simulator cabins can be integrated in a training site. They are connected to the instructor station for central data storage and trainee control. However, in each simulator cabin training progresses independently.
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Training Air Traffic Controllers in a simulator is not a new idea. However, recent technological advances, particularly in the real-time graphic engine cost/performance ratios, have dramatically changed the design of these training devices. For the ATC Tower Simulator, large model boards where miniature aircraft models are moved by hand are being replaced by powerful image generators with sophisticated databases of specific airport designs. This paper will address today's technology that is available for training tomorrow's Air Traffic Controller. As the technology is advancing the customer's requirements and expectations in training from a tower simulator are also being raised, creating challenges for the simulator manufacturer. Both Commercial and Military Air Traffic Controllers are putting high demands on issues such as aircraft recognition and identification. These issues present challenges in the real-time graphic simulation and display technology versus an affordable simulator using off-the-shelf technology with low maintenance costs. High-resolution displays, simulated binoculars and zoom functions are discussed as ways of combating these challenges. Additional requirements demand voice recognition systems that are pushing today's technology with expectations of greater than a 95% recognition rate for all normal ATC type commands. Military customers are also demanding systems that can be rapidly deployed to combat or relief situations world wide. The almost instant creation of local airfield databases can soon be provided to customers through tools that are becoming available in the Industry. DIS interfacing is also required from Military customers to provide networking to a complete range of other Training Systems.
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Douglas J. Mielke Successful simulation results in a true immersion into a synthetic environment. This is the goal for which all simulation engineers strive. Along with that goal comes bounds, limitations and design constraints. These considerations are the compromise between accuracy, realism, schedules, and cost. With the economic conditions and the trend toward cutbacks, producing quality, high-fidelity training devices at a low cost has become of paramount importance in the quest of winning contracts. Ascertaining that optimal approach can be a very difficult task for all parties involved in the process. All issues for each specific application must be addressed and a thorough understanding of problems facing the design engineers must be defined. Today's challenge is to produce low-cost, computationally complex software systems for real-time radar simulation. Fortunately, there are now avenues for simulation designers to accomplish this, with the advent of inexpensive, mass-produced, high-powered processors that are currently available. This paper discusses a low-cost solution to a simulated ground-based radar system using PC-based technologies and off-the-shelf products. The paper starts with a review of classical approaches to radar simulation. It defines the problem facing design engineers who must choose the delicate balance between low-cost and high-fidelity simulation. It introduces the development methodologies that cover the up-front engineering design approaches. The paper then presents the design solutions for a particular application using Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) and innovative graphical techniques. Finally, it makes recommendations concerning future directions of other applicable systems.
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The use of sensors that respond to regions of the electromagnetic spectrum outside the visible band have increased the range of imagery that can be presented to a pilot or crew member for use in searching, detecting and classifying potential targets or navigational way points. The two most common electromagnetic bands used for sensor purposes are in the infrared, used to detect heat differences; and radio frequencies for radar, used to illuminated distant areas beyond visual range. Current methods of simulating these different types of images for use in flight simulators rely on computer image generators operating on a database that contains not only the physical dimensions and visual color of the cultural features and objects, but the material types that will influence their infrared emission and radar reflection characteristics as well. Since infrared images are more closely related to visual images it is very common to have both generated by the same image generation equipment and using the same database, with some post-processing on the IR imagery to simulate sensor specific characteristics. Conversely, the characteristics of a radar image are significantly different and require separate processing techniques and data. The per channel cost of visual and infrared image generation systems has been reduced significantly in the past ten years because of greater demand and reduced processing costs, but the cost of radar imagery still remains relatively high. For many applications or programs this cost can not be justified or the need for highly realistic radar imagery, which is usually the only type available, is not required. Therefore, what is needed is an intermediate solution that can generate imagery which closely approximates the essential features of a radar image, operates from the same database that the visual and IR imagery are produced from and does not add appreciably to the system cost. The algorithm discussed here provides a straight forward technique for transforming a suitably generated visual image into one having the most general characteristics of a radar image, specifically that from an airborne synthetic aperture (array) radar.
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Recent advances in personal computers (PCs) have made PCs a potentially attractive platform for electronic combat (EC) simulators. Low cost, widespread availability, and a familiar user interface appeal to the user community. Increased performance, a large selection of systems and components, and broadly used development tools and environments attract the developer. In spite of the many advantages of commercial PCs, their fixed size and architecture impose design constraints. Ideally, an off-the-shelf PC would contain the processing bandwidth, memory, auxiliary storage, and video and audio capabilities to fully simulate an EC environment and a student's equipment suite while providing computer-aided instruction. Users, who define requirements, and designers, who consider design alternatives, need to be aware of the impact various alternatives have on PC resources. This paper summarizes the essential characteristics of an EC simulator, analyzes software signal generation approaches that drive computational resources, reviews current PC capabilities to support those approaches, and assesses the PC's suitability as a platform for EC simulators and recommends training situations where it should be considered.
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In today's global marketplace, software solutions are not only composed of newly developed code, but may also consist of one or more Commercial Off The Shelf (COTS) software products which provide existing functionality. More and more customers are requiring the use of COTS software products whenever possible. In COTS based solutions, more functionality is bought rather than made. This reduces the software development cost but at the same time increases the amount of integration work. It is extremely difficult to estimate the effort to integrate various COTS products into one seamless solution. Past experience has shown that the traditional method of using Source Lines of Code (SLOC) as an estimation technique in the COTS arena does not yield accurate results. This paper will describe the construction and implementation of a bid cost model which uses Function Point Analysis and the identification of COTS cost drivers to help estimate the COTS integration effort. The model is not a paper model, but an actual database application with a Graphical User Interface (GUI).
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Loral Federal Systems is exploring the use of an Integration Services Architecture, ISA, as the basis for integrating Information Technology, IT, systems which are predominately COTS-based. The primary objective of the ISA is to lower the lifecycle costs associated with COTS systems. The ISA must address several dimensions of COTS integration including process, control and data. The ISA must also accommodate change. The system users must be isolated from the continuous impact of change in today's systems - changes associated with technology, COTS product end-of-life and business rules to name three. In the past we have implemented COTS-based systems using ad hoc glue code architectures and found those architectures to be deficient in many ways. After giving consideration to developing our own ISA framework we have decided to proceed by adapting a commercially available application development and runtime environment to integrate COTS and non-COTS functions. This paper defines the requirements for an ISA framework and addresses the work required to encapsulate COTS applications in a commercial runtime environment.
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Milan M. Dedek Graphical User Interface (GUI) technology is advancing at an astounding rate. GUIs are becoming easier and more intuitive to use on personal computers and development workstations. At the same time, Instructor Pilots (Ips) are also becoming more aware of the availability and usability of GUI tools as they are introduced to them at home and in the office. Consequently, Instructor/Operator Station (IOS) requirements are, and have been, developed requiring the use of current GUI technologies with the intent to reduce the instructor's workload by providing the instructor with a simpler, more flexible, interface to the simulation exercise. This paper investigates the applicability and utility of GUI techniques and applications in the simulation IOS arena. It addresses the available GUI techniques and assesses the viability of applying those techniques in the simulation environment. A common use of GUI techniques in today's IOS application is the replacement of outdated technologies. Issues such as integrating a legacy system with state of the art GUI capabilities will be addressed, along with the documentation of such an update, and a discussion of the acceptance methodology. In addition, the utility of the latest-windowing technology will also be discussed (windows, text boxes, scroll bars, dialog boxes, combo; boxes, check boxes, radio buttons, command buttons, gauges, tool bars, sliders). The application of graphics to the instructor's tasks will be considered (maps, zoom, 3-D, picking, icons, etc.). Rapid prototyping of the GUI involving the end user (the Instructor Pilot) is advocated and guidelines are provided. Current technology also allows the use of the IOS as a system console and debug facility. Use of the IOS to perform Automatic Test Guide, linkage tests, and daily readiness functions will be examined. A discussion of the software maintenance issues is provided, addressing accepted Department of Defense Higher Order Languages, open standards and the impact of future compiler and operating system upgrades.
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This paper presents a system description and training capability evaluation results for the Team Target Engagement Simulator (TTES), a virtual environment team training system. The TTES is a research and development effort designed to provide Military Operations on Urbanized Terrain (MOUT) training for deployed rifle squads. A training capability evaluation of the system was conducted at the Marine Corps Base Quantico Combat Village in early May 1995. System effectiveness, simulator sickness, range estimation and limited performance results are presented. Participants in the evaluation consisted of infantry Marines, many with recent MOUT experience. Participant critiques indicated that the system has considerable potential for training MOUT skills. System features related to controlling movement within the environment and the perceptual aspects of the environment itself were rated effective for MOUT training. Range estimations indicated distances appear, on average, about 47% greater than in the real world. No simulator sickness problems were detected during the evaluation.
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Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITSs) have proven to be very effective at transferring complex knowledge to a student. They have also proven to be difficult to create and maintain. To create Intelligent Tutors in a cost-effective and maintainable manner, a set of tools and processes called Adaptive Student Tutoring Environment (ASTUTE) is under development. ASTUTE is a composition of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) applications and specialized software that will enable instructional designers or subject matter experts to create computer-based training that will transfer the proficiency of experts to a learner in a way that is very stimulating to the learner. The resulting tutors, in effect, emulate on-the-job training (OJT) with an expert who is dedicated to being a private mentor for each learner. This paper presents the ASTUTE architecture and describes how tutors using that architecture simulate mentored OJT and train apprentice students to perform at expert levels. Included are discussions on ASTUTE's methods of: (a) molding instruction to students learning habits, capabilities, and skills; (b) exercising skills in an environment that best reveals the intended use of the knowledge; (c) providing external coaching support that either fades as the student's skill builds or is under control of the student, giving advice only when asked; and (d) providing reflective follow-up that allows comparison of a student's solution with an expert's solution.
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Scaleable simulation technology is the approach which uses an open-architecture system to produce high-fidelity simulators with options to meet a broad range of customer requirements. The customer objective for high-fidelity simulator training at lower life-cycle costs is addressed with the use of highly reliable, commercial off-the-shelf technologies and leveraging existing software investments. Depending upon acquisition and life-cycle support budgets, customers can choose from many options, such as visual systems, databases, and networking, to provide the best simulator capabilities to meet their training requirements. By using today's open architecture computer systems with extensive expansion capacity, scaleable simulation also allows customers to add options, expand capabilities, and install upgrades at a future time without making costly modifications to the simulator. The scaleable simulation approach and technology were used on the U.S. Air Force Unit Training Device (UTD) program, which provides high-fidelity flight and weapon system training at lower cost. Examples from the unit-level UTD program are cited to illustrate scaleable simulation technologies and benefits.
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USAREUR has increased its training effectiveness by maximizing the use of the latest training technologies. Its unique training strategy to maintain readiness for diverse and changing missions is described. A combination of live, virtual and constructive training resources are used at all echelons for individual, collective and leader training. The application of training resources individually or combined and integrated by means of Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) to create realistic/ seamless brigade, corps and multinational training is outlined. The techniques used to assess training and leverage its value through feedback are discussed. By these means, training resources have been cascaded resulting in synergisms that provide higher levels of training effectiveness at substantial cost savings.
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The DoD has a considerable investment in the threat data and software that supports its training simulators. Each new simulator and existing simulator major modification requires developers to define and access threat data and build the associated real-time simulation software (RTSS). The Universal Threat System for Simulators (UTSS) is a repository designed to leverage current investments, reducing the life cycle costs for training simulators. Unlike other repository efforts, UTSS focuses on the unique threat requirements for training simulators. It will initially support aircrew training simulators, but is planned to expand its support to the Navy surface and submarine, and Army and Marine Corps ground training communities. The development of the repository is divided into three efforts. The first focuses on identifying threat data and the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) source required to support the RTSS used in training simulators. UTSS simplifies this process by responding directly to requirements from the training simulator, accessing the threat data for them and providing the data in a form that is compatible with the simulator. The second effort addresses the issue of reusable software. UTSS will create a repository of RTSS and provide a catalog that describes the RTSS, data and its validation history. This repository and catalog will be available to developers of training simulator threats allowing them to easily identify and access existing RTSS for reuse in a new trainer or for an upgrade to an existing one. The third effort identifies and defines standards guiding the structuring and modeling of data and RTSS. This paper discusses the background issues and needs out of which the repository has arisen, its organization, its threat data support, experience with identifying and using RTSS, issues of software standards going into the development of the UTSS initial operating capability, and future development.
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Observations of the 58th Special Operations Wing (58 SOW) Weapon System Trainer/Mission Rehearsal System (WST/MRS) during rehearsals have clearly shown that mission rehearsal (MR) effectiveness is influenced by the activities of both the people who support the MRS and the people who use it. To explain this demonstrated importance of the people involved in MR, a human activity system model of simulation-based rehearsal was developed. It provides an integrated depiction of the MRS, and specifically addresses: (1) the context for rapid database development and simulation-based MR (crisis action planning) and how the MRS fits into it; (2) MRS components, functions and structure; and (3) processes that enhance rehearsal effectiveness. Implications of this human activity system view are discussed, including: places in the mission preparation process where simulation can benefit operations; the scope of human activities that are essential for successful simulation-based MR; the potential value of MR to provide feedback concerning the adequacy of training to support mission requirements; and the need for new procedures throughout this extended scope of players to accommodate both MRS requirements and capabilities.
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Until this year, expendable devices such as chaff and flares remained largely unaddressed by the Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) standards body. Expendables are, however, an important part of the electronic warfare (EW) battle. Defensive EW countermeasure (ECM) training can be invaluable to both the shipboard combat information center (CIC) team and the fighter pilot. Expendables can also play a part in offensive tactics as screening aides. This paper examines the problems and issues associated with expendable simulation using the DIS approach. The chaff simulation efforts of the Battle Force Tactical Training (BFTT) program are also discussed. The BFTT team is simulating ship-launched chaff as part of this year's development tests (DT-IIB). Specific recommendations regarding BFTT's chaff simulation approach are included in the conclusion.
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Interoperability of live, virtual, and constructive entities for combat simulation is a developing capability requiring new technology. Presently, each site or host manually or semi-automatically builds its own emissions databases needed for modeling and run-time during interactive simulations. This process can take weeks to months. New automatic methods of parametric data extraction from DOD standard databases are being developed for the Battle Force Tactical Training (BFTT) DT-IIB demonstration. This paper examines the methods, the source databases, the benefits of automation, and the conditions under which DOD databases are adequate for Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS).
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Implementing electronic warfare simulation on the Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) network adds a key component of modern warfare training to DIS exercises. The DIS protocol provides the basic capability to describe emissions, the core element of all electronic warfare activities. The DIS protocol is used to broadcast the emission information to all simulators connected to the network, however, the DIS protocol has several limitations when electronic warfare simulators are added to a DIS demonstration. This paper describes the experiences encountered while adapting two electronic warfare simulators to operate on the DIS network and interfacing these electronic warfare simulators with other simulators as part of the I/ITSEC '94 DIS demonstration.
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Synthetic Force (SF) simulation systems for the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force are being developed by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) to support the Synthetic Theater of War (STOW) Advanced Concept Technology Demonstration (ACTD). These four SF projects are based on the Modular Semi-Automated Forces (ModSAF) Computer Generated Force (CGF) system. Intelligent Force (IFOR) and Command Force (CFOR) simulations are also being developed to increase the level of automation and enhance the quality of behavior exhibited by SF entities and command entities. In addition, ModSAF-based Air SF simulations are being developed to provide the air entities for each service SF project. The goal of the Air SF effort is to develop air entity simulations which are compliant with Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) networking protocols, provide entity level resolution of battlespace interactions, and can be validated for use during Joint Task Force training exercises. This paper will introduce the ARPA SF development program, then describe the Air SF development effort which supports the program including system design and functionality, and in summary, describe the use of Air SF during the STOW-E and Kernel Blitz training exercises.
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The DOD community has adopted Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) as a base for an evolving suite of standards to support virtual battlefield representation. At present, DIS-based applications have focused on relatively small-scale exercises involving less than 1000 manned simulators and computer-generated forces (CGF). Current estimates of 10,000 to 100,000 entities to support simulation of theater-wide operations may exceed the capabilities of existing computational hosts and interconnection networks. This paper presents strategies for using massively parallel processors to simulate large numbers of synthetic forces using a contemporary synthetic forces software system (ModSAF). Alternative functional decompositions of the software are presented which map to specific parallel programming paradigms. Factors are identified which constrain candidate implementation paths. Partitioning and filtering techniques are discussed which can be used to reduce or eliminate broadcast packet distribution in a message-passing system. Data distribution, partitioning, and locking techniques are presented to support use of private, near-shared, and globally-shared memory on a true shared-memory system. Test implementations of a parallel ModSAF designed to run on the Convex Exemplar and Cray T3D MPP systems are described and benchmark results for specific tests are presented.
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This paper describes how modeling and simulation support warfighters today in the area of missile defense. To understand the value of this support, first warfighter needs are listed. Then, how modeling and simulation can support those needs is discussed. The concept presented is a building block approach to using models/simulations to train the warfighter. The first step uses low fidelity models in a desk top environment to explore the threat (e.g., theater ballistic and cruise missiles) and concepts of operations (conops) to use against the threat. The Ballistic Missile Defense Organization's (BMDO's) Warfare Analysis Laboratory Exercises (WALEXs) serve as an example of this level of simulation. The next step in training the warfighter uses distributed wargaming to provide a medium fidelity "real time" environment in which wargame participants use, modify, and rewrite the conops and defensive schemes developed in the desk top (WALEX) exercise. The National Test Facility (NTF) and its distributed gaming capability is used to implement this process. The final step in the training process is the insertion of realistic threat trajectories into major exercises such as Ulchi Focus Lens or Joint Task Force (JTF) 95.
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The current standard for Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) applications specifies that simulation entities use the Designator Protocol Data Unit (PDU) to communicate laser designation in support of laser-guided weapons engagement and delivery. The standard also specifies that during lasing activities this PDU be broadcast at a fixed 10 Hz rate. Documented implementations of the Laser (or Designator) PDU have raised questions regarding the use of this fixed transmission rate. While exercises involving relatively small numbers of entities pose little potential for network loading problems, larger exercises may well dictate approaches to conserve network bandwidth. This paper provides the results of a quantitative investigation of an alternate laser designation PDU implementation utilizing laser spot velocity and first-order dead reckoning. The target tracking data used for this investigation was obtained from the Deployable Forward Observer/Modular Universal Laser Equipment (DFO/MULE), a system which provides target acquisition and tracking training for Artillery Forward Observers, Naval Gun Fire spotters, and Forward Air Controllers, as well as laser designation and range finding training. PDU transmission rates were calculated from this data based on various dead reckoning thresholds, and the overall performance contrasted to the current fixed-frequency approach. The lessons learned from this investigation are discussed, along with suggestions and recommendations for future study.
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A common problem in the training simulator community is the effective sharing and reuse of data. Each new simulator effort tends to set
up its own infrastructure to acquire the data necessary to run the simulator. This was one of the specific problems addressed by the Universal Threat System
for Simulators (UTSS) program. The goal was to define common data requirements for a family of training devices and to map these requirements from source
databases to the individual data elements required by the training simulators. The Integration Definition for Information Modeling (IDEF1X) data modeling
language was employed with a reverse engineering methodology to accomplish this task. Using this methodology, the UTSS team constructed IDEF1X data models
to document the data required for each of the simulators to be served by UTSS. The format of the data varied widely from simulator to simulator, with some
simulators employing relational database management systems while others used formatted ASCII files. The resulting data models
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To automatically generate simulated scenarios an algorithm is needed to search for the optimal subset of scenario parameters. For most simulated environments the scenario search space is complex and populated with discontinuities, multimodality, and noise. Complexity is especially evident in networked simulations, where the search space can be enormous. Some high-fidelity, large scale network simulation may require specifications of millions of parameters to describe all entities at a high level of resolution. In this paper we present the application of the Genetic Algorithms search technique for scenario optimization in network simulations. Genetic Algorithms as optimization and adaptation techniques, maintain a constant-sized population of candidate solutions known as individual scenarios. At each iteration, known as a generation, each scenario is evaluated and recombined with others on the basis of its overall quality or fitness in solving the simulation task. New scenarios are created using two main genetic recombination operators known as crossover and mutation.
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In a typical distributed modeling and simulation (M&S) exercise, a given simulator will send identical data to numerous other simulators distributed across the network, and it will in turn receive data from other simulators. Not all simulators, however, need to receive all data that is sent. Multicasting, the one-to-many, selective delivery of data in a communications network, enables a given simulator to receive only that simulation data that is of interest to it, rather than all data transmitted during the course of the exercise. This ability to receive data selectively provides two major benefits: it can reduce total bandwidth usage on the network as a whole and it can reduce the number of total packets received at any one simulator, thus reducing the number of wasted processing cycles on the host on which the simulator is running. The M&S community plans to conduct distributed simulation and training exercises involving 100,000 entities distributed among 50 sites by the year 2000. Distributed simulation and training exercises of this magnitude will require, among other things, a high-speed networking service with multicasting capability. Meeting this requirement to support today's Internet Protocol (IP)-based simulators means that system architects must develop innovative solutions to the issues surrounding deployment of IP multicasting capabilities in an Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) environment. ATM is the emerging international standard for high-speed networking that is expected to be widely deployed in future communications networks. Most existing simulators, however, have been built to run over Internet protocols. Hence, the likely distributed simulation network architecture of the future is one in which information is multicast from a source simulation host over one or more IP-based local area networks within the source host's local site, out over a wide-area network that relies on ATM to provide the data link layer transmission service among all sites involved in the exercise, and then onto the IP-based local area networks at each of the destination sites to the destination hosts. In this scenario, IP will provide the end-to-end internetworking service from sender to receiver over the adjoining IP and ATM subnetworks. For such IP/ATM interworking to be efficient and cost-effective, a standard interface is needed over which IP can request and be supplied with the subnetwork services provided by ATM. This paper focuses on the multicasting component of the IP/ATM interface. It discusses the issues involved with interfacing IP and ATM multicasting capabilities and describes current work in progress within the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to develop protocol specifications that reconcile some of the mismatches between the IP and ATM multicasting paradigms.
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Interoperability issues associated with the use of dissimilar simulators within a DIS network range across a diverse spectrum of concerns. These include differing levels of simulation fidelity, terrain data rendition and correlation, and their relationship to purpose, activity, training efficacy and realism. The Institute for Simulation and Training (IST) is undertaking a two-pronged approach to the study of the interoperability problem. The first prong identifies the primary simulator parameters affecting interoperability and then quantifies them on existing simulators. This is coupled with polling the user community as to whether or not the simulators are perceived to be 'interoperable.' By doing so IST intends to identify the magnitude of parameter variation deemed acceptable by the user community. The second part of our approach is a research program that quantitatively determines the magnitude of parameter differences at which interaction outcome is affected. The initial investigation in both prongs is limited to consideration of the visual rendition of terrain on image generators within the simulators. In-house studies include tests determining the effect of various magnitudes of terrain mis-correlation on the outcome of combat engagements. The results of both investigations are ultimately combined to define an interoperability test procedure that is applied to networked simulators. This paper addresses the rationale and approach for assessing interoperability and summarizes the results to date of the experiments and data gathering activities of our research program.
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Modeling and simulation is becoming increasingly important as defense spending decreases. As a result, technologies must be developed such that real-world scenario complexity levels can be trained. Establishing a virtual combat training environment is one of the key technologies that will provide best value on investments in new training systems. The final working configuration of a virtual combat training environment will not be a single technology developed from a single program, but a fusion of technologies, new and old, integrated such that desired capabilities and performance are achieved. Providing a Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) interface to a Legacy Model is an example of fusing new and old technologies. A Legacy Model is a general term given to government simulation programs that have been in use for many years and enjoy a large user community. SUPPRESSOR is one example of a Legacy Model for which a DIS interface has been developed, resulting in the expanded use of this tool by DOD communities for new purposes. SUPPRESSOR is traditionally used in the analytical community for survivability analysis and COEAs, but now offers solutions to critical combat training tasks common across many service requirements. Insight into interfacing Legacy Models to DIS will be given by drawing upon the lessons learned with SUPPRESSOR. Additionally, the advantages and disadvantages of using an asynchronous Legacy Model for tomorrow's real-time training will be discussed.
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The Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) Protocols are the best attempt at providing simulation connectivity available today. These allow heterogeneous simulations to operate together based on a common understanding of a few message types and their contents. Integrated DIS simulations have typically been single-object, simple-engagement simulations. Tank simulators engage in combat activities which involve seeing and shooting enemy ground objects. Helicopter simulators see and shoot other airborne and ground-based objects. As long as object interactions remain this simple, heterogeneous simulations will operate together harmoniously. The Aggregate Level Simulation Protocol (ALSP) is an ARPA generated project designed to join constructive simulations in much the same way that DIS does virtual simulations. Simulated entities engage in a wide variety of activities, including seeing, sensing, moving, shooting, jamming, communicating, and reorganizing themselves. Creating an interface protocol to accommodate all of these events in a consistent manner has proven very difficult, and has not been completely accomplished. The original design and modeling frameworks within each existing simulation often make it impossible to share an event between the simulations and still calculate a fair and consistent outcome. This paper will explore some of the difficulties involved in integrating a very diverse and complicated set of simulation events. Many of the problems encountered in the constructive world over the past 15 years foreshadow those that will be uncovered in the virtual world. The first step in achieving Interoperability is to allow communications, a challenge the DIS protocols are addressing well. But, once this is accomplished the dissimilarities of the integrated simulations will become apparent, and obtrusive. The paper uses analogies and actual interoperability examples to illustrate these problems. It then proposes the need for a common modeling framework and transformation algorithms which must be shared by the simulations that are to become interoperable.
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Chandu Sheth and William P. Sudnikovich
Joseph Pasirstein and Richard Wood As military forces move across the digitized battlefield, the quality of radio connections between them varies dramatically and continually as a function of terrain, propagation, climate, and radio-link capabilities. Coupled with this are varying communications network limitations (congestion and delays) in transporting the required digital information (voice, data, and imagery) between the moving platforms. Communications users must have a means of assessing the impact of realistic on-the-move communications effects. Advanced modeling and simulation technology can provide this means. Currently, virtual, constructive, and performance simulations do not provide the dynamic irregularities of radio connectivity and network capacity needed to stress on-the-move communications, instead either assuming perfect communications or including statistical averages of error effects. To provide the needed communications realism, the U.S. Army Communications-Electronics Command Research, Development and Engineering Center has developed the Real-Time Communications Network Simulator (RTCNS) for use by trainers, signal operations officers, and system analysts. Its purpose is to provide trainers and operators with a realistic environment for training mission rehearsals, and research and development personnel with the means for more realistic analysis of system perform-ance and combat effectiveness. RTCNS is a flexible tool for analyzing the digitized battlefield's highly internetworked communications systems. It can accurately portray the impact of communications problems on the outcome of force-on-force simulations. This includes such simulated problems as atmospheric noise, garbled messages, and communications delays that would be experienced during an actual battle over the same terrain. RTCNS is designed for real-time plug-and-play simulations, allowing users to easily turn on; and turn off; various coding algorithms, environmental effects, and other radio/protocol/service parameters and countermeasures. Distributed interactive simulation (DIS)-compatibility provides soldier-in-the-loop and hard-ware-in-the-loop capabilities. This paper describes the prototype RTCNS that can provide improved realism to training simulations.
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Present day Unit Level mission planning systems, such as the Air Force Mission Support System (AFMSS), are used by pilots and wing commanders to plan safe and efficient aircraft missions in the tactical environment. DIS based simulation and training exercises are focused on high fidelity, realistic, man-in-the-loop tactical engagements. However, current simulation and training exercises do not employ the tactical concepts of operations related to mission planning. These exercises, without proper planning, do not provide the training required of our modern day force structure. The incorporation of unit level mission planners into the DIS environment allows for improved mission rehearsal and training effectiveness. By using the fielded mission planner, pilots are provided with the tactical environment to allow them to practice approved concept of operations, further minimizing the differences between simulation based training and real world operations. The architecture presented in the paper supports the use of the unit level planner in conjunction with the existing exercise management protocol to establish an electronic link to flight simulators for coordinated exercise set-up, preview, and debrief. When used in this manner, mission planners al-low for improved Measures of Effectiveness (MOEs) and After Action Review (AAR), such as the analysis of planned versus actual flown routes. Sanders has been conducting research in the area of mission planning / simulation integration since 1991. The current implementation has coupled the AFMSS planning architecture with the DIS simulation protocol, allowing Computer Generated Force (CGF) aircraft to be flown by the mission planning computer. Additional research has involved the sharing of mission planning data such as route information utilizing DIS broadcast, client-server, and point-to-point communication models. These existing capabilities were demonstrated at I/ITSEC 94. Based on our past experience, an additional suite of Protocol Data Units (PDUs) is proposed to handle mission planning data not currently supported by the existing DIS standard. A system architecture for integrating DIS based simulation and mission planning capabilities for unit to force level exercises is also presented.
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Building an Advanced Distributed Simulation (ADS) is an extremely complex process for which no guidelines currently exist. The Modeling and Simulation (m&s) community is rapidly gaining insight into the ADS structure building process through experience in planning, organizing, and conducting several large ADS exercises. Experiences have ranged from very good to very bad with no one area of the ADS building process escaping serious pitfalls. This paper attempts to summarize the experiences encountered by TACCSF as a participant in several ADS projects. Planning is the key to success and forms the basis upon which a successful ADS must be built. Specific areas of the ADS process covered by this paper are: (1) planning, (2) system engineering, (3) connectivity, (4) communications security (COMSEC), (5) scenario development, and (6) data collection and analysis. The lessons learned discussed will aid the ADS planner of the future avoid the well traveled pitfalls discovered by past travelers.
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Historically, the analytical community has used constructive models such as JANUS and Combined Arms and Support Task Force Evaluation
Model (CASTFOREM) to do analysis for the acquisition process. These types of models do not fully represent the impacts of human interaction with the system
or their effect on combat effectiveness of the system during the early phases of research and development. Both the training and the research and
development communities have used real time man-in-the-loop Distributed The Anti Armor Advanced Technology Demonstration (A2ATD) will function as a vehicle to meet several BDS-D exit criteria. A2ATD is a joint DA/DoD program initiated with the goal of maturing DIS as a credible evaluation tool to support acquisition decisions. The purpose of the A2ATD is to develop and demonstrate a verified, validated and accredited DIS capability to support anti-armor weapon system virtual prototyping, concept formulation, requirements definition, effectiveness evaluation, and mission area analysis on a combined arms battlefield at the Battalion Task Force or Brigade level.
This paper describes the preparations made and the conduct of A2ATD Experiment
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The proliferation of incompatible simulation data recording formats in the Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) community has consistently been a burden to implementors of DIS, to analysts, and to operational DIS sites. In response to this situation, the co-authors of this paper developed and implemented a prototype standard datalogger interchange format at the I/ITSEC 1994 DIS interoperability demonstration. Feedback from this I/ITSEC 1994 event has resulted in the revision of the prototype format into the current DIS Logger Interchange Format (DLIF-95) draft standard. DLIF-95 is intended to provide the mechanism for the entire DIS community to archive and exchange recorded simulation data efficiently and with confidence. This paper describes the DLIF-95 draft standard, the rationale behind its creation and the lessons learned in its implementation.
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The past several years have seen many advances in technology and complexity of both computer hardware and software in critical training systems. Computer based modeling and simulation (M/S) have virtually taken over many important aspects of the training of our military personnel and is being extensively used at many levels of training. Properly used, M/S can provide the environment and realism and can thus contribute to readiness as never before. The increased use of computer software, and in particular M/S, throughout the training industry is forcing the development and implementation of uniform policies and procedures that will provide better assurance as to their credibility. As a result, the term verification and validation (V&V) has taken new meaning. V&V of computer software is not a new concept, but has only recently become recognized as a requirement. Standard definitions and general policies have recently been promulgated by the Department of Defense (DoD). DoD and the military services are creating special staffs to deal with M/S and V&V issues at many levels. Committees, working groups, and conferences such as the I/ITSEC are devoting much of their time and resources to the subject. Despite all of this attention, there is still no standard methodology for V&V. A standard methodology is important to achieve the goal of uniform, cost-effective V&V. This paper presents a methodology for cost-effective V&V using Computer Assisted Software Engineering (CASE) tools and reverse engineering techniques. The CASE tools provide analytical outputs that aid the engineer in the V&V process and have been successfully applied to a number of major software development programs to save time, which equates to improvements in both schedule and cost. This paper will also describe the CASE tools and how.
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Battlefield weather conditions have affected, sometimes determined, the outcome of military conflicts and the resultant global order for generations. Accounting for atmospheric variability and its impact on the battlefield has been an area of continuing concern for military strategist, operations research community, and soldiers throughout history. Current wargames use low resolution atmospheric models that tend to ignore some of the more realistic effects due to the battlefield environment and weather that could prove highly significant on the wargame outcome. In the past, this limitation was necessary because of computer restrictions and because of the unavailability of appropriate atmospheric models. The Combat-Induced Atmospheric Obscurants (CIAO) system is a prototype computer-based modeling and simulation system designed to demonstrate the impact of the effects of advanced high-resolution atmospheric models effects on force-on-force wargame simulations; thus, impacting tactics and doctrine derived from the simulations. The goal of the research behind the CIAO system is to determine the impact of the use of advanced high fidelity, high resolution, obscuration models on the outcome of simulated battles. The system as now configured employs wargame models and scenarios supplied by the TRADOC wargaming community and a smoke model based upon the Combined Obscuration Model for Battlefield Induced Contaminants (COMBIC). Atmospheric models include: high resolution wind models treating complex terrain, obscuration models, large area screening models, and radiative transfer models. This paper presents the results of the CIAO research to date.
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The rationale for designing a server for ingesting, integrating, storing, and distributing the state of the atmosphere is presented. The server supports distributed interactive simulations and can be used for extensive training exercises. An overview of the server design is provided, with a review of each of its five component modules: the database, integrator, viewer, distributor and simulator. The server supports client applications in several modes, including predistribution of an archived database and active distribution for live exercises in a real-time atmospheric environment. Each component of the weather server is discussed in terms of the factors that influenced the design rationale. The set of variables representing the state of the atmosphere was selected by a three step process: first, atmospheric features were identified and characteristics of the atmosphere that correspond to the features were specified. Second, the effects of the atmospheric environment were related to features observed, such as thunderstorms, blizzards, etc. Finally, characteristic atmospheric variables were mapped into the effects that they produced. These effects impact decisions made at the command and field levels. A typical scenario is presented to show that a variety of atmospheric conditions and effects must be considered to support informed decision processes and accurate personnel training in live, virtual, and constructed exercises.
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The focus of our research and the real purpose of this paper is to compare ecological and military models. We can conclude that both, ecological and military systems are rather complex and that numerous methods, algorithms and experiences of the environment can be used in ecological as well as in military systems. This field offers many opportunities.
The behavior of the ecological and military systems can be simulated by models where sets of differential (Lanchester) equations are
applied. The problem of stabilization of unstable equations systems is always presented. We proposed an extension of the classical modeling of combat via
Lanchester equations. The usual coupled set of ordinary differential equations is replaced by a system of differential equations where the principle The mathematical theory of the stabilization of unstable equations systems and the holistic control of systems by incursion is being developed: this new incursive theory confirms the specific examples given in this paper in a more general framework.
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Mark Juliano
Ron Matusof This paper discusses the limitations of the DIS standard with respect to large-scale exercises and proposes enhancements to overcome these limitations. It studies the question of whether the futures of DIS and various commercial interactive applications (such as interactive television and telemedicine) are inter-related in such a way as to provide a low-cost, high performance solution for large-scale simulation exercises. By using data obtained from large-scale exercises, such as I/ITSEC 1994 and STOW-E, this paper highlights the trends in network performance. Study of these trends is useful because it indicates current limitations of DIS implementations. This paper next provides an in-depth discussion of the interactivity problems involving system bandwidth, inefficient protocol definitions, and latency. These issues are discussed both in the context of existing applications as well as future commercial applications.
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This paper describes the initial development and demonstration of the Precision Integrated Strike Concept Evaluation Suite (PISCES). PISCES was initiated in early 1994 as an internal research and development project to create a virtual operating environment for demonstrating and evaluating Naval strike warfare capabilities using distributed interactive simulation. The overall focus of PISCES is concept evaluation and demonstration of advanced precision strike weapons launched from submarine and surface platforms, and delivered by tactical aircraft. The initial phase of PISCES development involved identifying available modeling and simulation capabilities at the Applied Physics Laboratory that could support a modest, yet relevant, concept demonstration. In the initial phase, six participants were connected over a secure fiber optic cable network. Existing software applications from each participant were modified to make use of the distributed interactive simulation protocols. A strike scenario was crafted to highlight specific advanced features of a planned future cruise missile weapon system and an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). Participant actions were shown against the backdrop of this strike scenario and the associated strike plan. Various forms of information were passed between participants over the secure local area network, including data messages between strike assets in the form of protocol data units (PDUs). Key aspects of the concept demonstration were incorporation of a prototype capability to show a command and control node exercising dynamic control of cruise missiles after launch, and the use of a model to show utility of an endurance UAV for providing tactical targeting and surveillance information. Other accomplishments of the first phase of PISCES are described in the paper. Progress made during the second phase of the project is also discussed.
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Much effort has been directed to providing computer applications with a user input or interface that improves the quality of the communication between man and machine. Such an interface is proposed to be a dominant force in determining user productivity, performance, and satisfaction. Speech recognition (SR), or natural language, interface shows much promise, but this application has usually been confined to controlling the computer or causing the computer to control other devices. Some researchers, however, are saying that a natural language interface is one of the most promising for use in the long term for simplicity of learning. If this is true, then it follows that SR would be ideal as the interface for computer-based training (CBT). This paper summarizes a study conducted to determine if SR is an effective CBT interface for cognitive processing which affects short-term memory and, in turn, Original Learning (OL). It addresses how one determines if learning has been affected by SR and how it is measured. The study built upon past interface research which attempted to quantify a learning effect when using a variety of interfaces. These studies helped determine a framework to measure learning effectiveness and to quantify the measurement of learning when SR is used as the primary interface. The methods and procedures applied in an experimental study are presented, results examined, and recommendations for further study are discussed.
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Navy Air Traffic Control (ATC) trainers use simulations of airspace traffic to improve skills and to provide realistic, safe training environments. Real-time continuous speech recognition is used to interface directly with ATC training devices, thus eliminating the need for human pseudo-pilots or sim-pilots. With the expertise gained in constructing ATC training devices utilizing speech recognition technology, the Navy has applied speech recognition to a real time Navy Carrier Air Traffic Control (CATC) application called ISIS (Integrated Shipboard Information System). ISIS is located in three CATC areas, Air Operations, Primary Flight Control, and Carrier Controlled Approach (CCA), all with varying noise levels. Operationally, the ISIS speech recognition system must maintain near perfect recognition accuracy while being operated in a high noise environment. In general, speech recognition syntax is constructed with a balance between the phraseology and discernment between similar sounding words. Furthermore, syntax development for a particular users/group phraseology demands an intimate understanding of the users/group functional requirements. Beyond what is required for basic recognition, the ISIS recognizer uses an additional noise rejection algorithm which models one's speech, compares the speech input with the model, and competes the result with real-time templates whereby sounds other than the intended speech can be detected. Using this noise rejection model in a different manner, the ISIS speech recognizer provides an out-of -phraseology capability that filters incorrect words and phrases. Exhaustive testing of a particular syntax with and without a noisy background is necessary to establish a desirable noise rejection threshold. Finally, this report discusses the hardware, software, syntax development, noise studies, out of phraseology algorithm, results of the fielded system, and implementation of the ISIS speaker dependent speech recognition system.
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Traditional Multiprocessing research assumed uniform shared memory architectures. In recent years, a great deal of literature has been published in the use of Non-Uniform Memory Access (NUMA) architectures. However, most of this literature has been in the context of general purpose computing. This paper evaluates memory architectures in the context of real-time applications such as aircraft simulation. Different hardware memory architectures are compared, including cache issues. Operating System issues, such as default and user-selectable memory assignment policies and process migration are discussed for these hardware architectures and considering their applicability to different kinds of real-time applications. The complexity of some of these policies often limit their suitability for user selection. The paper also discusses tools that assist users in evaluating memory configurations and in tailoring and tuning configurations and policies for specific applications.
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Flight training simulator users and vendors understand well the importance of proper presentation of major sensory cues to a trainee within a simulated flight training system. Motion, visual, crew compartment displays and instrumentation form the primary cues delivered to a trainee in modern day flight simulators. Crucial to proper presentation of cues is having a quantitative means to measure the character of the cue. Subjective pilot evaluations of these cue sources typically reveal only the existence of problems but not the true problem source. Attempts to correct perceived cue deficiencies on this basis are usually ineffective and certainly not efficient. Objective measures of simulator cue behavior have been limited to some extent by sensor technology but more significantly by a lack of sophisticated data analysis tools. Current simulator testing of dynamic response of visual, motion, and cockpit display cues has been limited to time domain measures of initial response and simplified frequency domain measures. These current methods need to be expanded to provide a more complete presentation of the dynamic character and synchronization of these cues plus offer the potential for direct comparison with equivalent aircraft data when that data is available. This paper describes recent efforts to improve methods for testing and analyzing flight training system simulator cue synchronization (cue sync) and cue dynamic characteristics. This paper documents the application of the piloted frequency sweep technique, and subsequent frequency response analysis, to quantitatively identify the cue-sync character of a USMC rotary wing training system -- the MV-22A Operational Flight Trainer. Frequency response comparisons were generated by analysis of data generated using the piloted frequency sweep technique. The frequency response comparisons were used to evaluate the simulator motion and visual systems versus the simulator model thereby providing a means for identification of cue-sync character without the need for special purpose software modifications. Measurement of bandwidth and phase delay from the frequency responses is also included, and was produced in a manner consistent with evolving aircraft measurement standards. A suggested evaluation criteria, representing the extent to which cue-sync behavior can be compared to aircraft response is also characterized. Finally, a quantitative evaluation criteria for motion system cueing quality is provided in order to assist in the determination of motion system character.
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The physical, mechanical and electrical properties of armored vehicle simulator modules present a highly challenging environment for the use of head tracking technology. However, the potential of head tracking to enhance simulation fidelity and dramatically reduce cost demanded that a solution for this application be found. In 1993, General Electric (now Lockheed Martin) delivered the M1A1 Platoon Gunnery Trainer which was the first U.S. armored vehicle simulator to use head tracking technology. Subsequently, the head tracking design was refined for the M1A2 PCOFT (Saudi Foreign Military Sale) which will be delivered in 1995. Head tracking will also be integrated into the Advanced Gunnery Training System (AGTS) which was awarded to Lockheed Martin in 1994. Concurrently, Evans and Sutherland is developing a comprehensive head tracking capability for M1A1, M1A2, Bradley Fighting Vehicle, Armored Personnel Carrier (APC), and FIST-V modules in fulfillment of Close Combat Tactical Trainer (CCTT) program requirements. The power of head tracking technology lies in its ability to provide natural (transparent to the trainee) display switching, total field of view control, high resolution area of interest control, and motion parallax for improved depth perception. Major design issues include minimizing transport delay, reducing and filtering noise created inherently by the simulator, physical integration of head tracking equipment within the limited confines of the simulator module, eliminating confusion of the device as it is controlling the imagery of multiple displays, calibration for individual trainees, and real-time calculation of viewport geometry. This paper presents the state-of-the-art in head tracking for armored vehicle simulation and the prospects for even higher fidelity head tracking in future developments.
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Commanders in M1 and M2 tank vehicles have the capability to open the hatch to a protected open position, or "popped" position. In the commander's popped hatch (CPH) position the commander has a 360 degree view of the surrounding environment. The CCTT tank simulators require a display that simulates this popped hatch view. A CPH display approach, which provides a 360 degree horizontal field of view, is a monitor-based, non-collimated display which uses a continuous single-piece acrylic beamsplitter. Ten 26-inch, high-resolution, monitors surround the beamsplitter. Five of the monitors are located directly behind the beamsplitter, in a horizontal orientation, and are viewed directly through the beamsplitter. The remaining five monitors are located above the beamsplitter, in a vertical orientation, and the monitor image is viewed as a reflection in the beamsplitter. The resulting display appears as ten horizontally juxtaposed monitors, with only a 0.5 degree gap between adjacent images. The single-piece beamsplitter is composed of two types of regions or panels. Five flat, trapezoidal shaped, reflective panels are located directly beneath the vertical monitors to reflect the image back to the eyepoint. Curved direct view panels are located between the reflective panels to provide a smooth transition and to eliminate spurious reflections. The beamsplitter is fabricated from a single piece of molded acrylic. A vacuum deposited chrome coating is applied to the formed acrylic to create the beamsplitter mirror surface. The 26-inch monitors are supported by an aluminum structure. The inside corners of the vertically oriented monitors are located within 1/8 inch of each other, requiring monitor ear repositioning. The CPH display provides a 360 degree horizontal by 27.4 degree vertical field of view. The display resolution exceeds 6.5 arcmins/OLP. The brightness exceeds 8 ftL and the contrast ratio exceeds 15:1.
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How does your constructive or virtual simulation play a "7 km day";, if at all? Although many simulators play a natural atmospheric environment, not all do so using quantitative, physics-based parameters or models. Fair-fight interplay of simulators within the same exercise will depend on quantifying both their fidelity and correlation; for simulation of environmental effects as simple as meteorological visibility and environment representations as complex as dynamic battlefield smoke, dust, chaff and illumination. This paper highlights the need for R&D models to better support physically-correct Model and Simulation (M&S) requirements. Objective procedures are needed to quantify and compare effects simulations. As examples, we consider the definition of visibility and the corresponding physical parameters to support Computer Image Generator (CIG) blending and fogging functions. An objective procedure for testing simulated visibility is defined, and example results are presented for one real-time simulation environment. We then turn to real-time simulation of embedded processes of smoke and dust. Three physics-based and statistics-based codes are described. The Combined Obscuration Model for Battlefield-Induced Contaminants (COM BIC) provides representation data for the dissemination, downwind diffusion and obscuration properties of military smoke and battlefield dust. It models the skeletal frame and opacity values needed to simulate propagation effects of smooth battlefield clouds. The Statistical Texturing Application to Battlefield-Induced Contaminants (STATBIC) is a texture-generating algorithm to impose transmission fluctuations through smoke and dust plumes based on atmospheric turbulence statistics. Finally, the Battlefield Emission and Multiple Scattering (BEAM S) code predicts the radiance or blending, color values needed to simulate contrast losses and to render a cloud as a function of sun-cloud-observer angle. We consider the generation and use of outputs from these models in both virtual and constructive simulations in general and as part of the DMSO Environmental Effects for DIS project.
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An increasing reliance on infrared (IR) sensors for accurate detection, classification, and tracking of Time-Critical Targets (TCTs) in background clutter has resulted in a growing need for physical model-based, yet real-time and affordable, weather-dependent diurnal IR image simulation of TCTs embedded in geospecific backgrounds for weapons systems training, mission planning, mission rehearsal as well as weapon system development and testing. The problem is that model-based IR image simulation requires time-consuming estimation of IR model parameters for a large number of objects, materials, and geographic areas. The problem becomes especially severe when simulating imagery of denied access areas where IR characteristics of background materials and objects for every pixel on the ground are unavailable or difficult to obtain. Therefore, we have developed an approach to weather-dependent diurnal IR background image simulation based on IR model parameter estimation from Multi-Spectral Imagery (MSI) such as available from commercial satellite and tactical reconnaissance sources. This paper describes the processes and results of thermal mass and visible emissivity estimation from Landsat Thematic Mapper visible and thermal band MSI data. Simulated thermal images of geospecific backgrounds at various times of day are shown using the estimated parameters and real geospecific weather data as inputs to AIRSIM - the US Air Force IR Synthetic Image Model. The significance of this approach is that the thermal models used can be applied equally well to targets and backgrounds. Use of the same physics-based model for both assures that there will be no false target/background contrast due to use of different models for each. Another major feature is that this approach allows automated generation of IR databases over large areas of terrain while retaining major thermal properties absent from DMA data, such as thermal mass. This allows for more complete and accurate representation of diurnal and weather effects in simulated imagery while achieving high realism from geospecific weather and terrain data.
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Helmet Mounted Displays (HMDs) have the potential for widespread use in military simulation and training applications. The Georgia Institute of Technology conducted an evaluation of currently available HMD technologies for the U.S. Army Simulation Training and Instrumentation Command (STRICOM). The evaluation included standard laboratory optical tests, human factors tests (with both pilots and human factors specialists making evaluations) and reliability/maintainability information. The focus of this paper will be on the human factors findings and ramifications for future evaluations. Psychophysical data included tests of spatial resolution as well as an "eye chart" presented through the optics. The psychophysical measures were supplemented with subjective assessments of images presented either singly or in a rapidly changing fashion (to show any flaws in the image drawing of the displays). Pilots and human factors specialists assessed the comfort of the helmet-mounted systems at regular intervals during the in-helmet phase of the testing. Each evaluator's anthropometric measurements were taken in order to better characterize the overall comfort and fit of the helmets.
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U.S. military services implement the functions of training development, acquisition, and management through process models referred to as Instructional Systems Development (ISD) or Systems Approach to Training (SAT). Due to differences in their missions, organizational structure, defense systems, training delivery systems, and training product formats, the services have developed distinct variations in their ISD/SAT models. The great reliance now being placed in computers to help perform ISD/SAT analyses makes the exchange of training data, analyses, and products between services difficult to accomplish. If the services are to effectively and efficiently achieve their training missions, the DoD training community will need to place greater emphasis on Joint Service training and the sharing of training data and analysis products. To foster the flow of training data between services, a Joint Service management initiative, named the Automated-Training Evaluation, Acquisition, and Management (A-TEAM) program, was undertaken from 1992 through 1995 to establish commonality, compatibility and interoperability in Department of Defense (DoD) training systems development and management. A key issue examined by the A-TEAM was the degree of commonality between the service-specific ISD/SAT processes.
This paper describes results of a comparative analysis performed on the ISD and SAT models used by the military services. The specific
models analyzed include:
Army SAT U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) Regulation350-7
Coast Guard Commandant Instruction (COMDTINST) 1550.9 and the Coast Guard Marine Corps SAT Marine Corps Combat Development Command (MCCDC) SAT Guide and other related references Navy ISD Naval Education and Training (NAVEDTRA)-130, -131, and -135 This analysis also aligned Military Standard (MIL-STD) 1379D tasks with the SAT/ISD models described above. As an ISD benchmark, the 1975 Interservice Training Review Organization (ITRO) ISD methodology (described in the rescinded NAVEDTRA-106A and TRADOC Pamphlet 350-30) provided the initial framework for the Joint Service process model. The A-TEAM ISD/SAT comparative analysis produced two outputs. First, an all-encompassing Master List; of DoD Training Development processes was identified. Second, a series of conclusions demonstrating that, although challenging and difficult, the successful exchange of training data and products across the services is possible regardless of ISD or SAT model differences.
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The computer age has brought forth an abundance of automated tools for hosting training development and management functions. Virtually all of these systems were designed and built to meet service-specific Instructional Systems Development/Systems Approach to Training (ISD/SAT) requirements. Many of these automated training tools are narrow in scope, while others contain comprehensive training support capabilities. Nearly all the tools operate independent of each other and have no data integration capabilities or integration plans. Consequently, most automated tools require extensive data handling by users or special interface modules to transfer training data and analysis products from one system to another. When viewed from a life-cycle perspective, whether from the acquisition of a defense system or the development of a professional/career management system, the ISD/SAT process has extensive functional breadth and depth. Literally hundreds of training development and management functions and sub-functions need to be performed to properly specify, acquire, field, and sustain an individual weapon system, a fully ready military force, or a professional work force. With so many diverse automated tools available to meet these ISD/SAT requirements, how can a military training organization select the tool or tools appropriate to meet their specific needs? This paper describes the findings of the Automated-Training Evaluation, Acquisition, and Management program (A-TEAM), which is a Joint Service initiative to demonstrate the feasibility of integrating a set of service-specific training development and management tools into a joint service training development capability. Research and analysis by the multi-service A-TEAM membership examined issues such as: Models. Could a "master list" of ISD/SAT processes and procedures be derived from existing service-specific and DoD models that would provide a comprehensive foundation for comparing automated training tool capabilities? Training Data Elements. Do DoD Standard Data Elements adequately accommodate the extensive cross-service differences in technical jargon, service-specific vocabulary, data element lengths, usage and intent? Are data elements an appropriate and feasible level for making automated training tool comparisons? Contractor-performed Training Developments. Can the requirements of contracted training development that is specified through use of MIL-STD-1379D, Military Training Programs, be met by these automated training tool capabilities? Tool Hardware and Software Requirements. Can a candidate tool that meets an organization's training development needs be supported by the computer hardware and software capabilities of the training organization? And will the tool be supported in the future? The A-TEAM program concluded that a way of selecting appropriate ISD/SAT tools is possible within the military training community. By correlating the automated training development processes and their data elements to the A-TEAM's training development "master list";, a highly versatile means of linking training process requirements and tool capabilities was developed. Correlation results identified training processes supported by automation, training processes not supported by automation, processes in compliance with DoD and service-specific doctrine, and common footprints as to whether data interfaces between tools are possible. Implementation of the lessons learned from these results will ensure the development of higher quality training products as well as avoid the continued development of duplicative tools and software. Current U.S. military downsizing and the related trends toward more Joint Service training (and less service-specific training) further heighten the usefulness of the A-TEAM training tool selection process and the need for further training development tool integration efforts.
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In implementing Air Force Space Command's (AFSPC) initiative to "normalize" space operations, the training offices at HQ AFSPC
have initiated a command-wide program to re-evaluate existing space systems training in view of current mission requirements. This initiative also seeks
opportunities for standardizing the training systems and devices/equipment. The means selected to perform this assessment is through the performance of a
Training Systems Requirements Analysis (TSRA). One of the first major space systems selected for this analysis was the Milstar satellite system. The
MILSATCOM Joint Program Office (MJPO) selected a contractor to perform an independent TSRA to evaluate the completeness of the Milstar training system, and
identify any deficiencies and/or enhancements necessary. Of particular interest to the MJPO and AFSPC was an evaluation of a Milstar satellite control
training simulator study accomplished in 1988 by the prime equipment contractor. The TSRA provided the data necessary to improve and complete the training
device specification, suggested changes in the Type 1 training for transition to AETC, and increased the effectiveness of the squadron-level training
programs. With the continued draw down of forces in the DOD, the subject of training will take on greater emphasis to maintain the technical skills and
readiness of the space force of the future. The subject of training analysis, planning, courseware development, and training services, especially as it
pertains to Air Force Space Command initiatives to normalize, standardize, and upgrade their training systems
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James M. Young, Ed.D.,
Marcia N. Murawski, Ed.D. US organizations spend millions of dollars each year on leadership training. Much of these expenditures go toward costly personal growth seminars. What are these organizations getting for their money? Conger(1993) says that, without paying attention to transfer-of-training, organizations can get snake oil for their effort and expense. Personal growth approaches, as well as conceptual, feedback, or skill-based approaches are also deficient, sometimes even when they are used in combination. This is because all these approaches: rely on mythology, have low content sufficiency, result in little transfer of training, aren't reinforced back on the job by the organizational infrastructure and support processes, fail to take a systems perspective, and are often one-shot attempts at achieving long-term change. This paper describes a process model (Welch, 1994) for an integrated, systems-oriented, developmental approach to leadership development. Additionally it proposes a methodology for implementing the approach and a brief discussion of early-stages of implementation in an ongoing case study. Limitations of the approach are discussed, as well as suggested modifications.
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This paper describes the formation of the first Process Action Team (PAT) in Defense Programs (DP), which is a program area in the Department of Energy (DOE). PATs exist to allow the workforce to participate in solving problems that might traditionally be the responsibility of managers. This process is intended to empower the workforce and to lead to greater productivity through motivation and increase in self-esteem. The PAT in DP had a mission to produce an action plan to define the training and qualification needs across this DOE program area. Both the team processes and the product will be discussed. Lessons learned will be presented from the point of view of the PAT facilitator.
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Since the mid 1980's MANPRINT has been required to be integrated into the acquisition of all Army systems, to include training devices and simulators. However, the success of this endeavor has not always been apparent. In late 1987 the Project Manager for Training Devices (PM TRADE) formed an organization called the Joint Army/Industry MANPRINT Working Group. It comprised MANPRINT advocates from industry, academia, and government and was chartered with developing methods of integrating MANPRINT into training device and simulator acquisitions. The Working Group used the Close Combat Tactical Trainer (CCTT) Training Device Needs Statement (TDNS) and the Training Device Requirements Document (TDR) as the baseline to make its recommendations for development of solicitation packages. The fact that the documents were for the CCTT program was not made known to the Working Group participants; a fictitious program title, Ironfist Landbattle Simulator (ILS), was substituted. Later the US Army adapted most of the Working Group's recommendations and incorporated large portions of the ILS documentation into the CCTT solicitation (i.e., Statement of Work, specification, proposal requirements). This paper will examine the development of the MANPRINT requirements for the US Army's largest training simulator: how they originated in the Joint Army/Industry MANPRINT Working Group and later transitioned to the CCTT solicitation; what the Army's expectations were prior to and during the CCTT evaluation; what actually contributed to the winning proposal from a MANPRINT perspective; what has occurred since the award of the CCTT contract to IBM Federal Systems (now LORAL); and how successful MANPRINT has been in influencing the design of the CCTT system. In addition this paper will address "lessons learned"; by the Government and discuss lessons applicable to industry.
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STARS (Software Technology for Adaptable, Reliable Systems) is a long running ARPA project aimed at advancing the management, quality,
adaptability, and reliability of DoD software intensive systems. Over the years, the STARS project has gradually focused on enabling a paradigm shift of DoD
software practices to megaprogramming, or software product line As part of the STARS project, The U.S. Navy and the ARPA are presently funding a megaprogramming demonstration project in the domain of Air Vehicle Training Systems (AVTS). The focus of this demonstration is the construction of a domain capable of supporting multiple instances of the Navy's training systems product family. This demonstration concludes in October of 1995. If megaprogramming proves useful in this domain, it promises dramatic increases in productivity along with corresponding reductions in the cost of building simulators. Given the progress and investment in this technology thus far, it is appropriate to consider the changes in the training systems community that will occur if megaprogramming in the AVTS domain proves successful. Clearly, there will be significant changes in the nature of the training systems development, both in terms of technical practices and business practices. This paper introduces megaprogramming, discusses the challenges involved in adopting megaprogramming, and finally speculates as to the implications of change in the community if megaprogramming is adopted. The discussion is based on the experiences and lessons learned on the project.
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Programs requiring system development with high content of Commercial off the Shelf (COTS) hardware and software are becoming more prevalent in the federal marketplace. Much of the emphasis on COTS solutions is driven by the need to lower the cost and deployment time of new systems to meet reduced budgets. Another factor is the availability of powerful COTS information systems technology to facilitate government processes. This paper highlights the results of a Loral Federal Systems initiative to use lessons learned on recent COTS-based projects to define a COTS integration and support model for guiding future projects. Individual projects have achieved varying degrees of success in adapting traditional system development processes and management practices in the high-COTS environment. This project experience is a key resource. This initial model will be refined and matured in the future. This paper provides: (1) observations about the current state of COTS integration, (2) description of a model for a COTS integration and support process, and (3) discussion of COTS project lessons learned and their incorporation in the COTS process.
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Being responsible for agreeing NATO wide the standards on simulation interoperability, the way, the Independent Specialists Working Group 4 (ISWG.4) works and the achievements already obtained, are explained. Also, current and future activities of ISWG.4 are mentioned. The paper offers insights into NATO policy concerning interoperability for Simulation Training and gives a view in the importance of networked training systems for Commanders and their Staffs of a multinational coalition force. One of the first Partnership for Peace (PfP) workshops was organised by ISWG.4. Experiences with PfP and lessons learned are within this paper.
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Mr. Raymond G. Moore The proposed concept is designed to aid the Air Mobility Command (AMC) to bring their "dysfunctional systems"; into an operational functional state by applying an integrated Systems Engineering (SE) approach with an Instructional System Design (ISD) approach based on the principles and philosophies of Total Quality Management (TQM). Additionally, this concept identifies some required information and training system management tools to be integrated with the functional training system that will allow AMC and AMC's Aircrew Training System (ATS) prime contractors to take a proactive approach in enhancing training effectiveness, continually improving training output product quality, and increasing cost efficiencies by focusing on the overall mission objective of AMC's training system. Informational Note: The "Total Training Concept" is not the single contractor approach for developing and operating AMC's training system as espoused in previous training system training approaches. The major short coming of the single contractor concept is that it is in direct conflict with the Federal Acquisition Regulations (FARs). The presented concept promotes the fundamental foundation of the FARs by providing a vehicle through which AMC can: increase their training system's ability to provide more effective training; provide a consistently higher quality student output from the various aircrew training systems; decrease the overall life cycle operating cost of the total training system; promote equitable cost competitiveness among Aircrew Training System prime contractors; provide AMC with the tools and information to adequately evaluate true "Best Value" among ATS prime contractor bids; enhance AMC's student information management capability; and promote more effective and efficient aircrew/aircraft cross training.
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Mr. Gerrit K. Spieker
Ms. Joan E. Hendrix The C- 17 Aircrew Training System (ATS) Life Cycle Cost (LCC) model is being constructed around the approved Wright Patterson AFB, Aeronautical System Division Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) for Aircrew Training Systems as modified for the C-17 ATS program. Structuring the LCC model around this established WBS provided the framework so that the model is generic enough to fundamentally analyze any integrated training system. In addition the use of this approved WBS allows the model predictions to be easily integrated and compatible with a prime contractor's accounting system used to perform cost accumulations , cost reporting, budgeting, and cost tracking. Rather than make the C- 17 ATS LCC model a pure accounting type of LCC model , a decision was made to integrate the functional parameter algorithms of each WBS element with the cost element relationship algorithms of each WBS element. This caused the model to be more of an engineering type of model in which the predicted outputs of the model are sensitive to input data , and changes in the input data to the model (i.e. program and pragmatic data changes) . As a result , the model can be used to make early predictions for program development and acquisition decisions and can then be re-used during the operations and support phase to make continuing economic decisions based on actual annual operational decisions. Because of the automated capability of the model , the vast array of integrated cost analysis tools embedded within the model , and the complete on-line documentation features of the model , the information necessary to understand what elements within the system are cost drivers, why these cost drivers exist, and which LCC inputs have the greatest influence on these cost drivers is readily available to the analyst . The complete on-line documentation provides different analyst using the model the ability to easily adapt the model to their specific needs , and provide program management with a quick and flexible method of preparing required program cost and budget reports.
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