I/ITSEC 1996
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Training, Development and Delivery
Network Delivery Of Training On Demand
A Comparison Of Interactive Courseware (ICW) Authoring Systems
Designing Electronic Performance Support Systems
The Development Of A Multimedia CBT System For RAF Tristar Training
VBA Networked, Multimedia, Multimethod, Training, Performance Support, And Credentialing System
A Combat Mission Team Performance Model: Development And Initial Application
An Assessment Methodology For Team Coordination In Combat Mission Training
Implications Of Crew Resource Management (CRM) Training For Tank Crews
Training To Improve Situational Awareness
Unique Strategies For Developing Embedded Interactive Courseware (ICW)
Education, Instruction, and Training Methodology
Automated Prescriptive Assessments And Interactive Distance Learning
Eliminating The Square One Syndrome: Nicnak: A One Year Study
Increasing Speed And Flexibility Of Feedback Systems For DIS Exercises
Simulating The Big One: Use Of Simulation For Disaster Training
The World Wide Web And Instruction
Simulation And Computer-Based Technologies For Education
Emerging Technologies In Training And Development
Rave: An Interactive Multimedia System For Acquisition Of Vocabulary
Simulator Sickness In Tank Driver Trainers
Automated Primary Helicopter Instruction: The Intelligent Flight Trainer
Designing The Visual Identification Training Solution
Simulation and Training Systems
Integrated Logistics Management System For The Battle Force Tactical Training Program
Speech Synthesis/Recognition/Gisting Technology For CGF/SAFOR Applications
Multi-Media Solutions For Aircraft Recognition Training In The Royal Air Force
Embedded Training For Tactical Aircraft: Its Time Has Come
A Low-Cost Cockpit Familiarisation Trainer For The Eh101 Helicopter
Use Of Aircraft Operational Flight Programs (OFPS) On Maintenance Trainers
Addressing Emerging Operational Requirements With Legacy Models
Objective Verification Of The Tanker Visual Position
Mirage - A New Kind Of Visualization Tool
Microlaser-Based Projection Display For Simulation
Multiple Image Suppression In A Low-Cost Visual System
A "System Of Systems" Joint Training, Analysis, And Simulation Center (JTASC)
Integrating Exercise Control And Feedback Systems In DIS
Modeling and Simulation
In: The 'N' Dimensions Of Interoperability
Techniques For Interoperability Between Terrain Data Bases
Providing Common Munition Models Via An Ordnance Server
Extensible Emission Modeling: A Medium-Centric Approach
Requirements For Intelligent Aircraft Entities In Distributed Environments
Human Immersion Into The DIS Battlefield
Player Instrumentation For Urban-Environment Training And Testing
Modeling Individual Humans For Computer Generated Forces
Target Recognition And Identification In 21st Century Training Systems
Low-Cost Visual Simulation: Workstations Or Image Generators
High-Resolution Terrain Database Issues In Distributed Interactive Simulations
A Dialog On The Limitations Of DIS
Selecting An Architecture For Use In Simulators
A Common Behavior Approach To Integrating Heterogeneous Simulations
A Technique For Modeling Flame Using Physically-Based Methods
An Approach For A Configurable And Accessible Environment Model
Virtual World Environment Simulation In Distributed Simulations
Research & Development Technology Application
The Basic Fighter Maneuver Visualization Trainer
An Eye Tracking System For Analysis Of Pilots' Scan Paths
Integration Of Highly Accurate Speech Recognition With Natural Language Processing
High Level Architecture And The Platform Proto-Federation
Design And Implementation Of The BDS-D/HLA Gateway
Connection Of Live Simulation And Virtual Simulation
Affordable Creation, Modification, And Distribution Of A Distributed Synthetic Environment
Database Design For Maximum Reuse
Database Conversion - One Experience
Dynamic Terrain In Distributed Simulation Systems
Modeling Dynamic Terrain In A Distributed Interactive Simulation
An Implementation Of Damageable Buildings In A Virtual Environment
Dynamic Fluids Applied To A Surf Zone Environment
CIG Scene Realism: The World Tomorrow
Evaluation Of A Multi-Axis Dynamic Cueing Seat For Use In Helicopter Training Devices
Policy and Management
High-Speed Management Approach To Foreign Military Sales
European Defence Technology Activities Related To Simulation
The OTT Spider: A Year On The Web
Paving The Way For 21st Century Training: The Synthetic Theater Of War
The Ying And Yang Of A Competitive Downselect Process
Distributed Synthetic Environment
Improving The Acquisition Process Using Advanced Distributed Simulation (ADS)
Applying Virtual Prototying And Advanced Distributed Simulation To Warfighting Needs
Contracting For Integrated Product Development Teams
Integrated Product Development/Leadership Training Case Study
Streamlining A Development Process
Considerations For Using Modeling And Simulation In Operational Test And Evaluation
Behavioural Fidelity Requirements Analysis
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The objective of this paper is to describe and compare alternatives for delivering multi-media training material over different kinds of networks. The industry requirement is to provide timely and cost-effective Training on Demand in a variety of settings. There are several different approaches using LAN, WAN, Client-Server, and the Internet. The content of this paper is intended to facilitate the selection of the most appropriate method for a given situation. Before getting into the details of multi-media and networking however, some background discussion on Training on Demand is in order.
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This paper presents the results of a study conducted to compare interactive courseware (ICW) authoring systems in order to select the most appropriate system for use in conversion of an Air Mobility Command (AMC) paper-based "correspondence" program. The Air Force stipulated evaluation of a minimum of three authoring systems, including development of demonstration programs for each. A final presentation was required to summarize and compare systems. A preliminary evaluation of 33 systems was performed. The list was narrowed to six systems where a more focused evaluation was performed. This list was narrowed to four systems, where an extensive evaluation was performed, along with demonstration program development. Data was collected including information from literature review, interviews, and demonstration program development. This information was used to answer specific questions submitted by HQ AMC that were determined pertinent in choosing an authoring system to meet their needs. Findings were summarized in a table based on critical system features. Representatives from Air Education and Training Command/Training Support Squadron (AETC/TRSS) weighed each feature in terms of importance in their daily jobs. In an independent exercise, evaluators ranked each system on the same features. A weighted score was obtained for each system by multiplying the weight by the ranking. Variations of this table could serve as a tool for evaluating authoring systems for other applications. This paper describes how an authoring system was evaluated for one specific use, based on evaluation of features. Cost was not considered as a factor, but was reported for consideration by the government in their final decision. Readers can use the evaluation method and instruments described in this paper to evaluate authoring systems for other applications.
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Electronic Performance Support Systems are designed to provide information, training, and resources to users on an "on-demand" basis. This approach differs from traditional computer-based training systems in the organization, the amount of control the users maintain, and the integration with an on-the-job context. The design of a PSS is quite different from the design of computer-based instruction. Although an overall menu structure may exist, the user generally has a great deal of freedom to move around in the system and access specific parts. In addition, hyperlinks usually exist to connect multimedia and textual resources. This article provides guidelines and suggestions for the design and development of electronic performance support systems for maintenance and troubleshooting procedures.
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Shortly after the Falklands War the Royal Air Force (RAF) acquired a fleet of 9 Lockheed L1011-500 TriStar aircraft for use in the Air-to-Air Refueling and Air Transport roles. Most of these aircraft were purchased from British Airways (BA), who have also provided training facilities for RAF TriStar aircrew to the present day. However, a new RAF TriStar flight simulator will enter service during Nov 96 and BA training will then cease. A Course Design Team (CDT) was therefore formed in Apr 94 to produce all associated courseware for an RAF TriStar training course. After carrying out a training needs analysis, the CDT decided that Computer Based Training (CBT) would be the most appropriate and cost effective instructional strategy for TriStar technical training. However, the limited time and resources available for the project made it impossible to use a civilian contractor to produce the CBT lessons. The Team therefore decided to produce their own CBT course using a range of commercially available software for PC computers. The project is now well advanced and progressing on schedule. This paper describes how the CDT specified the hardware and software suite on which the courseware was to be developed and deployed. It goes on to explain how the courseware standards and guidelines evolved. The method of production will be outlined and the final format of delivery will be explained. The problems encountered will be detailed, as will the techniques used to overcome them. Finally, the paper aims to show that a small team can successfully produce an effective multimedia CBT system within tight deadlines and constraints.
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The Veterans Benefits Administration (VBA) is undergoing a tripartite modernization: information systems; business processes and
organizational structures; and performance-based employee education, training, and credentialing. The latter effort is the focus of this paper.
A prototype training, performance support, and credentialing system is being built for the rating specialist occupation. Rating specialists perform
legal, medical, and policy analysis, decision-making, and synthesis of veterans benefits claims. Due to the high-cognitive nature of the job and the
requirement to provide distributed training at 58 regional offices, VBA has designed a system that is networked, multimedia, and multimethod,
based on a three aspect job and task analysis (behavioral, cognitive, and work process flow) and on learning analyses which synthesizes behavioral,
cognitive, affective, experiential, cooperative, and adult facilitative approaches. The system integrates a variety of delivery technologies
(networked, cooperatively structured ICW; videoteletraining; electronic performance support system; case studies; job aids). Extensive trial and
validation activities are included in contract requirements. Performance-based criterion tests are being built, validated, and tested for reliability;
these will also be used for employee credentialing. Anticipated benefits include reduction of training time from 18 to 6 months; cost avoidance in
excess of $30M; significant performance improvement in the rate of claims processed yearly,
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Steven J. Tourville
Robert T. Nullmeyer Aircrew coordination is now an integral part of all Air Force combat mission training. A vast body of literature exists that deals with aircrew coordination, a subset of which addresses combat mission training. While it is commonly assumed that effective aircrew coordination leads to improved mission performance, surprisingly few studies have demonstrated an empirical link between them using tactically realistic combat scenarios. We present a conceptual model of team performance measurement in which aircrew coordination, team performance, mission performance and their interrelationships are operationally defined. The model builds on the seminal study conducted by the Air Force (Povenmire, Rockway, Bunecke, & Patton, 1989) and provides a useful framework for interpreting crew resource management research from other laboratories. Validation of the model has begun with Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC) MC-130P aircrews and preliminary data are provided that support key elements of the model.
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V. Alan Spiker
Denise R. Silverman Hughes Training, Inc. -
Robert T. Nullmeyer Human Resources Directorate Team Mission Observation Tool (T-MOT) was developed to identify individual and team behavioral processes observed during a specialized, simulation-based program of Combat Mission Training (CMT) conducted for U.S. Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC) MC-130P Special Operations Forces (SOF) aircrew teams. The T-MOT, its foundations, development, and purpose are described. Measurement is accomplished within the T-MOT using behaviorally anchored rating scales and subject matter expert observations of key behaviors tied to a complex CMT scenario. The T-MOT supports recording and analysis of both individual and aircrew team behaviors within five Crew Resource Management (CRM) subprocesses (time management; tactics employment; function allocation; situation awareness; and command, control, and communications) across critical mission phases. Additionally, the T-MOT provides structure to direct observations of complex performances demonstrated during both mission preparation and mission execution. With this methodology, an internally consistent and reliable "record by exception" measurement philosophy for recording specific aircrew team mission behaviors demonstrated during CMT is provided.
The T-MOT is being used to address several research questions: With this assessment approach, team coordination process indices have been identified for emphasis using current CMT technologies; a schema for improving team coordination training within existing capabilities was identified; and CMT system effectiveness was assessed. Additionally, the T-MOT has demonstrated the potential to be expanded to other CMT environments with only modest modification, and can be viewed as the first step in the development of an overall team mission readiness assessment tool.
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Mission effectiveness of US Army tank crews may be enhanced by applying principles of Crew Resource Management (CRM). A recent study of the US Army Safety Center Database identified a number of tank accidents, particularly during non-combat operations, that involved deficiencies in crew coordination. In addition, data from the Center for Army Lessons Learned indicates that CRM may play a role in fratricide accidents. In the late 1970s, findings of crew coordination problems in aviation accidents created the impetus for mandated CRM training for aircrews. The purpose of this paper is to explore evidence of tank CRM-related problems and investigate the possible applications of aviation-derived CRM training to tank crews. CSERIAC's analysis of crew coordination-related tank accidents suggests that the application of CRM principles to tank crews may increase mission effectiveness and operational safety. Several factors support the application of CRM principles to tank crews. These factors include increases in automation, the criticality of shared perceptions, possible information overload, and increasing requirements for team decision-making on the digital battlefield. Developing a comprehensive strategy to improve tank CRM appears to be timely. Although surface similarities of aircraft and armor crews imply that CRM training courses could be directly applied from the air cockpit to the ground vehicle, it is important to understand the differences between these two crew environments and to appreciate the unique CRM needs of tank crews.
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The Air Force is currently implementing 3 D modeling and simulation technologies on a new training system for Airborne Warning and
Control System s (AWAC S ) Weapons Directors (WDs ). When students are l earning to become AWAC S WDs , t hey must attain the knowledge and develop the
judgment and decision-making abilities required to direct fighters in combat . The most critical skill they learn is how to maintain situational awareness
of the 4D air environment . The WD must t l earn to recognize which tactics are being employed during an engagement and be able to anticipate a pi lot ' s
needs and serve them . While they are communicating, both pilot and WD need to have the same conceptual understanding of what is taking place in the air
situation. Until now, AWAC S WDs gained this knowledge solely through mission experience.
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Historical data has shown that effective and efficient simulator training depends largely on how students prepare for learning on the simulator. Typical preparation for simulator training consists of classroom and stand-alone computer-based training (CBT), which focus on individual objectives for learning facts, concepts, principles, or procedures. During simulator training, students are expected to develop the mental models and metaskills that will enable them to transfer their skills to new situations. Because traditional pre-simulator training tasks are learned individually, students often have difficulty integrating multiple objectives in order to develop proficiency in complex tasks. Embedded interactive courseware (ICW) can improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the simulator by providing learning activities which specifically address (1) understanding the "big picture," (2) deriving meaning from visual and auditory cues, (3) understanding the three-dimensional environment, and (4) practicing procedures in which cues and responses are simplified but essentially the same as those in the simulator. Using a multidisciplinary team of instructional designers, software engineers, and subject matter experts to design simulator modes, capabilities, and feedback mechanisms to support the goals of skill building and transfer is the best approach to designing a simulator which integrates embedded ICW. This paper describes the application of the new paradigm of instructional development to the analysis and design of embedded ICW and the unique strategies for developing embedded ICW as part of the total simulation training system. Recommendations for evaluation strategies are given, and considerations for future research areas are presented.
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Distance learning technology provides the capability to reach multiple, distant, and geographically-dispersed locations with high-quality, real-time instruction. Interactivity improves comprehension and serves as a catalyst for effective learning when coupled with competent design and multimedia. This paper discusses combining the promises of distance learning and interactivity as the basis for an automated prescriptive assessment process. Participants in the United States Atlantic Command's UNIFIED ENDEAVOR exercises attend a relevant curriculum of seminars. They arrive with varying knowledge and experience levels in the processes and procedures associated with the effective functioning of a Joint Task Force Headquarters staff. An automated assessment process will determine individual needs and prescribe tailored curricula and courseware products. Properly focused interactive multimedia courseware can significantly enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of distance learning to meet training requirements.
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Military downsizing and budget reductions are reducing Navy training resources, including instructor personnel. Without effective interventions Navy training may be adversely affected. A technology solution that has widespread appeal in the training arena is the development and use of interactive courseware to reduce the time to train and to diminish overall training costs. An emerging technology at the Naval Education and Training Program Management Support Activity (NETPMSA) in Pensacola, Florida, is a unique design and development process which helps classroom instructors or subject matter experts create interactive courseware for computer-based training. The courseware may be used to facilitate, remediate, or replace classroom instruction. NETPMSA's Interactive Courseware Novice Authoring Kit (NICNAK) helps individuals and military commands create interactive courseware which will meet their specific needs. Service personnel receive a one-week intensive training session in the NICNAK process. Once the NICNAK graduates leave NETPMSA, they receive on-going assistance from the various resident experts at NETPMSA. Whether the request is an instructional design question, a programming problem, or a need for state-of-the-art visual technology, NETPMSA stands ready to assist the novice team. Importantly, NICNAK is a synergistic effect of team interaction and people dynamics. The underlying tenet of the NICNAK process is the elimination of the "Square One Syndrome." Individuals that participate in the training receive more than just a manual, software and stand-up lectures. They become vital members in an interactive, interservice network which shares ideas, projects, templates and lessons learned. NICNAK facilitates collaboration and innovation while reducing competition and repetition. This paper will take a brief look at NICNAK's inception one year ago and describe how it has evolved in just a short time from an in-house survival model to one that is being adopted by development teams throughout the NAVEDTRACOM and beyond. Additionally, a description of the actual NICNAK Training Week 1 class is presented including the course's scope and methodology. Student participants are identified by command and a short discussion of a Trainee Selection Instrument which, currently in development, is presented. Since NICNAK is a service-oriented process, the NETPMSA staff must be readily available to field novice questions and solve problems. Electronic access allows NETPMSA's staff to meet with development team members individually; users' group teleconferencing will allow NICNAK graduates to share the projects' library, new templates, and lessons learned. The paper concludes with trainee critiques of the NICNAK process, resulting course changes and plans for the future.
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The After Action Review (AAR) is an interactive discussion intended to help Army units decide what happened during an exercise, decide why it happened, and identify potential corrective actions. An AAR system may facilitate this process by providing aids that portray exercise events (ground truth) from a variety of perspectives. One of the major challenges of an AAR system is that of providing appropriate AAR aids within about ten minutes after exercises conducted in the distributed interactive simulation (DIS) environment. A second challenge is to provide the flexibility necessary to adapt the AAR aids to the results of a specific exercise. The Automated Training Analysis and Feedback System (ATAFS) was developed to help trainers prepare AAR aids as soon as possible after the end of an exercise, by, in part, the application of a knowledge database to support automatic generation of candidate AAR aids. This paper describes the AAR process, the workload of trainers, the ATAFS approach to assisting trainers, and the strengths and shortfalls of this approach.
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As part of a recent technology transfer initiative on the part of the U.S. Armed Forces, constructive simulation models are being modified to train civilian leaders in the area of emergency management and disaster relief. This paper will propose a methodology for ensuring that training effectiveness will be maximized throughout the development cycle, as simulations are converted from military to civilian application. An outline for the design of a simulation exercise is included that can be used to design and conduct effective training exercises using constructive simulation. The design methodology calls for the sharing of technology resources across various community segments, including schools, health and emergency aid agencies, and government organizations.
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The Internet and the World Wide Web provide great avenues for the dissemination of training materials. Of special interest to trainers who are exploring new instructional paradigms is the potential for worldwide, on-demand instruction, such as interactive tutorials, simulations, and testing. This paper explores the readiness of the Internet as an instructional delivery environment capable of the dissemination of multimedia-based materials that provide interactive transactions with a learner. The advantages and disadvantages of techniques that represent opportunities to provide meaningful interactions will be outlines. In addition, design guidelines will be provided for creating instructional materials on the World Wide Web. These guidelines include recommendations for page layout, text styles, graphics formats, multimedia components, and navigation options.
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The paper presents results from a study of how effectively technology has been implemented in K-12 classrooms. The study also examined the need to train current and future teachers on the use of educational technologies, through inservice and preservice training programs and within colleges of education. The paper will discuss how and why the Department of Defense (DoD) can assist in this implementation. The objectives of the study included (1) to recommend uses of DoD simulation and other computer related technologies for school systems and (2) to recommend how to effectively integrate technologies into these school systems. Literature searches, site visits, interviews, the use of consultants and presentations given at a forum produced several findings and recommendations that are reported in the paper.
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Pervasive technologies such as PC-based distance learning and multimedia, affordable high resolution data/video projection systems, full screen/full motion MPEG encode/decode, low-cost custom CD-ROM production, and widespread Internet access are revolutionizing the learning environment. The result: instructors and students alike are confronted with an unprecedented choice of means and methodologies. In particular, putting the right tools in the hands of the instructor can significantly increase individual and overall productivity. Easy to learn/easy to use icon-based multimedia authoring software means that instructors can play a far greater role in developing and modifying course materials to suit individual class and student needs; PC-based classroom and in-classroom aids such as multimedia lecterns, data/video displays, and PC-based student monitoring and response systems vastly improve the efficiency of courseware delivery. Many of these options have been carefully evaluated and prototyped in electronic classroom upgrades taking place at the Special Operations Mission Training Support System (MTSS) at Kirtland AFB in Albuquerque, New Mexico. This paper describes the initial performance and procurement criteria, problems and solutions involving new facility application, and subsequent experiences in implementing a flexible, multi-aircraft training environment for the 58th Special Operations Wing.
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In 1990, Essential Learning Systems (ELS) was developed as a multi-sensory interactive process designed to facilitate developmental language for students with known learning difficulties. It was noted that non-English speakers, particularly from Mexico, were able to successfully use ELS to grasp English as a second language. Because of that success, it was hypothesized that applications of ELS would work for other non-English speaking students. As a result, a test site was established at University of North Dakota. During the testing process, gaps were noted in the ELS technology. Changes and improvements made as a result of these findings led to the development of Reactive Acquisition of Vocabulary Elements (RAVE). RAVE is an interactive multimedia system designed to create an immediate reaction to an English word whether spoken, written, or communicated through a graphic illustration or simulation. The literature suggests that the benefits associated with reactive vocabulary are the match between the paradigm and the cognitive systems for visual language processing. By stimulating the brain through sight, sound, and written and graphic displays, RAVE allows for a more complete comprehension of vocabulary. RAVE also increases comprehension by offering the option of screen and instruction presentations in the user's native language.
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The M1 Tank Driver Trainer (TDT) is an excellent example of how computer-based simulators can provide training that is less expensive, safer, and more flexible than training conducted with operational equipment. The TDT uses computer-generated imagery and a six-degree of freedom motion base to provide training for the driver of the M1 Abrams main battle tank. The TDT facility at Ft. Knox , KY can provide training for 18 drivers simultaneously, all running independent scenarios. The TDT will save millions of dollars over its life cycle. Unfortunately, as with many simulators that depict movement, simulator sickness is a concern because it can potentially degrade training effectiveness and affect the well-being of trainees. At the request of the U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC), the U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (ARI) conducted research to determine if TDT training was being affected by simulator sickness and, if so, ways to either prevent or alleviate it. ARI collected baseline data on the incidence and severity of symptoms reported by a One Station Unit Training company during their first and some subsequent training sessions. Symptoms were measured using questionnaires, interviews, and a test of balance. For comparison purposes, symptoms were measured following field driving sessions with actual M1 tanks. In addition, Instructor/Operators (I/Os) were interviewed concerning their observations on simulator sickness, and I/O records were tabulated for companies that had previously trained with the simulator. This paper provides background information on simulator sickness, discusses the incidence and severity of symptoms experienced by TDT trainees, changes in symptoms over time, recommendations for alleviating simulator sickness, and how the Ft. Knox User benefited from those recommendations. In addition, suggestions are presented for simulator sickness research to guide the future design and use of Virtual Environments for training.
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The Army Research Institute Rotary Wing Aviation Research Unit (ARI RWARU) has developed and evaluated a family of low-cost training devices designed specifically to support initial entry training in rotary wing flight. This effort has led to the development of the Intelligent Flight Trainer (IFT) which is an automated, Expert System based device designed to train the basic helicopter flight skills such as hovering flight and traffic pattern flight. The UH-1 Training Research Simulator (UH-1TRS), developed in FY86, demonstrated that a low-cost trainer could: 1) Provide positive Transfer of Training (TOT) to the UH-1 aircraft using Army Initial Entry Rotary Wing (IERW) flight students as research subjects. 2) Substitute for actual UH-1 flight time in Primary Phase IERW training. 3) Serve as a vehicle for the development of the Automated Hover Trainer; an Expert System (ES) based training device that demonstrated positive TOT to hovering skills in the UH-1 aircraft. The UH-1TRS/Automated Hover Trainer (AHT) was shown to support significant TOT to the aircraft at substantially reduced training cost given that the hourly operating cost of the simulator is approximately 10% that of the aircraft. The AHT used ES logic to provide initial training in hovering flight in lieu of a dedicated Instructor Pilot (IP). As the Army adopted the TH-67 Creek aircraft for Primary Phase IERW training, it was necessary to upgrade the low-cost trainer to the TH-67 airframe. The IFT was developed to simulate the TH-67 and to further develop the idea of automated initial entry training to include additional maneuvers from the Primary Phase IERW curriculum. Work in FY96 has developed a TH-67 simulator from a crashed OH-58 airframe and further developed the automated training concept to train traffic pattern maneuvers using Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS) technology. The IFT is designed for implementation as a primary pre-trainer for IERW students who learn basic flight skills in the simulator and then transfer those skills to the helicopter on the flight line saving training costs and enhancing flight training safety.
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On 14, April 1994, a tragic and avoidable accident occurred over the skies of Northern Iraq when two US Army helicopters were mistakenly shot down by two US Air Force F-15s and twenty-six persons were killed. Reports from the investigation indicate that a number of factors contributed to the accidental shootdown. Most prominent among these factors was the visual mis-identification of the Black Hawk helicopters. Visual identification training programs in the Air Force and across the Department of Defense had changed little from their inception a half century earlier and needed overhaul to avoid the symptomatic repetition of incidents such as that of the Black Hawk shootdown. This paper outlines the successful approach taken to insure the swift, appropriate, instructional and software design, development, implementation and evaluation of the needed training intervention titled Joint Visual Identification (JVID) training system.
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This paper presents an overview of a system design developed for the US Navy Battle Force Tactical Training (BFTT) program by a joint team of PHD NSWC, Eldyne, Inc. and RAC, Inc., of San Diego CA, Focus Learning Corporation of Pismo Beach, CA, and Wunderlich-Malec Engineering of Minnetonka, MN. This design provides a means to integrate all Interactive Courseware (ICW), Interactive Electronic Technical Manuals (IETM), and other required logistical support information into an electronic delivery system. The system described utilizes Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) hardware and software components to build the database and communications capabilities for the system, and includes the following capabilities:
1 .An integrated methodology for defining and streamlining the development of logistical support information, principally IETM's and ICW. The COTS technology is comprised of several applications. The foundation application provides a method to analyze and build a database of training requirements or objectives. Based on these requirements, training or performance support content is defined. This content is linked in the database to the requirements or objectives, and therefore provides a means to identify and maintain content when objectives or requirements change. In addition, linkages are provided to off-the-shelf ICW authoring packages, which in turn deliver actual IETM or ICW modules. Finally, a client/server messaging technique, successfully demonstrated in the commercial marketplace, is used to distribute and maintain version control of the IETM or ICW modules, and provides links to information from other logistical support databases. Current efforts for BFTT are focusing on the first four of the capabilities described, which are configuration management and definition, and development of IETM and ICW modules. Integration of the delivery technology will come at a later date.
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The need for environments in which to conduct large scale joint force concept development, tactics validation, and training is axiomatic. The human is the most scaleable, capable, reusable, reconfigurable, and sophisticated component in these systems; s/he is also the most expensive, obviating the need for synthetic environments and computer generated/semi-automated forces (CGF/SAFOR). But consider that although we continue to move towards a completely digital battlespace, voice communication remains the backbone of current generation command, control, and communication (C3). The logical conclusion is the implied requirement for robust speech synthesis, recognition, and gisting technology in synthetic environments and an approach for their integration with CGF/SAFOR. Speaker independent, continuous speech recognition technology is available commercially off-the-shelf (COTS) and achieves real-time recognition rates of better than 95% accuracy in the laboratory acoustic environment on vocabularies of up to 2,000 words. This same technology, when subjected to an acoustic environment more comparable to a tactical command post, achieves only a 70% word recognition rate. The application of our gisting technology, the understanding of dialog based on context and situational awareness, can restore the key command phrase recognition rate to nearly 98%. This level of accuracy enables the construction of a large class of CGF/SAFOR applications with greatly improved realism, fidelity, and intuitive interfaces.
The work to be presented includes:
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In the last few years there has been an ever increasing use of Computer Based Training (CBT) and Technology Enhanced Training (TET)
throughout the British Armed Forces. A notable exception to this trend is the field of Aircraft Recognition; where training is still predominantly
carried out by acknowledged recognition expert(s) using a mix of photographs, slideshows and briefings. These methods are costly, time consuming and
involve minimal student interaction. Opportunities for self study and assessment are limited by the distribution of expensive, recognition specific,
journals and magazines which, although they contain excellent source material, have limited training benefit.
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Embedded Training (ET) systems for tactical aircraft have shown promise over the years as effective training media. However, these systems have gained only limited acceptance because of concerns about impacts on aircraft availability, performance, safety, and affordability. Recent technological advances, however, show that ET can overcome these concerns and become a key component of the total training system for the next generation of tactical aircraft, such as those resulting from the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program. In the next century, tactical aircraft must address a new training requirement. Not only will the pilot be trained to operate his aircraft and all its weapon systems, he will have to learn to operate in a more fully integrated joint battlespace. This will require familiarity with a myriad of support systems, joint forces and integrated command and control. The total training system of the future must also provide for delivery of training and mission rehearsal wherever the aircraft and pilot are deployed. ET is a viable training media to meet all these needs. In-flight, it can enhance the training fidelity of existing range facilities to support more complex training scenarios. It can also provide a "portable range" for team training capability anywhere/anytime. On the ground, ET can support continuation training wherever the pilot and aircraft are deployed. ET can link the aircraft with the emerging global training network system. New aircraft avionics systems can support these features with minimal impact on aircraft performance and availability.
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This paper describes a novel and low-cost approach to a Cockpit Familiarisation Trainer (CFT) for the EH101 helicopter. A training device was needed to allow aircrew and maintainers to become familiar with the cockpit of this new helicopter type. Training objectives for the CFT focus on the identification and location of cockpit controls, switches and indications, and the performance of normal and emergency cockpit drills. Following correct student actions, system reaction is required, incorporating visual, audio and tactile cues. The correct three-dimensional spatial relationship of the controls and displays is essential. All these requirements cannot be fully satisfied by conventional Computer-Based Training (CBT). The CFT utilises a replica cockpit structure (a disused engineering rig), populated with replica controls and displays interfaced to a personal computer. Four commercial monitors were repackaged to replicate the aircraft's "glass" cockpit (Electronic Instrument System - EIS). Procedural scenarios were created using a CBT authoring system. These scenarios respond to the correct checklist sequences, and display the appropriate indications on the replica cockpit panels, including animated graphics on the EIS (e.g. for engine start-up/shut-down) with appropriate audio cues (cautions, warning etc.). The scenarios span all phases of flight: pre-start; after-start; pre-take-off; pre-taxi; after-take-off; pre-landing; after-landing; shut-down; as well as en-route checks and emergency drills. A novel feature is that conventional CBT courseware describing the operation of aircraft systems can be concurrently delivered to students in the cockpit environment (from a separate personal computer). The CFT uses commercial off-the-shelf technology to satisfy the requirements for practising and learning cockpit drills. The requirements are satisfied by the CFT with a much lower capital and running cost than a flight simulator or fixed-based simulator.
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A common methodology for generating maintenance trainer software is to simulate aircraft functions using specially developed software modules. The advantage of this method is that it allows the early fielding of trainers because it utilizes functional software development methods to create software from aircraft software documentation. However, updates to the aircraft systems require significant time to incorporate into trainer simulations. The principal causes of the delay include the additional functionality to be modeled, and the extensive analysis and retest required to determine any ripple effects due to the links between simulation modules. Moreover, aircraft changes occurring past the trainer data freeze date are usually too late to be incorporated into the simulation. By using the techniques, tools, and processes created to rehost aircraft OFP software for aircrew trainers, maintenance trainers can be developed, updated, and maintained with lower costs and higher fidelities. This paper describes the results of an investigation into the feasibility of using aircraft operational flight programs for sophisticated aircraft maintenance trainers. The paper documents the results of a study using F-16 aircrew and maintenance trainers as a baseline. It describes the problems encountered in reuse of aircrew trainer software for maintenance trainers especially in the area of providing malfunction insertion capabilities to support troubleshooting tasks. The paper describes how hardware and software commonality between aircrew and maintenance trainers increase training capability while reducing program software development time and life-cycle costs. As a result, the customer is assured that as the operational aircraft is updated, the maintenance trainer can be upgraded on a similar time line to meet any new requirements for the constantly changing operational mission.
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Surface Warfare training for Royal Australian Navy (RAN) personnel is undertaken at HMAS WATSON in Sydney. Individual operator, command team and task group level tactical training is conducted on a variety of systems, including functional simulators, Milspec equipment and CBT suites. Most of the smaller training systems have been developed at WATSON by personnel from the RAN and Serco Australia Pty Ltd, the major on-site engineering support contractor. Even though these training systems have been developed and built in-house at very low cost, they have proven to be extremely effective for shore based operator training. This paper discusses two of the many in-house development projects completed at WATSON. Firstly, the recent development of a low cost, high fidelity emulator for the AN/SQS-56 sonar display console as fitted on the RAN's FFG-7 Class guided missile frigates and an associated scenario generator is described. The second project discussed is the development of a medium fidelity PC based Generic Radar Display Simulator that has been designed to provide shore based radar operator instruction for training functions that previously could only be carried out at sea. Some of the lessons learned and the benefits and shortcomings experienced in using PC hardware and software development tools for these types of projects are discussed. A brief summary of the future directions for the in-house development work is also given.
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James T. Blake, Ph.D. Today's training simulations are only marginally able to address emerging operational requirements. Operations other than war, small unit operations, and countering weapons of mass destruction are a few examples of training challenges facing our forces. Unfortunately, wholesale rework of legacy models to look at new requirements is too time-consuming and expensive and usually requires new hardware platforms. Recent funding cuts from the Services' modeling and simulation budgets are further exacerbating the problem. This paper describes the integration of adjunct models with legacy models to provide an evolutionary approach to address emerging training requirements. The Army's Corps Battle Simulation (CBS) is used as an example to explain the concept and highlight the recent integration of an adjunct model to address battle drill for ballistic missile threats.
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Regulation of flight simulator performance, both civil and military, is provided by the Federal Aviation Administration for the United States in advisory circulars AC 120 -40 and AC 120 -40B. In performance areas where there is no civilian usage, the FAA cedes performance-test to the appropriate military arm. A leading example of usage which is particular to the military is the aerial refueling task. This note sets out a uniform method for setting the visual image in this otherwise unregulated task. After visual acquisition of the Tanker airplane at several miles range, the refueling task is unusual in that the process is visually controlled. Suppliers have typically relied heavily on the judgment of the test/acceptance aircrew in adjusting the image of the tanker in the refueling position. The well-known advantage of using crew-judgment is that it strongly encourages student acceptability. A disadvantage of this subjective method is the debate and readjustment which tend to result when simulator evaluation crew-members are reassigned. Accordingly, this short paper sets out an objective method for adjusting the tanker visual image in a precise fashion, in conjunction with pilot assessment. It makes no assumptions about aircraft/boom/nozzle/receptacle dimensions but instead verifies that the visual angles subtended by the tanker at the receiver aircraft pilot's eye level are replicated in the simulator. A sextant 'shoots' the angular separation of prominent visual features of the tanker and their position with respect to the horizon. Suitable features include engine tailcones, fuselage centerline markings, antennas and external guidance indicators. It is shown that these measurements fix the visual position of the tanker image to the desired precision.
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A prototype of a new form of visualization system is described and its applications are discussed. "Mirage" is a 3D, stereoscopic, pseudo-holographic display system which generates an image that appears as a scale model resting on a horizontal table top in front of the viewer. The viewer may walk around the display, examining the image from various azimuths and altitudes or he may pan and zoom through the virtual space. The system was developed at the Institute for Simulation and Training to be an "Ultra-Stealth" for viewing Distributed Interactive Simulation exercises but it could also be used to make sonar tracks, fluid flow patterns, logistics status, or other complex multidimensional data sets more easily understood. Of particular interest is the fusion of abstract data, such as graphical representation of network connectivity, battlefield graphical control measures, tactical communications links, and simulation management functions with the 3D representation of terrain and simulation entities. The unusual application of graphical transformations and projection algorithms is explained and promising application areas are discussed.
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There have been many substantial improvements in flight simulator training in recent years. New technologies combined with distributed
interactive simulation have pushed flight simulator training to a new level. However, flight simulator visual displays still cannot provide real world
resolution, brightness, contrast, and detail. As a result, many training tasks cannot be performed. In some cases, negative training is an occurring risk.
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To maximize display resolution, scene density, and image quality at an affordable cost, the U.S. Army Close Combat Tactical Trainer (CCTT) employs a 15Hz image update rate visual system. When operating at this low image update rate, visual anomalies occur which hinder the training task. Multiple imaging is one of the most serious visual anomaly observed in a low update rate visual system. Multiple imaging negatively affects image resolution, and can cause loss of situation awareness, and in some cases, simulator sickness. A technique, called Multiple Image Suppression (MIS), is used in the Commander's Popped Hatch (CPH) panoramic display in the CCTT visual system to significantly reduce the negative effects of multiple imaging. This paper introduces the reader to the artifacts of multiple imaging that result from an image update rate that is less than the display refresh rate. It describes the side effects that can occur as a result of using Multiple Image Suppression. It describes the Multiple Image Suppression technique as implemented in the image generator and used on the Commander's Popped Hatch panoramic display of the M1A1, M1A2, and M2A2/M3A2 manned modules on the CCTT program. This paper explores the cost and performance benefits of Multiple Image Suppression. And finally, the paper examines expanded uses of the Multiple Image Suppression technique.
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This paper describes the total training system developed for fulfilling the United States Atlantic Command's (USACOM's) JTASC mission to:
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Trainers for collective exercises control the exercise by manipulating mission, enemy, terrain, troop, and time (METT-T) situation variables to support a training or exercise objective. The feedback system must then examine the performance of a unit as a function of the evolving METT-T situation. Integration of exercise control and feedback functions is necessary to reduce and simplify the workload of trainers and to make sure exercise control and feedback systems are mutually supportive. Integration is especially crucial in the Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) environment for two reasons. First, efficient use of training resources requires substantial temporal overlap and competition between exercise control and feedback functions to provide rapid feedback. Second, the exercise control function expands to include controlling the behavior of enemy and friendly computer generated forces (CGF). This paper describes current problems integrating state of the art exercise control and feedback systems in the DIS environment and presents potential solutions requiring research and development.
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As simulations have evolved over the last two decades, interoperability between them has emerged as a fundamental technique for increasing their applicability and minimizing the cost of developing and maintaining them. From totally independent systems, to manual interfaces, automated interfaces, messaging standards, control standards, and architectural standards, the field has been transformed from a set of independent programs to a loose confederation working together to maximize each others investments. In the future, simulation value will be measured by the degree of interoperability that can be attained. Many efforts to realize broad interoperability have been pursued, each with an increasing degree of ambitiousness. We are now envisioning systems and architectures that can support the connection of all types of simulators and are reaching into the broader realm of C4I systems. This paper will define many of the dimensions of interoperability as they exist today, as are planned for the near future, and as could ultimately be achieved. Twelve dimensions will be enumerated and an algebra defined to aid in describing the relationships and the implications of extending interoperability into the different combinations of these dimensions. This algebra is motivated from the DEVS Formalism originally developed in the book Theory of Modeling and Simulation. Graphical portrayals will also be explored as tools to aid in communicating the concepts. The paper champions a structured approach that lays a foundation to support future growth, realizing that the capabilities envisioned today do not encompass the dreams of tomorrow.
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Interoperability between terrain data bases (ground, culture, and models) has been a problem for many years. Networked simulations make the problem particularly visible. Recognizing the problem is the first step in solving the problem. Measuring the problem is the next step. Minimizing or eliminating the problem is the last step. Completing all of the steps consistently yields a methodology to address interoperability. The Institute for Simulation has recently completed a research program for STRICOM and DMSO which directly addresses each of the above steps. This report will summarize the problem by reference to other papers and will concentrate on techniques to measure and minimize the problem. The techniques described combine automated and manual methods and are rooted in mathematics and statistics. Techniques for minimizing the problem are also described. Finally a methodology, with accompanying criteria, are presented for recognizing, measuring, and minimizing terrain interoperability problems. Use of computer generated forces as the criteria for assessment of interoperability is a key component of the method. The techniques and criteria involve capturing terrain processing characteristics from image generators and computer generated forces and measuring the color, size, and placement of objects. Techniques are also presented for measuring correlation in terrain skin and culture. Remediation techniques are also presented for terrain skin. Finally a methodology using computer generated forces is presented for assessing whether interoperability has been achieved. The paper concludes with recommendations for additional research as the methodology presented is the first attempt at addressing this problem and therefore, is limited in its completeness.
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Evolving information technologies such as real-time distributed object management will have a major impact on the design of large-scale
synthetic environments for simulation and training. As the software and database components of simulation systems grow in cost relative to hardware, buyers
expect that today's modeling and simulation systems should not only meet their current needs, but provide the highly distributed, heterogeneous, and
scaleable simulation environments required for tomorrow's needs.
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In Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) exercises, it is often required that simulated entities interact on an equal basis. When different simulators use different models for the same munitions, combat between the simulated entities may be skewed in favor of one simulation over another. Thereby, the validity of exercise data might be lessened and the worth of the exercise reduced. Using common munition models eliminates this problem. One approach toward providing these models is to use an established procedure or object class library where an entity's simulator would also simulate the ordnance it fires. However, since this library must be compiled and bound to the platform simulation, this approach may lead to integration and performance issues. This paper describes an alternative: an ordnance server. The ordnance server acts as a common repository that interfaces directly with the network. Once a munition is fired, the server assumes control and simulates it apart from its launching platform. Given available information, the server employs the appropriate weapon model. The server simulates weapon flyout, status, trajectory, impact, and other munition attributes. Since the server may be located apart from simulation platforms, processing load may be better distributed. Also, by operating within the DIS protocol, the ordnance server provides no additional network load. Furthermore, it can be distributed to different sites about the network. Lastly, by using ordnance servers near target sites, latency between a weapon detonation and its effect on a target can be substantially lessened.
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The DIS Distributed Emission Regeneration (DER) protocol family, and specifically, the Electromagnetic Emission PDU, provides ample
latitude and support to perform emitter, medium, and sensor interaction modeling in a symbolic frequency and time domains. However, the Emission PDU's
complexity and format bias developers toward a platform-centric as compared to medium-centric approach. When new emissions, sensors, and media effects need
to be added to an existing simulation, often this platform-centric approach forces modification of very tenured code.
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For computer generated forces to be useful in training environments, they must exhibit a broad range of skill levels, competency at their assigned missions, and comply with current doctrine. Because of the rapid rate of change in Distributed Interactive Simulation and the expanding set of performance objectives for any computer generated force, the system must also be modifiable at reasonable cost and incorporate mechanisms for learning. The requirements pose an intricate set of challenges because the system must satisfy reasoning and fidelity requirements as well as performance requirements. To address these circumstances, we developed a set of general requirements for aircraft computer generated forces and used them to guide our specification of a generalized architecture for aircraft computer generated forces. In this paper, we present a component-wise decomposition of the system and describe the structure of the major components of the computer generated force decision mechanism. We illustrate the application of this architecture by presenting its application to the design of an aircraft computer generated force, the Automated Wingman.
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Recent advances in human motion capture and head mounted display technologies, coupled with Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) capabilities, now allow for the implementation of an untethered, fully-immersable, DIS-compliant, real-time Dismounted Soldier Simulation (DSS) System. The untethered soldier, outfitted with a set of optical markers and a wireless helmet-mounted display, can move about freely within a real-world motion capture area, while position and orientation data are gathered and sent onto a DIS network via tracking cameras and image processing computers. The soldier's interaction in the virtual environment includes the ability to move within the battlefield unencumbered by wires or other peripheral devices, fire an M16A2 rifle, hear DIS battlefield audio, and communicate with other entities via a DIS radio simulator. Fully articulated human motion rotations and translations are sent onto the DIS network using Entity State and Data PDUs. Along with position and orientation information, the dismounted soldier's discrete state is transmitted in the Entity State PDU appearance field so that all receiving entities know what the virtual soldier is doing (i.e., running, walking, or crawling). Data PDUs are sent out with the real-time motion information so that simulations interested in displaying an articulated human figure know how the figure is moving. The Data PDUs are 288 bytes in length and are sent out at a frequency of 1 to 30 per second. When the soldier pulls the trigger on the M16A2, a wireless signal is sent to the host computer, which generates Fire and Detonation PDUs. Data has been captured and analyzed in the following areas: motion capture accuracy, transport delay, latency, image refresh rate, bandwidth usage, firing accuracy, and simulator sickness.
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Live player instrumentation has previously focused on field-action, where direct and indirect fire player pairing has been supported with MILES and RF communications equipment. In urban-environment training, such as in Military Operations in Urban Terrain (MOUT), or in urban-environment testing, such as in new equipment used for Military Operations in Built-up Areas (MOBA), new requirements are defined relative to field-action instrumentation. These requirements relate to the higher fidelity of player location and action, and the interaction with other types of indirect fire which are unique to the MOUT/MOBA environment. A major goal in MOUT training is to instrument the player in a seamless manner to the MILES field equipment, and in MOBA testing, to provide near real-time monitoring of player location throughout the site buildings and other structures to verify proper data collection. A variety of mission training and equipment testing enter these new instrumentation requirements, which upon examination can be shown to be best met with a modular approach. At the same time, the use of commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) products can be useful in meeting overall initial low instrumentation costs and life-cycle costs. The paper defines a set of instrumentation requirements, which include interactive simulation for live-fire and indirect-fire effects. The requirements are divided into the usual elements of combat training centers (CTCs), but with the additional issues of equipment testing and data analysis. This type of construction can lead to a later merging for embedded training in new dismounted soldier equipment. An analysis of COTS technologies is used to first define physical approaches and then to highlight the MOUT/MOBA unique alterations. The instrumentation control and data gathering also is discussed in these altered environments, and the data link connectivity provided between the player and the CTC analysis center. RF data collected at the Joint Readiness Training Center (JRTC) MOUT site, and modified COTS hardware, show a cost-effective design approach to meeting these requirements for MOUT player instrumentation.
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IST has been building computer generated humans-combatants and civilians-to populate a virtual battlefield as part of the Team Target Engagement Simulator (TTES) project. This project, which is sponsored by the Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division in Orlando, will train small infantry units to fight in urban terrain. Such a low level simulation with direct human involvement requires detailed models not only of terrain and human behavior but also of human physical characteristics. This paper presents an overview of the problems that a designer of computer controlled humans must address to create realistic entities. The problems span all levels from low level modeling to cognitive behavior. At the simulator infrastructure level we discuss DIS representation and urban terrain databases. At the physical environment level models of visible line of sight, sound generation and propagation, weapons effects, and movement are important. The next level addresses physical entity characteristics and requires modes of vision, hearing, movement, wounds, and fatigue. The last level is cognitive, and comprises two parts: automatic behavior such as perceptual processing, feedback-based motion control, and weapon aiming; and deliberate problem solving and action selection. The paper briefly describes our approach to building all of these models.
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In the training realm, industry's responsibility to the joint services should be to tune image generators for the best possible target
detection and identification performance. Unfortunately the test criteria and specifications used for recognition are often based on old or obsolete
technology. As an example, "Johnson's Criteria", published in 1958 by John Johnson, is still used as one of the primary selection
criteria. This paper was indeed brilliant and years ahead of its time; however, it is often referred to out of context. One should keep in mind
that this was the era of vacuum tubes, black & white interlaced displays, etc. In fact, very basic technology such as high resolution and
non-interlaced color displays were not developed when this paper was written. It is, at best, an extrapolation specifying today's hardware with some of
these early principles.
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Advances in computer graphics and related technologies over the last several years have resulted in dramatic performance increases,
numerous feature enhancements, and significant cost reductions for graphics computers. These factors, coupled with the heightened interest in virtual
reality, have spurred the demand for low-cost visual simulation subsystems. The availability of relatively inexpensive graphics accelerators and
workstations has helped fuel this demand with the promise of capabilities approaching those of special-purpose image generators. As the prices of
traditional image generators fall and the capabilities of graphics workstations improve, the markets for these two product technologies will continue to
converge. Caveat emptor applies for those not in tune with the rapidly blurring distinctions between general-purpose graphics workstations and
special-purpose image generators.
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The resolution of terrain databases has improved markedly over the past few years and will continue to improve. The increase in resolution can be attributed primarily to the availability of narrow field-of-view, high-resolution sensors to gather data and large memory computers to process and store the data. However, the use of high-resolution (30 meter or less) terrain databases in distributed interactive simulations can cause some counter-intuitive and erroneous results. For example, a recent study showed that cruise missile detection is affected by the amount of thinning of the terrain. The erroneous results are caused by several issues, some of which are inherent to the data but some of which can be solved through proper pre-processing of the data and careful construction of the terrain database. The primary issues discussed in this paper are (i) the complexity involved in using high resolution data, (ii) limited display size that affects visual terrain representation, (iii) data accuracy, as well as data resolution, must be taken into account, and (iv) proper resampling techniques to achieve a desired database resolution. This paper discusses these issues as well as defines a new figure-of-merit for simulations to insure effective training.
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Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) is both a protocol for networking simulators and a style for implementing Department of Defense
training simulator networks. Follows-on to DIS such as ADS (Advanced Distributed Simulation) or other architectures that adopt the style will have to
overcome the same networking and communication problems now being faced by DIS. This paper discusses these problems in an abstract, mathematical
context so that the conclusions will be applicable to DIS and its heirs.
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The introduction of advanced software engineering technologies has made architecture the central enabling concept for successful
development of complex system software such as found in software intensive real-time simulators. Insightful selection and application of a software
architecture seems to hold the key to the desirable trinity of software system development: better, cheaper, faster. This paper explores the difficulties of selecting an appropriate architecture for use in real-time simulators, and proposes ways of overcoming them. We present a method for classifying a candidate architecture by partitioning representative architectures and noting examples of each class in fielded real-time simulators. We present an approach to overcoming the obstacles to selecting an architecture, with particular emphasis on communicating to stakeholders. The cornerstone of this approach is to gain agreement on the characteristics by which architectures should be judged and selected. Our observations are based on our collective experience on the Navy/STARS demonstration project, which involved joint government contractor teams. This project required the selection of an architecture intended for use in active system development for the next decade.
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The Advanced Distributed Simulation Research Team (ADS RT) at SAIC-Orlando has been conducting experiments with the interoperability of simulations. One of these experiments focuses on a generic approach for sharing behaviors between Modular Semi-Automated Forces (ModSAF) and Close Combat Tactical Trainer Semi-Automated Forces (CCTT-SAF) with a goal of allowing military units from each simulation to perform together as one unit under the same task organization. It is anticipated that this approach will aid large scale or joint exercises by reducing SAF operator workload and allowing more use of varied simulation assets. This research explores a method of correlating the behaviors of units in different simulations so that they can interoperate with one another while performing unit tasks. The correlation will not be 100% since most simulations have different semantics and were designed for different training needs. An ontology of common generalized behaviors and behavior parameters, a database of behaviors written in terms of these common behaviors, and heuristic metrics are used to correlate specific behaviors from one simulation to specific behaviors for a target simulation. Behaviors are organized into several layers of aggregation down to primitive behaviors. The degree of correlation, or semantic closeness, is based upon the maximum of several competing heuristics including the correlation of: 1) the sub-behaviors of a source behavior with a candidate target behavior, 2) an ancestor or child of a source behavior with a target behavior, 3) a sibling of a source behavior with a target behavior, and 4) a source behavior with a target behavior found at a different level of decomposition (aggregate is this common behavior organization that is used by the closeness metrics to provide The behavior with the best semantic closeness will be chosen as the target behavior to execute. The result is a generic methodology for the interpretation of missions and behaviors from one simulation and the initiation of comparable tasks in different simulations.
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Realistic flames can be seen in many computer generated animation sequences. While these scenes are appealing to the eye, the non-dynamic
nature of these sequences, whether they are rendered off-line one frame at a time or parameterized into articulated hierarchies with the parameter values
varied over time, greatly limits their potential as a mechanism for simulating real-time fire.
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The creation and development of a synthetic environment for a simulation exercise can be a laborious, time consuming, and sometimes
undefined process. This is especially disheartening because it involves re-inventing the wheel. A synthetic environment is common to most simulations, only
the fidelity, extent, and interoperability of the environment varies. There are a multitude of decisions to be made and requirements to consider, many of
them reaching beyond the intended goal of simulating an entity or exercise to collect valuable data. These decisions may involve large quantities of
information pertaining to the integration of environmental models, simulation entities of differing fidelities and architectures, selection of models
appropriate for the simulation, network communication architecture interfaces and data transmission mediums. There is currently no central repository for
environmental or entity models or descriptive information about such models. The developer is faced with hard decisions that are typically out of their
scope of expertise and redevelopment of a new environment to refine decisions can be costly and time consuming. There is currently no effective way to
create a distributed synthetic environment, in a quick and adaptive manner.
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In early applications of distributed simulation, battles occurred during mid-summer at high noon on a clear day with just enough
atmospheric attenuation to prevent the visual anomaly of seeing off the edge of the "world". The Synthetic Environments (SE) Program,
part of the Synthetic Theater of War (STOW-97) Advanced Technology Concept Demonstration (ATCD), is developing an architecture and the processes to
represent dynamic environments with increased fidelity. Part of the SE Program is the Dynamic Virtual Worlds (DVW) effort, tasked to enrich the virtual
battlefield with a range of real-world environmental effects, such as clouds, battlefield smoke, vehicular dust, natural and artificial illumination, and
atmospheric transmittance. The VWES architecture is designed and implemented such that it can easily be integrated into visual simulation systems and can incorporate new physical models. The architecture includes two Application Program Interfaces (APIs), one which allows the visual simulation application to provide environmental data to VWES and control its operation, and one which allows VWES to communicate its results. A model registration mechanism provides a flexible means of registering one or more environmental models on a per exercise basis. VWES has been integrated into two visual simulation systems: the NPSNETIV.6 Stealth and the VISTAWORKS ModStealth. Demonstration of the overall environmental simulation system is provided through interaction and correlation with its Computer Generated Forces (CGF) counterpart, ModSAF, and other environmental servers which issue environmental updates via the DIS network.
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Initial basic fighter maneuver training methods traditionally involve classroom academics where instructor pilots demonstrate flight maneuvers with their hands. While this method is effective, it requires the pilots to mentally transfer themselves into the actual cockpit environment. This paper describes the development of a virtual environment (VE) for teaching student pilots how to perform basic fighter maneuvers. The Basic Fighter Maneuver Visualization Trainer has the capability to display pre-recorded flight paths from Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS)-compliant simulator data in a Digital Terrain Elevation Data (DTED) virtual environment database. This portable VE system uses commercially available equipment and software for training at the squadron level. HyperText Markup Language (HTML), the language of the Internet, is used to create a user-friendly, icon-driven, visual interface for program instruction and execution of the virtual flight maneuver demonstrations. The system allows novice pilots to observe, in a helmet-mounted display (HMD), pre-recorded flight maneuvers as performed by experienced pilots before attempting to perform the maneuvers themselves. After demonstrating the learned maneuvers in a DIS-compatible simulator, the novice pilot can again review the pre-recorded demonstrations or view their own recordings by simply loading a DIS tape into the VE training system.
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Portable eye movement and automated analysis systems have been developed for use in pilot training and other applications where it is
necessary to monitor and analyze changes in an observer's point of regard. The eye movement system hardware consists of a lightweight, head-mounted,
Two-Dimensional eye tracker and miniature scene camera, an electronic control and processing unit, and a video recorder and monitor. This system,
manufactured by El Mar, Inc., is easily transportable and weighs less than The present systems were used to measure and analyze the visual scan paths of pilots in three aircraft simulators. This was done to determine whether data of this kind can be used to increase training effectiveness by identifying efficient scanning strategies and by quantifying differences in the behavior of expert and novice pilots. Scan paths were evaluated for: 1) T-37 Instructor Pilots (IPs) and T-37 student IPs ( rated pilots training to be IPs) while they performed precision instrument approaches in a motion base simulator, 2) F-16 IPs while performing air-to-air scenarios in the Air Combat Engagement Simulator (ACES) and 3) F-16 LANTIRN IPs while performing low-level scenarios in the LANTIRN simulator. The results of these evaluations are described.
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Natural language increases the flexibility to communicate with computers due to the inherent efficiency of the human half of the interface. Specifically, a natural language interface for processing speech provides an efficient means of communication if a human user's eyes and hands are occupied. Human-machine dialogue, whether typed or spoken, allows for humans to communicate or interact effectively with computer systems that are becoming increasingly complex to use because of their capabilities. For these reasons, a user interface that can process natural language has the potential for simplifying an overly complex and unfriendly working environment. Natural Language Processing (NLP) effectively builds meaningful sentences from the basic semantic language building blocks -noun and verb phrases [1]. Further, semantic and pragmatic context of a given group of messages can be restricted in terms of specific domain information relating to events. This contextual information is then analyzed in terms of the restricted set of possible meanings the sentence may have within the given situation. Current speech recognition systems rely on a constrained syntax whereas the context based NLP relinquishes the bounding syntax. Combining a highly accurate speech recognizer and natural language processing harnesses the capabilities of both components. This paper discusses the experimentation and integration of speech recognition and natural language components leading to real-time, continuous, context correct and unconstrained speech recognition for training applications.
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The High Level Architecture (HLA) is a simulation infrastructure designed to promote interoperability between simulations. The Defense Modeling and Simulation Office (DMSO) organized several experimental applications of HLA in 1996 to test and refine the architecture. One of those experiments was performed by the Platform Proto-Federation (PPF), a group of virtual real-time (i.e. DIS-type) simulations assembled to test HLA applicability to that domain. The PPF consisted of four member programs: BDS-D, BFTT, CCTT, and JTCTS. Each member program implemented an HLA federate that simulated one or more combat entity objects and interoperated with the others via HLA. That interoperation was tested in an experimental scenario that included land, sea, and air entities and a range of combat interactions. The PPF experiment showed that HLA provides the requisite functionality to support DIS-type distributed simulation, and is a promising component of future simulation development, but the run-time performance of production HLA software must be substantially improved over that of the prototype HLA software used for the PPF experiment.
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The High Level Architecture (HLA) is a project to develop a simulation infrastructure that will promote interoperability between simulations. One important consideration of HLA development is the ability to integrate legacy systems, preferably without incurring prohibitive costs in modifying existing software. One example of a legacy system in widespread use is the US Army Simulation, Training and Instrumentation Command's Battlefield Distributed Simulation-Developmental (BDS-D) M1 Tank Simulator. The simulator is a SIMNET-based training system being used in HLA prototyping efforts. The BDS-D M1 is the only crewed human-in-the-loop simulator involved in the HLA experiments. This paper presents research conducted by the Institute for Simulation and Training (IST) to develop a stand-alone internetworking device allowing legacy applications to be interoperable with the HLA. The Gateway provides Run Time Infrastructure (RTI) communication on behalf of the M1 simulator, in a manner that is transparent to both the M1 and the HLA participants. Of particular interest will be the intricacies of converting from HLA attribute updates to SIMNET's PDU-based updates. Also of technical interest will be the rationale for maintaining remote entity approximation (dead reckoning) models within the interface.
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Gregory Wenzel
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The connection established in the context of an experimental program in the year 1993 for the German Combat Maneuver Training Center can be regarded as one first approach to the connection of live simulation and virtual simulation. The task of Center was to "strain" the battalion headquarters with the information from a whole battalion in a realistic way even though only one company actually operates in real terrain. The connection presented here, is an example for a possible solution to the tactical problem which arises when simulated units are able to locate and engage real vehicles in a duel situation but the latter are unable to "fight back" as they cannot see virtual targets in real terrain. The visibility problem can be solved by superimposing the virtual target directly onto the optical path of the commander's optical devices, provided that there is a theoretical visual contact with the target and the target is within the field of vision. The connection of live simulation, a Leopard 1A4, and virtual simulation, a PC with simplified Leopard 2 data, is realized by the standardized PDU for DIS interface. To this end the Entity State PDU, the Fire PDU, the Detonation PDU and a Visibility PDU are used. To illustrate the solution a demonstrator was set up which will be described with regard to its technology and its operational capabilities.
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The rapidly expanding use of low-cost, distributed, interactive, networked simulation is reshaping the requirements for terrain database creation, modification, and distribution. The terrain database no longer resides exclusively on the visual image generator, but is shared by the many components of the network simulator, including computer generated and semi-automated force simulations, electronic map displays, communication models, mobility models, and paper maps. Additionally, the substance of the terrain database can no longer be bound by the visual needs, but must contain correlated information essential to the various components of the networked simulation. We must create and maintain a complete synthetic environment. The creation of the synthetic environment requires the integration of a broad assembly of structures and attributes needed by the various components of the network simulator. Modifications to the correlated synthetic environment database must be made both as a matter of database enhancement (adding a house, or road), and as a result of the run-time interaction (excavation of an anti-tank ditch or destroying a bridge). Common correlated sources for the distribution of the shared synthetic environment are fundamental to simulator interoperability. Database sharing for large networked simulations, with hundreds of individual simulators, requires efficient methods for both pre-distributions and run-time modification distributions. Standards should be considered to provide a common architecture and standard communication protocol to support cost-effective database creation, modification, and distribution in a distributed interactive simulation.
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The Database Generation System (DBGS) designed for use by the Special Operations Forces Aircrew Training System (SOF ATS) and delivered to Hurlburt Field, Florida in February, 1996 is now being used to support a number of other applications. This system was originally designed to support an Evans & Sutherland ESIG 4000 and a Lockheed Martin Digital Radar Landmass system (DRLMS). By processing the internal database through different formatting software, output databases have been supplied for use by 1) a Lockheed Martin Vought Systems Topscene image generator, 2) an ESIG 4000 with a different configuration, and 3) the Simulator Database Facility (SDBF) at Kirtland AFB, New Mexico in Standard Simulator Database Interchange Format (SIF). In addition, the same basic system design was used on two other programs to produce databases for an Evans & Sutherland ESIG 3000 and a Lockheed Martin PT 4000. The exchange and reuse of databases relies on a layered, correlated database structure. This structure uses industry standard formats for data storage which are independent of any image generator. Data stored in the internal database needs only to have the proper post-processing for the particular image generator. Content of the database is not affected by this processing. Other applications for this database design are now being developed, including additional image generator formats and output of standard DMA product formats.
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A number of factors have come together in recent years to make the reuse of visual databases a sought after goal. Primary among these has been the rising cost of database development due to ever larger real-world gaming areas and ever increasing system capacities. On the more positive side, the basic technology of the available image generation platforms have begun to share some common architectural features which make conversions from one format to another a somewhat more manageable task than in years past. This paper will discuss the implementation issues, and successful completion, of one specific conversion effort. The requirement is in support of an advanced Weapons Tactics Trainer which utilizes a Lockheed Martin CompuScene VI for the out-the-window images and a Silicon Graphics RealityEngine2 for infrared imagery. Correlation between the visual and IR images is required to be as close as possible, preferably exact. The points covered will include the development and implementation of the conversion algorithms and discussion of the numerous issues which result from supporting two platforms from different manufacturers. These include differences in texture map formats and utilization, polygon capacity, management of geo-centric databases, material code correlation and Z-buffer priority solutions. Also discussed will be the lessons learned that will be applied to future conversion efforts, including the use of SIF data for visual and sensor applications, and the practicality of developing true plug and play databases that will be compatible with a wide range of image generation platforms.
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In distributed simulation systems, there has been no capability to modify the terrain surface during the course of a simulation exercise,
which is necessary for emplacing and breaching obstacles such as anti-tank ditches, road craters and rubble. Current distributed simulation exercises are
restricted to static terrain databases and low fidelity environmental phenomena, limiting the value of training, system evaluation and mission rehearsal.
Changing the heretofore static database at run-time has been a significant technical challenge. The Synthetic Theatre of War (STOW) program requires the
ability to emplace and breach obstacles, bomb airfields to create craters, and destroy interdiction targets. The Dynamic Terrain and Objects (DTO) program
is developing this technology. Sponsored by DARPA and the U.S. Army Topographic Engineering Center (TEC), this technology provides a long term foundation
for dynamic terrain and object interaction in the virtual world.
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In order to provide a realistic depiction of the synthetic environment, modern training and simulation systems must incorporate time related modifications to their representation of that environment. One of the most important aspects of this dynamic synthetic environment is the interaction of vehicles and munitions on the terrain surface, known as dynamic terrain effects. Such effects include not only the modification of the shape of the terrain surface, but also changes in its appearance and trafficability. A number of different system architectures have been proposed for Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) based systems to manage dynamic terrain. These range from a fully distributed architecture where individual applications are responsible for their own area of interest, to a dedicated, centralised terrain server, which may itself be based on a distributed architecture. Hybrid architectures that combine both approaches are also possible. This paper describes methods of manipulating terrain database structures in order to produce the desired dynamic effects and a succinct, but flexible, method of encoding and distributing the geometric and physical attributes of the dynamic terrain changes within a distributed interactive simulation. This method is based upon the proposed DIS environment PDU. It supports multiple levels of fidelity so that an optimum level may be selected to meet the aims of the simulation. However, the method remains independent of the system architecture chosen for the management of dynamic terrain.
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As training in computer-generated environments becomes more prevalent and begins to overtake other forms as the primary method of training, more emphasis will be placed on interaction. Most simulators in use today allow limited types of interaction between participants, but virtually no interaction with the environment, which is usually a static database. In many instances interaction with the environment is not crucial to training effectiveness. A flight simulator, for example, does not require much interaction with the terrain or cultural features (buildings, roads, etc.) when the aircraft is at altitude. Other applications, however, require a dynamically changing environment since modification of the environment is a key component of the simulation. One such application is the Team Target Engagement Simulator (TTES). The TTES is designed to train individual members of a reinforced rifle squad in the tactics of military operations in an urban environment. In the TTES, the trainee has a variety of weapons at his disposal and computing and visualizing the effects of the munitions on the buildings of the simulated environment is crucial to the training effectiveness of the TTES. We have developed and implemented a method of providing dynamic (damageable) buildings within the TTES. This paper discusses some of the requirements for simulating damageable building in the TTES, presents our system architecture and modeling procedure, and describes some of the strengths and limitations of our approach.
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To date, simulators including fluids in their environment model have restricted themselves to the representation of sea states alone. The behavior of fluids in the littoral area or surf zone is more dynamic and includes the interaction of terrain and fluid surfaces. The surf zone refers to the 10 meter curve at the low tide to the high water mark at the highest high tide. The representation of dynamic waves, wakes and eddies have been mimicked by uniform elevation change of the 2D fluid surface along with texture animations. This paper discusses the work of real-time dynamic fluid flow, applied to a networked dynamic terrain environment, and then shows how it all applies to a surf zone environment. Surf zone issues include incorporating and integrating dynamic terrain and dynamic fluids, dynamics of amphibious vehicles, and the problem of underwater terrain. This will support the modeling of improved vehicle dynamics models (to support buoyant and ground driven behaviors), dynamic wakes, design and mobility modeling, and in training.
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In recent years there have been remarkable advances in the rendering of realistic imagery by sophisticated software running on ultra-high-performance compute engines. Technology now makes it possible to incorporate these exotic lighting, shading, and texturing processes into a true realtime computer image generation (CIG) system. This paper reports on work being done to combine advanced rendering algorithms and historical simulation capabilities into a new open system that provides the best of both worlds. Particular emphasis is given to improving edge quality, texture sharpness, lighting and shading flexibility, and the way both opaque and transparent surfaces interact in a dynamic visual scene. The system incorporates many new rendering capabilities that have never before been accelerated in hardware. Higher performance, lower development and recurring costs, and widely scaleable price and performance can be achieved through adoption of industry standards in processors, operating systems, and graphics application program interfaces (APIs). A modular approach allows system configurations for workstation or image generator applications.
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Distributed real-time simulation technology has the potential to bring substantial benefits to team-training, where many combatants (real systems, man-in-the-loop simulators or computer generated forces) can interact in complex tactical environments. In order to ensure a 'fair fight', simulation participants require similar levels of cueing fidelity. However, the cost of providing high fidelity cueing environments to all simulation participants will be prohibitively high. One potential source of cost saving is the use of dynamic crew seats to provide representative motion cueing. Electrically or hydraulically powered multi-axis dynamics seats can potentially provide effective motion cues with significant savings in purchase and life-cycle costs compared to traditional motion cueing systems, while also improving portability and deployability.
This paper presents the results of research sponsored by UK MOD to quantify the benefits of dynamic seats for a variety of helicopter
nap-of-the-earth flying tasks. Objective and subjective measures of task performance were used to compare an experimental multi-axis dynamic seat (the
Advanced Multi-Axis Cueing Seat or AMACS) with fixed-base and high fidelity motion cueing environments.
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The late 20th century has seen significant political and economic changes. One of the most dramatic economic changes is the globalization of many U.S. defense industries which were previously focused domestically. Defense industry giants find themselves increasingly more reliant on international markets to sustain their capacity for domestic needs, while smaller domestically concentrated companies find themselves faced with foreign industry encroachments on their markets. The success of U.S. industry in this globalization process can be significantly affected by those institutions, both public and private, with experience operating internationally, that possess resources and capabilities beyond our borders. The U.S. Department of Defense, through its acquisition agencies, is such an institution and as such bears responsibility to assist in this process. Furthermore, recent changes in policy governing U.S. Security Assistance activities now allow these agencies to assume a more active role in pursuing Foreign Military Sales. Despite their vast experience in the global market place, those in the Department of Defense who conduct international business cannot assume a business-as-usual approach. Particularly in the area of simulation, a leading edge technology, military agencies managing this commodity must be perceived as leading-edge organizations, advancing corporately in tandem with technology. Internal processes, external dependencies and international business processes must emphasize innovation, adaptation, flexibility, efficiency and rapid response - in other words a High-Speed Management (HSM) approach to Foreign Military Sales. Under HSM, international business activity must be built atop three pillars: Strategic Alliances, Environmental Scanning and Information Processing. All three of these activities connect horizontally, forming a structurally sound methodology for business development.
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This paper describes Research and Technology activities related to Simulation for Military Training and other Defence applications, carried out within Common European Priority Area (CEPA) 11 of the European Defence Technology Programme EUCLID. A short overview and the current status of the EUCLID Programme is given. The area of CEPA 11 is covered in more depth. An outlook at the future of simulation Research and Technology Development in Europe concludes the article. Annex lists present CEPA 11 Research and Technology Projects in detail.
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Last November at I/ITSEC, the Office of Training Technology (OTT) unveiled the OTT SPIDER, Seamless Product Information, Data Exchange and Repository available on the World Wide Web (WWW). At that time, the WWW was still relatively new to the military, internet access was somewhat limited, and the whole idea of a WWW site as a "database" for training technology data and information was untested. Reaction to the OTT SPIDER was very positive, with military personnel, training developers, and commercial organizations all impressed with the potential of this resource, -- a resource available then and today to all I/ITSEC attendees. In this paper, the first year of the OTT SPIDER's evolution and use is documented, chronicling continued growth and an enthusiastic world-wide reception of this new and evolving Navy on-line resource. Building from an initial repository of over 1,000 files of training technology data and information, today the OTT SPIDER hosts approximately 1,300 files of information, and provides hundreds of links to related military, government, and commercial WWW sites. The OTT SPIDER receives over 1,000 "hits" each business day, from places as far as Singapore, Turkey, and South Korea. The most frequent foreign users are from Canada and the United Kingdom, and the numbers of US military users have grown steadily this year. Details on who is using the OTT SPIDER, what information is most frequently accessed, lessons learned, trends, and future plans are also discussed. The OTT SPIDER also hosts a number of interactive features including electronic conferences that enable military training providers to gain immediate advice and information from training developers in industry, government, and academia. The OTT SPIDER also features: a unique and robust search engine; a searchable and interactive on-line calendar; a forum for requesting information about off-the-shelf training products and services; a reference center, and links to industry, government, and academic web sites related to training technology. In this paper, the development of the OTT SPIDER will be chronicled and a status report provided on the OTT SPIDER through mid-June, 1996. This paper will also document lessons learned, and include a discussion of trends and future plans for the OTT SPIDER through the year 2001 including: new interfaces and on-line capabilities, and a virtual on-line repository for training program design and development, and training delivery via the internet.
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Charles L. Kanewske Change is apparent in all walks of life, and military training requirements are no exception. This is a challenge and a tremendous opportunity. The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is meeting this challenge through its Synthetic Theater of War (STOW) program. It is working to solve the difficult simulation problems for training and mission rehearsal and providing the user community an unparalleled opportunity to shape the training environment of the next century. This paper will cover STOW's progress to date on applying R&D for the operational community and DARPA's near-term interactions with its sponsor, the U.S. Atlantic Command (USACOM).
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The Warfighter's Simulation (WARSIM) 2000 procurement was planned and managed using a competitive downselect strategy. An initial contract was awarded to three competitors. Each were funded to accomplish domain engineering, systems requirements analysis, system design, and a simulation of their proposed architecture. The government was interested in assessing both the competitors' technical approach and their ability to demonstrate their proposed development processes. Other government procurements have used competitive downselect approaches to "fly off" proposed solutions to weapons system requirements and vehicles, but this is the first time that the procurement of a training device or system has followed this approach. The fundamental difference between STRICOM's approach and these other more traditional down selections was the emphasis on assessing contractor discipline in adhering to their key processes. In this paper we describe the six month downselect process that was followed and the experiences and perspective of both the procurement activity and the contractor. We include lesson's learned and recommendations for following this approach in the future.
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The current DOD acquisition process is under intense scrutiny and it is widely held that the process needs to be improved. Continuing down-sizing of military personnel and shrinking DOD budgets makes improvements imperative. Improvements to acquisition decision-making are what is needed. This requires resolution of two crucial flaws to the current process: limited operator involvement early in the process, and single weapon system development focus. Fortunately, the recent proliferation of the use of Advanced Distributed Simulation (ADS) has evolved it into a viable tool for the acquisition community. Although the use of simulation in the acquisition community is not mandated, it is being used by a few acquisition customers. These customers have already benefited from these acquisition-related simulations. Some major benefits thus far have been early determination of need, evaluation of system utility and optimization of functional requirements, well prior to expenditure of significant development efforts. Also, early operator involvement has facilitated Concept of Operations definition, optimizing Man Machine Interfaces, and ultimately expediting new weapon systems "fit" into the overall battlefield architecture. Formally integrating ADS into the acquisition process would provide even more benefits to the acquisition community and accelerate advancement of the art/science of ADS. Implementing this integration has some challenges, it would require: more joint-level decision making, earlier/increased operational community support, and changes in ADS and the ADS community. However, the enormous benefits to the acquisition and ADS communities, and ultimately our warfighters far outweigh these challenges.
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With the fiscal constraints placed upon DoD, Advanced Distributed Simulation (ADS) and virtual prototyping can be combined to refine requirements, improve system design and flesh out a concept of operations for both acquisition managers and Warfighters. Through a structured process of systems engineering and integration, the linking of virtual simulations and prototype systems designs allows for the analysis and trades in technology, cost, schedule, and risk to support acquisition guidelines to "simulate before building" and enables more thorough and comprehensive assessments of the impacts and improvements for the Warfighters. By coupling simulations and prototypical systems, a new era of Advanced Information Technology begins. Now, simulations transition into being applications that support real world operating missions. The concept of "train as we fight" begins to be applied even in the complex world of Command, Control, Communications, Computers, and Intelligence (C4I). We begin to move into a synthetic world that no longer assumes away difficult tasks by just allowing software to stimulate a Warfighter's monitor, but requires the operator to execute the mission task in the context of a real world environment. DoD can no longer afford one system or simulation for training and another for fighting. Through experience in designing, developing, and integrating virtual prototypes with simulations, knowledge is being gained as to the applicability of today's distributed simulation standards for solving real world communication needs as well as their continued impact on tomorrow's systems. This paper will discuss the efforts in virtual prototyping linkage with ADS and the future impact that DIS ++ and High Level Architecture will have on this emerging technology.
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In the spring of 1993, the U.S. Army Simulation, Training, and Instrumentation Command initiated the Advanced Gunnery Training System program for a family of precision gunnery trainers for the M1A2 Abrams Tank, the M2A3 Bradley Fighting Vehicle, and the Armored Gun System. The solicitation and source selection phase of this program was reported on at the 16th Interservice/Industry Training Systems and Education Conference. The solicitation/contract is a sophisticated Fixed Price Incentive (Successive Targets) multiple lot contract type, with range priced flexible options. The development cycle required the use of the Systems Approach to Training, concurrent engineering, and Total Quality Management in a Government/Contractor Integrated Product Development Team (IPDT) environment. The use of the IPDT for all phases of contract performance has necessitated heightened interdisciplinary communication, and the extension of responsibility for all aspects of contract performance to the IPDTs. As the traditional adversarial (divergent interest) legal environment cannot change, the use of the IPDT also requires an unusual degree of trust, understanding and confidence on the part of the program management and contracting authorities, both within the organization, and between organizations. Success has been dependent on the use of effective team training, electronic communications, leadership, and goodwill.
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Integrated Product Development(IPD) and Integrated Product Teams (IPTs) are important in industry today because teams can accomplish more in less time, with higher quality, than working individually and passing work along. This paper is a case study of IPD/IPT Leadership, an accredited course taught at The University of Akron (UA). The study consisted of a two-semester (Fall 1996 & Spring 1996) evening class available to industry and UA students, taught by a representative from industry with IPT experience (the primary author). The main reasons teams fail are inexperience in operating as a cohesive team, and a reluctance to openly share ideas, trust actions, and agree on results. The answer is training. During training, leadership roles/duties were defined, with each student given numerous opportunities to participate, lead and present to the class. All leadership positions on the team were rotated, some elected by the team, others assigned by the instructor. Many team projects were used throughout the course, providing the students with many opportunities to work on unique projects and requiring them to interact with other class members. As students gained experience and confidence in operating as teams, team dynamics dramatically improved, allowing the teams to efficiently move forward with their tasks. A review of teaching techniques and obstacles to teaching this type of class will be addressed.
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The Nellis Air Combat Training System (NACTS) contract initially required application of the traditional Government/Military standards for an Engineering and Manufacturing Development and Production contract such as MIL-STD-499B, System Engineering; and MIL-STD-1521-12B, Technical Reviews and Audits for Systems, Equipment, and Computer Software; etc. Six months into the contract, the decision was made to utilize streamlining to reduce program costs and schedule. The streamlining effort was accomplished by implementing six strategies. The traditional Government formal approval process was replaced with the Review, Discuss, Concur (RDC) process. The standard for software development was changed from DOD-STD-2167A, Defense System Software Development to MIL-STD-498, Software Development and Documentation. The maintenance concept was changed from Operation and Maintenance (O&M) to Contractor Logistics Support (CLS). Many traditional deliverable documents were replaced by using a modified Data Accession List (DAL) concept. Software, hardware, and systems acceptance test were integrated into a single acceptance test process. Lastly, some Government oversight functions were integrated into the Contractor's development process. From the first day of the contract, there has been a strong commitment by the Government and Contractor to work closely together and have an open exchange of information. The NACTS program is organized as nine Integrated Product Teams (IPTs) with Government and Contractor representation on each IPT. All project personnel, including management, are assigned to one of the teams. The IPT organization has facilitated this commitment. The teamwork by all project members contributed to the success of the streamlining effort. This streamlining has had a profound impact on the total development process including systems engineering and, hardware and software development processes. The result is a significant increase in the development productivity with an overall reduction of program costs and schedule.
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The requirements for Army model and simulation (M&S) program verification, validation and accreditation (VV&A) are outlined in AR 5-11 and DA Pam 5-11. The Close Combat Tactical Trainer (CCTT) is the first major Army Training M&S Program to undergo the rigors of these regulations. This paper reports on the procedures used to develop the CCTT VV&A program. The paper discusses the various agencies involved, the tests to be conducted, the tools to be used in the VV&A process and the importance of traceability. The paper also compares the VV&A process developed for CCTT to the Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) 9-Step VV&A process.
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The Air Force and Navy have complex and mostly manual processes for managing flying training. These include curriculum and syllabus
management, assessment of student performance, program standardization and evaluation, resource management and scheduling, and interfacing with external
systems and agencies. Currently, there is no system that successfully automates and integrates all the flying training management processes.
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The military use of modeling and simulation (M&S) has grown significantly during the past decade. A driving force for this trend has been the rapidly advancing capability of distributed simulations. So far, the focus of military M&S has been for training applications, but its use in operational test and evaluation (OT&E) will also likely grow. However, OT&E has a different set of requirements and objectives than training, and these must be carefully considered before using a model or simulation in a test program. This paper looks at some of the key issues facing the M&S community as it develops models and simulations for OT&E applications. These issues include: the differences between training and testing; levels of physics-based models; verification, validation, and accreditation; and myths concerning the use of M&S in OT&E.
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In the process of identifying cost-effective training media, the definition of the fidelity requirements of the learning environment is
critical and arises during the front end analysis phase of a Training Needs Analysis. Assessing the level of 'realism' required to support effective
learning of identified tasks and skills is difficult. It also has significant cost implications, particularly as experience shows that the cost of
providing situational realism is directly proportional to the level achieved. The cost of the training devices can be kept down if the engineering
solution has clear fidelity parameters to meet.
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