NETWORK DELIVERY OF TRAINING ON DEMAND

David J. Sykes, Ph.D.
Hughes Training Inc., Arlington, TX 

The objective of this paper is to describe and compare alternatives for delivering multi-media training material over different kinds of networks. The industry requirement is to provide timely and cost-effective Training on Demand in a variety of settings. There are several different approaches using LAN, WAN, Client-Server, and the Internet. The content of this paper is intended to facilitate the selection of the most appropriate method for a given situation. Before getting into the details of multi-media and networking however, some background discussion on Training on Demand is in order.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

A COMPARISON OF INTERACTIVE COURSEWARE (ICW) AUTHORING SYSTEMS

Kay L. Orr, Ph.D., Jack Rachels, Peter H. Larsen
Southwest Research Institute

Glenn Embry, Msgt Rosanne M. Harrison, Msgt Carl Hester
United States Air Force

This paper presents the results of a study conducted to compare interactive courseware (ICW) authoring systems in order to select the most appropriate system for use in conversion of an Air Mobility Command (AMC) paper-based "correspondence" program. The Air Force stipulated evaluation of a minimum of three authoring systems, including development of demonstration programs for each. A final presentation was required to summarize and compare systems.

A preliminary evaluation of 33 systems was performed. The list was narrowed to six systems where a more focused evaluation was performed. This list was narrowed to four systems, where an extensive evaluation was performed, along with demonstration program development. Data was collected including information from literature review, interviews, and demonstration program development. This information was used to answer specific questions submitted by HQ AMC that were determined pertinent in choosing an authoring system to meet their needs.

Findings were summarized in a table based on critical system features. Representatives from Air Education and Training Command/Training Support Squadron (AETC/TRSS) weighed each feature in terms of importance in their daily jobs. In an independent exercise, evaluators ranked each system on the same features. A weighted score was obtained for each system by multiplying the weight by the ranking. Variations of this table could serve as a tool for evaluating authoring systems for other applications.

This paper describes how an authoring system was evaluated for one specific use, based on evaluation of features.  Cost was not considered as a factor, but was reported for consideration by the government in their final decision.  Readers can use the evaluation method and instruments described in this paper to evaluate authoring systems for other applications.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

DESIGNING ELECTRONIC PERFORMANCE SUPPORT SYSTEMS

Ann E. Barron, Associate Professor
University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 

Susan Varnadoe, Vice President
Analysis & Technology, Orlando, Florida

David Fall III, Manager
Analysis & Technology, Orlando, Florida

Electronic Performance Support Systems are designed to provide information, training, and resources to users on an "on-demand" basis. This approach differs from traditional computer-based training systems in the organization, the amount of control the users maintain, and the integration with an on-the-job context. The design of a PSS is quite different from the design of computer-based instruction. Although an overall menu structure may exist, the user generally has a great deal of freedom to move around in the system and access specific parts. In addition, hyperlinks usually exist to connect multimedia and textual resources. This article provides guidelines and suggestions for the design and development of electronic performance support systems for maintenance and troubleshooting procedures.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

THE DEVELOPMENT OF A MULTIMEDIA CBT SYSTEM FOR RAF TRISTAR TRAINING

Squadron Leader L J Trask BSc RAF and
Flight Lieutenant L J Hutchinson BEd RAF
Royal Air Force Brize Norton, Oxfordshire, England, UK

Shortly after the Falklands War the Royal Air Force (RAF) acquired a fleet of 9 Lockheed L1011-500 TriStar aircraft for use in the Air-to-Air Refueling and Air Transport roles.  Most of these aircraft were purchased from British Airways (BA), who have also provided training facilities for RAF TriStar aircrew to the present day.  However, a new RAF TriStar flight simulator will enter service during Nov 96 and BA training will then cease.  A Course Design Team (CDT) was therefore formed in Apr 94 to produce all associated courseware for an RAF TriStar training course.  After carrying out a training needs analysis, the CDT decided that Computer Based Training (CBT) would be the most appropriate and cost effective instructional strategy for TriStar technical training.  However, the limited time and resources available for the project made it impossible to use a civilian contractor to produce the CBT lessons.  The Team therefore decided to produce their own CBT course using a range of commercially available software for PC computers.  The project is now well advanced and progressing on schedule.  This paper describes how the CDT specified the hardware and software suite on which the courseware was to be developed and deployed.  It goes on to explain how the courseware standards and guidelines evolved.  The method of production will be outlined and the final format of delivery will be explained.  The problems encountered will be detailed, as will the techniques used to overcome them.  Finally, the paper aims to show that a small team can successfully produce an effective multimedia CBT system within tight deadlines and constraints.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

VBA NETWORKED, MULTIMEDIA, MULTIMETHOD, TRAINING, PERFORMANCE SUPPORT, AND CREDENTIALING SYSTEM

 Steven L. Griffin,  Charles A. Beagles, Ph.D
Veterans Benefits Administration, Orlando, Florida

The Veterans Benefits Administration (VBA) is undergoing a tripartite modernization:  information systems; business processes and organizational structures; and performance-based employee education, training, and credentialing.  The latter effort is the focus of this paper.  A prototype training, performance support, and credentialing system is being built for the rating specialist occupation.  Rating specialists perform legal, medical, and policy analysis, decision-making, and synthesis of veterans benefits claims.  Due to the high-cognitive nature of the job and the requirement to provide distributed training at 58 regional offices, VBA   has designed a system that is networked, multimedia, and multimethod, based on a three aspect job and task analysis (behavioral, cognitive, and work process flow) and on learning analyses which synthesizes behavioral, cognitive, affective, experiential, cooperative, and  adult facilitative approaches.  The system integrates a variety of delivery technologies (networked, cooperatively structured ICW; videoteletraining; electronic performance support system; case studies; job aids).  Extensive trial and validation activities are included in contract requirements.  Performance-based criterion tests are being built, validated, and tested for reliability; these will also be used for employee credentialing.  Anticipated benefits include reduction of training time from 18 to 6 months; cost avoidance in excess of $30M; significant performance improvement in the rate of claims processed yearly,
with associated reduction of unit costs (cost per rating) of 66%..

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

A COMBAT MISSION TEAM PERFORMANCE MODEL: DEVELOPMENT AND INITIAL APPLICATION

Denise R. Silverman Hughes Training, Inc. - Training Operations Albuquerque, New Mexico

V. Alan Spiker 
Anacapa Sciences, Inc. Santa Barbara, California

Steven J. Tourville 
Hughes Training, Inc. - Training Operations Albuquerque, New Mexico

Robert T. Nullmeyer
Armstrong Laboratory Aircrew Training Research Division Mesa, Arizona

Aircrew coordination is now an integral part of all Air Force combat mission training. A vast body of literature exists that deals with aircrew coordination, a subset of which addresses combat mission training. While it is commonly assumed that effective aircrew coordination leads to improved mission performance, surprisingly few studies have demonstrated an empirical link between them using tactically realistic combat scenarios. We present a conceptual model of team performance measurement in which aircrew coordination, team performance, mission performance and their interrelationships are operationally defined. The model builds on the seminal study conducted by the Air Force (Povenmire, Rockway, Bunecke, & Patton, 1989) and provides a useful framework for interpreting crew resource management research from other laboratories. Validation of the model has begun with Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC) MC-130P aircrews and preliminary data are provided that support key elements of the model.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

AN ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY FOR TEAM COORDINATION IN COMBAT MISSION TRAINING

Steven J. Tourville Hughes Training, Inc. - 
Training Operations Albuquerque, NM

V. Alan Spiker 
Anacapa Sciences, Inc. Santa Barbara, CA

Denise R. Silverman Hughes Training, Inc. - 
Training Operation Albuquerque, NM

Robert T. Nullmeyer Human Resources Directorate
Aircrew Training Research Division Mesa, AZ

Team Mission Observation Tool (T-MOT) was developed to identify individual and team behavioral processes observed during a specialized, simulation-based program of Combat Mission Training (CMT) conducted for U.S. Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC) MC-130P Special Operations Forces (SOF) aircrew teams. The T-MOT, its foundations, development, and purpose are described.  Measurement is accomplished within the T-MOT using behaviorally anchored rating scales and subject matter expert observations of key behaviors tied to a complex CMT scenario.  The T-MOT supports recording and analysis of both individual and aircrew team behaviors within five Crew Resource Management (CRM) subprocesses (time management; tactics employment; function allocation; situation awareness; and command, control, and communications) across critical mission phases.  Additionally, the T-MOT provides structure to direct observations of complex performances demonstrated during both mission preparation and mission execution.  With this methodology, an internally consistent and reliable "record by exception" measurement philosophy for recording specific aircrew team mission behaviors demonstrated during CMT is provided.

The T-MOT is being used to address several research questions:
-Are team behaviors within one or more CRM subprocess areas related to overall mission performance?
-Which CRM subprocess areas have the greatest demonstrated impact on mission outcome?
-Is team performance related to mission outcome above the performance represented by each crew position?
-Do effective aircrew teams exhibit consistent sets of coordination behaviors that can be "captured" and 
designed into a CMT program?

With this assessment approach, team coordination process indices have been identified for emphasis using current CMT technologies; a schema for improving team coordination training within existing capabilities was identified; and CMT system effectiveness was assessed.  Additionally, the T-MOT has demonstrated the potential to be expanded to other CMT environments with only modest modification, and can be viewed as the first step in the development of an overall team mission readiness assessment tool.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

IMPLICATIONS OF CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (CRM) TRAINING FOR TANK CREWS

Aaron J. Gayman,   Frank C. Gentner,   Stacy A. Canaras
Crew System Ergonomics Information Analysis Center (CSERIAC)
Wright-Patterson AFB, OH 

Mona J. Crissey
ARL-HRED-US Army Simulation, Training, and Instrumentation Command (STRICOM), Orlando, FL

Mission effectiveness of US Army tank crews may be enhanced by applying principles of Crew Resource Management (CRM).  A recent study of the US Army Safety Center Database identified a number of tank accidents, particularly during non-combat operations, that involved deficiencies in crew coordination.  In addition, data from the Center for Army Lessons Learned indicates that CRM may play a role in fratricide accidents.  In the late 1970s, findings of crew coordination problems in aviation accidents created the impetus for mandated CRM training for aircrews.  The purpose of this paper is to explore evidence of tank CRM-related problems and investigate the possible applications of aviation-derived CRM training to tank crews.  CSERIAC's analysis of crew coordination-related tank accidents suggests that the application of CRM principles to tank crews may increase mission effectiveness and operational safety.  Several factors support the application of CRM principles to tank crews.  These factors include increases in automation, the criticality of shared perceptions, possible information overload, and increasing requirements for team decision-making on the digital battlefield.  Developing a comprehensive strategy to improve tank CRM appears to be timely.  Although surface similarities of aircraft and armor crews imply that CRM training courses could be directly applied from the air cockpit to the ground vehicle, it is important to understand the differences between these two crew environments and to appreciate the unique CRM needs of tank crews.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

TRAINING TO IMPROVE SITUATIONAL AWARENESS

Katharine Golas, Ph.D., Bruce Montag 
Southwest Research Institute San Antonio, Texas

Captain Peter D. Hottenstein, Jr. 
US Air Force Tyndall AFB, FL 32403

The Air Force is currently implementing 3 D modeling and simulation technologies on a new training system for Airborne Warning and Control System s (AWAC S ) Weapons Directors (WDs ). When students are l earning to become AWAC S WDs , t hey must attain the knowledge and develop the judgment and decision-making abilities required to direct fighters in combat . The most critical skill they learn is how to maintain situational awareness of the 4D air environment . The WD must t l earn to recognize which tactics are being employed during an engagement and be able to anticipate a pi lot ' s needs and serve them . While they are communicating, both pilot and WD need to have the same conceptual understanding of what is taking place in the air situation. Until now, AWAC S WDs gained this knowledge solely through mission experience.
Aircraft rack data appears on the AWAC S console as 2D symbology. To ensure that AWACS WD students are forming the appropriate mental models concerning the air situation and air order of battle, a new training simulator has been developed, called t he AWAC S Modeling and Simulation (AMS ) Training System. This paper describes how the AMS training system improves the situational awareness of the Weapons Director through a combination of instructional strategies and training technologies aimed at producing students who are skilled job performers, that is, mission-ready.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

UNIQUE STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPING EMBEDDED INTERACTIVE COURSEWARE (ICW)

Claire S. Bartoli, Katharine C. Golas, Ph.D.
Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas

Historical data has shown that effective and efficient simulator training depends largely on how students prepare for learning on the simulator. Typical preparation for simulator training consists of classroom and stand-alone computer-based training (CBT), which focus on individual objectives for learning facts, concepts, principles, or procedures.  During simulator training, students are expected to develop the mental models and metaskills that will enable them to transfer their skills to new situations.

Because traditional pre-simulator training tasks are learned individually, students often have difficulty integrating multiple objectives in order to develop proficiency in complex tasks.  Embedded interactive courseware (ICW) can improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the simulator by providing learning activities which specifically address (1) understanding the "big picture," (2) deriving meaning from visual and auditory cues, (3) understanding the three-dimensional environment, and (4) practicing procedures in which cues and responses are simplified but essentially the same as those in the simulator.  Using a multidisciplinary team of instructional designers, software engineers, and subject matter experts to design simulator modes, capabilities, and feedback mechanisms to support the goals of skill building and transfer is the best approach to designing a simulator which integrates embedded ICW.

This paper describes the application of the new paradigm of instructional development to the analysis and design of embedded ICW and the unique strategies for developing embedded ICW as part of the total simulation training system.  Recommendations for evaluation strategies are given, and considerations for future research areas are presented.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

AUTOMATED PRESCRIPTIVE ASSESSMENTS AND INTERACTIVE DISTANCE LEARNING

Wiley N. Boland, Jr., Ed.D.
Materials, Communication & Computers, Inc., Suffolk, VA

Distance learning technology provides the capability to reach multiple, distant, and geographically-dispersed locations with high-quality, real-time instruction.  Interactivity improves comprehension and serves as a catalyst for effective learning when coupled with competent design and multimedia.  This paper discusses combining the promises of distance learning and interactivity as the basis for an automated prescriptive assessment process.  Participants in the United States Atlantic Command's UNIFIED ENDEAVOR exercises attend a relevant curriculum of seminars.  They arrive with varying knowledge and experience levels in the processes and procedures associated with the effective functioning of a Joint Task Force Headquarters staff.  An automated assessment process will determine individual needs and prescribe tailored curricula and courseware products.  Properly focused interactive multimedia courseware can significantly enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of distance learning to meet training requirements.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

ELIMINATING THE SQUARE ONE SYNDROME: NICNAK:  A ONE YEAR STUDY

Mary F. Bratton-Jeffery, Kirk L. Schultz, and Glenn R. Griffin
Naval Education & Training, Program Management Support Activity,
Pensacola, Florida

Military downsizing and budget reductions are reducing Navy training resources, including instructor personnel.  Without effective interventions Navy training may be adversely affected.   A technology solution that has widespread appeal in the training arena is the development and  use of interactive courseware to reduce the time to train and to diminish overall training costs.

An emerging technology at the Naval Education and Training Program Management Support Activity (NETPMSA) in Pensacola, Florida, is a unique design and development process which helps classroom instructors or subject matter experts create interactive courseware for computer-based training.   The courseware may be used to facilitate, remediate, or replace classroom instruction.   NETPMSA's Interactive Courseware Novice Authoring Kit (NICNAK) helps individuals and military commands  create interactive courseware which will meet their specific needs.   Service personnel receive a one-week intensive training session in the NICNAK process.   Once the NICNAK graduates leave NETPMSA, they receive on-going assistance from the various resident experts at NETPMSA.   Whether the request is an instructional design question, a programming problem, or a need for state-of-the-art visual technology, NETPMSA stands ready to assist the novice team.

Importantly, NICNAK is a synergistic effect of team interaction and people dynamics.   The underlying tenet of the NICNAK process is the elimination of the "Square One Syndrome."   Individuals that participate in the training receive more than just a manual, software and stand-up lectures.   They become vital members in an interactive, interservice network which shares ideas, projects, templates and lessons learned.   NICNAK facilitates collaboration and innovation while reducing competition and repetition. 

This paper will take a brief look at NICNAK's inception one year ago and describe how it has evolved in just a short time from an in-house survival model to one that is being adopted by development teams throughout the NAVEDTRACOM and beyond.  Additionally, a description of the actual NICNAK Training Week 1 class is presented including the course's scope and methodology.   Student participants are identified by command and a short discussion of a Trainee Selection Instrument which, currently in development, is presented.   Since NICNAK is a service-oriented process, the NETPMSA staff must be readily available to field novice questions and solve problems.   Electronic access allows NETPMSA's staff to meet with development team members individually; users' group teleconferencing will allow NICNAK graduates to share the projects' library, new templates, and lessons learned.  The paper concludes with  trainee critiques of the NICNAK process, resulting course changes and plans for the future.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

INCREASING SPEED AND FLEXIBILITY OF FEEDBACK SYSTEMS FOR DIS EXERCISES

Larry L. Meliza Bill Brown U.S. Army Research Institute 
LB&M Associates, Inc. Orlando, FL Lawton, OK

The After Action Review (AAR) is an interactive discussion intended to help Army units decide what happened during an exercise, decide why it happened, and identify potential corrective actions. An AAR system may facilitate this process by providing aids that portray exercise events (ground truth) from a variety of perspectives. One of the major challenges of an AAR system is that of providing appropriate AAR aids within about ten minutes after exercises conducted in the distributed interactive simulation (DIS) environment. A second challenge is to provide the flexibility necessary to adapt the AAR aids to the results of a specific exercise. The Automated Training Analysis and Feedback System (ATAFS) was developed to help trainers prepare AAR aids as soon as possible after the end of an exercise, by, in part, the application of a knowledge database to support automatic generation of candidate AAR aids. This paper describes the AAR process, the workload of trainers, the ATAFS approach to assisting trainers, and the strengths and shortfalls of this approach.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

SIMULATING THE BIG ONE: USE OF SIMULATION FOR DISASTER TRAINING

Edward Degnan, John W. Jacobs, Ronald W. Tarr, and Heather Gibbs
University of Central Florida - Institute for Simulation and Training, Orlando, Florida

As part of a recent technology transfer initiative on the part of the U.S. Armed Forces, constructive simulation models are being modified to train civilian leaders in the area of emergency management and disaster relief.  This paper will propose a methodology for ensuring that training effectiveness will be maximized throughout the development cycle, as simulations are converted from military to civilian application.  An outline for the design of a simulation exercise is included that can be used to design and conduct effective training exercises using constructive simulation.  The design methodology calls for the sharing of technology resources across various community segments, including schools, health and emergency aid agencies, and government organizations.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

THE WORLD WIDE WEB AND INSTRUCTION

Dr. Ann E. Barron, Associate Professor
University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida

Brendan Tompkins, Programmer/Webmaster
Analysis & Technology, Orlando, Florida

The Internet and the World Wide Web provide great avenues for the dissemination of training materials.  Of special interest to trainers who are exploring new instructional paradigms is the potential for worldwide, on-demand instruction, such as interactive tutorials, simulations, and testing.  

This paper explores the readiness of the Internet as an instructional delivery environment capable of the dissemination of multimedia-based materials that provide interactive transactions with a learner.  The advantages and disadvantages of techniques that represent opportunities to provide meaningful interactions will be outlines.  In addition, design guidelines will be provided for creating instructional materials on the World Wide Web.  These guidelines include recommendations for page layout, text styles, graphics formats, multimedia components, and navigation options.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

SIMULATION AND COMPUTER-BASED TECHNOLOGIES FOR EDUCATION

Julia A. Medin, Ph.D., Edward Degnan, & Ronald W. Tarr
University of Central Florida - Institute for Simulation and Training, Orlando, Florida

The paper presents results from a study of how effectively technology has been implemented in K-12 classrooms.  The study also examined the need to train current and future teachers on the use of educational technologies, through inservice and preservice training programs and within colleges of education.  The paper will discuss how and why the Department of Defense (DoD) can assist in this implementation.

The objectives of the study included (1) to recommend uses of DoD simulation and other computer related technologies for school systems and (2) to recommend how to effectively integrate technologies into these school systems.  Literature searches, site visits, interviews, the use of consultants and presentations given at a forum produced several findings and recommendations that are reported in the paper.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES IN TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Peter C. Riley
Lockheed Martin Corporation, Albuquerque, NM

Louis C. Gallo
Mediatech, Inc., Ormond Beach, FL

Thomas H. Beebe, Ph.D.
Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, Kirtland AFB, NM

Pervasive technologies such as PC-based distance learning and multimedia, affordable high resolution data/video projection systems, full screen/full motion MPEG encode/decode, low-cost custom CD-ROM production, and widespread Internet access are revolutionizing the learning environment.  The result: instructors and students alike are confronted with an unprecedented choice of means and methodologies.  In particular, putting the right tools in the hands of the instructor can significantly increase individual and overall productivity.  Easy to learn/easy to use icon-based multimedia authoring software means that instructors can play a far greater role in developing and modifying course materials to suit individual class and student needs; PC-based classroom and in-classroom aids such as multimedia lecterns, data/video displays, and PC-based student monitoring and response systems vastly improve the efficiency of courseware delivery.  Many of these options have been carefully evaluated and prototyped in electronic classroom upgrades taking place at the Special Operations Mission Training Support System (MTSS) at Kirtland AFB in Albuquerque, New Mexico.  This paper describes the initial performance and procurement criteria, problems and solutions involving new facility application, and subsequent experiences in implementing a flexible, multi-aircraft training environment for the 58th Special Operations Wing.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

RAVE: AN INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA SYSTEM FOR ACQUISITION OF VOCABULARY

Joe Ferrell, Michael Companion, and Denise Garcia Epp
Hughes Training, Inc., Arlington, Texas

In 1990, Essential Learning Systems (ELS) was developed as a multi-sensory interactive process designed to facilitate developmental language for students with known learning difficulties.  It was noted that non-English speakers, particularly from Mexico, were able to successfully use ELS to grasp English as a second language.  Because of that success, it was hypothesized that applications of ELS would work for other non-English speaking students.  As a result, a test site was established at University of North Dakota.  During the  testing process,  gaps were noted in the ELS technology.  Changes and improvements made as a result of these findings led to the development of Reactive Acquisition of Vocabulary Elements (RAVE).

RAVE is an interactive multimedia system designed to create an immediate reaction to an English word whether spoken, written, or communicated through a graphic illustration or simulation.  The literature suggests that the benefits associated with reactive vocabulary are the match between the paradigm and the cognitive systems for visual language processing.  By stimulating the brain through sight, sound, and written and graphic displays, RAVE allows for a more complete comprehension of vocabulary.  RAVE also increases comprehension by offering the option of screen and instruction presentations in the user's native language.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

SIMULATOR SICKNESS IN TANK DRIVER TRAINERS

Robert B. Raisler
Simulation, Training and Instrumentation Command (STRICOM)

Donald R. Lampton
Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, Orlando, FL

The M1 Tank Driver Trainer (TDT) is an excellent example of how computer-based simulators can provide training that is less expensive, safer, and more flexible than training conducted with operational equipment. The TDT uses computer-generated imagery and a six-degree of freedom motion base to provide training for the driver of the M1 Abrams main battle tank. The TDT facility at Ft. Knox , KY can provide training for 18 drivers simultaneously, all running independent scenarios. The TDT will save millions of dollars over its life cycle. Unfortunately, as with many simulators that depict movement, simulator sickness is a concern because it can potentially degrade training effectiveness and affect the well-being of trainees. 

At the request of the U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC), the U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (ARI) conducted research to determine if TDT training was being affected by simulator sickness and, if so, ways to either prevent or alleviate it. ARI collected baseline data on the incidence and severity of symptoms reported by a One Station Unit Training company during their first and some subsequent training sessions. Symptoms were measured using questionnaires, interviews, and a test of balance. For comparison purposes, symptoms were measured following field driving sessions with actual M1 tanks. In addition, Instructor/Operators (I/Os) were interviewed concerning their observations on simulator sickness, and I/O records were tabulated for companies that had previously trained with the simulator. This paper provides background information on simulator sickness, discusses the incidence and severity of symptoms experienced by TDT trainees, changes in symptoms over time, recommendations for alleviating simulator sickness, and how the Ft. Knox User benefited from those recommendations. In addition, suggestions are presented for simulator sickness research to guide the future design and use of Virtual Environments for training.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

AUTOMATED  PRIMARY HELICOPTER INSTRUCTION: THE INTELLIGENT FLIGHT TRAINER

Jack Dohme
Army Research Institute Rotary Wing Aviation Research Unit, Fort Rucker, Alabama

The Army Research Institute Rotary Wing Aviation Research Unit (ARI RWARU) has developed and evaluated a family of low-cost training devices designed specifically to support initial entry training in rotary wing flight.  This effort has led to the development of the Intelligent Flight Trainer (IFT) which is an automated, Expert System based device designed to train the basic helicopter flight skills such as hovering flight and traffic pattern flight.

The UH-1 Training Research Simulator (UH-1TRS), developed in FY86, demonstrated that a low-cost trainer could:  1)  Provide positive Transfer of Training (TOT) to the UH-1 aircraft using Army Initial Entry Rotary Wing (IERW) flight students as research subjects.  2)  Substitute for actual UH-1 flight time in Primary Phase IERW training.  3)  Serve as a vehicle for the development of the Automated Hover Trainer; an Expert System (ES) based training device that demonstrated positive TOT to hovering skills in the UH-1 aircraft.

The UH-1TRS/Automated Hover Trainer (AHT) was shown to support significant TOT to the aircraft at substantially reduced training cost given that the hourly operating cost of the simulator is approximately 10% that of the aircraft.  The AHT used ES logic to provide initial training in hovering flight in lieu of a dedicated Instructor Pilot (IP).

As the Army adopted the TH-67 Creek aircraft for Primary Phase IERW training, it was necessary to upgrade the low-cost trainer to the TH-67 airframe.  The IFT was developed to simulate the TH-67 and to further develop the idea of automated initial entry training to include additional maneuvers from the Primary Phase IERW curriculum.  Work in FY96 has developed a TH-67 simulator from a crashed OH-58 airframe and further developed the automated training concept to train traffic pattern maneuvers using Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS) technology.

The IFT is designed for implementation as a primary pre-trainer for IERW students who learn basic flight skills in the simulator and then transfer those skills to the helicopter on the flight line saving training costs and enhancing flight training safety. 

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

DESIGNING THE VISUAL IDENTIFICATION TRAINING SOLUTION

David G. Twitchell
Shadowlab Simulations Incorporated, Woods Cross, Utah

On 14, April 1994, a tragic and avoidable accident occurred over the skies of Northern Iraq when two US Army helicopters were mistakenly shot down by two US Air Force F-15s and twenty-six persons were killed.  Reports from the investigation indicate that a number of factors contributed to the accidental shootdown.  Most prominent among these factors was the visual mis-identification of the Black Hawk helicopters. Visual identification training programs in the Air Force and across the Department of Defense had changed little from their inception a half century earlier and needed overhaul to avoid the symptomatic repetition of incidents such as that of the Black Hawk shootdown.  This paper outlines the successful approach taken to insure the swift, appropriate, instructional and software design, development, implementation and evaluation of the needed training intervention titled Joint Visual Identification (JVID) training system.  

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

INTEGRATED LOGISTICS MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR THE BATTLE FORCE TACTICAL TRAINING PROGRAM

Dale Lotspeich
PHD, Naval Surface Warfare Center, Port Hueneme, California

Michael D. Kasmarik
Wunderlich - Malec Engineering, Inc., Minnetonka, Minnesota

This paper presents an overview of a system design developed for the US Navy Battle Force Tactical Training (BFTT) program by a joint team of PHD NSWC, Eldyne, Inc. and RAC, Inc., of San Diego CA, Focus Learning Corporation of Pismo Beach, CA, and Wunderlich-Malec Engineering of Minnetonka, MN.  This design provides a means to integrate all Interactive Courseware (ICW), Interactive Electronic Technical Manuals (IETM), and other required logistical support information into an electronic delivery system. 

The system described utilizes Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) hardware and software components to build the database and communications capabilities for the system, and includes the following capabilities:

1 .An integrated methodology for defining and streamlining the development of logistical support information, principally IETM's and ICW.
2. Overall configuration management control and reliability / obsolescence of program components.
3.A version control method for authoring of IETM and ICW content, and for distribution of the IETM and ICW  content runtime modules.
4.A repository system to make both IETM and ICW source level content objects and runtime content objects available to multiple locations.
5.A mechanism to connect to and retrieve information from various logistical support databases.
6.A network infrastructure to provide high performance network transport of all supported information to shipboard and land based sites, on demand.

The COTS technology is comprised of several applications.   The foundation application provides a method to analyze and build a database of training requirements or objectives.  Based on these requirements, training or performance support content is defined.  This content is linked in the database to the requirements or objectives, and therefore provides a means to identify and maintain content when objectives or requirements change.  In addition, linkages are provided to off-the-shelf  ICW authoring packages, which in turn deliver actual IETM or ICW modules.  Finally, a client/server messaging technique, successfully demonstrated in the commercial marketplace, is used to distribute and maintain version control of the IETM or ICW modules, and provides links to information from other logistical support databases.  Current efforts  for BFTT are focusing on the first four of the capabilities described, which are configuration management and definition, and development of IETM and ICW modules.  Integration of the delivery technology will come at a later date.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

SPEECH SYNTHESIS/RECOGNITION/GISTING TECHNOLOGY FOR CGF/SAFOR APPLICATIONS

Kirk A. Dunkelberger
Hughes Defense Communications, Ft. Wayne, IN  46808

The need for environments in which to conduct large scale joint force concept development, tactics validation, and training is axiomatic.  The human is the most scaleable, capable, reusable, reconfigurable, and sophisticated component in these systems;  s/he is also the most expensive, obviating the need for synthetic environments and computer generated/semi-automated forces (CGF/SAFOR).  But consider that although we continue to move towards a completely digital battlespace, voice communication remains the backbone of current generation command, control, and communication (C3).  The logical conclusion is the implied requirement for robust speech synthesis, recognition, and gisting technology in synthetic environments and an approach for their integration with CGF/SAFOR.

Speaker independent, continuous speech recognition technology is available commercially off-the-shelf (COTS) and achieves real-time recognition rates of better than 95% accuracy in the laboratory acoustic environment on vocabularies of up to 2,000 words.  This same technology, when subjected to an acoustic environment more comparable to a tactical command post, achieves only a 70% word recognition rate.  The application of our gisting technology, the understanding of dialog based on context and situational awareness, can restore the key command phrase recognition rate to nearly 98%.  This level of accuracy enables the construction of a large class of CGF/SAFOR applications with greatly improved realism, fidelity, and intuitive interfaces.

The work to be presented includes:
o an overview of the speech technologies involved with an emphasis on gisting;
oa relevant taxonomy of speech audio command and control dataflow in the distributed interactive simulation (DIS) context; and
oa subset of system concepts and models which can be drawn from the taxonomy for demonstration and testing.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

MULTI-MEDIA SOLUTIONS FOR AIRCRAFT RECOGNITION TRAINING IN THE ROYAL AIR FORCE

Flt Lt. Daren S Moss, Sqn Ldr Andrew C Pearce
Dept. of Technology Enhanced Training, RAF Training Development Support Unit

In the last few years there has been an ever increasing use of Computer Based Training (CBT) and Technology Enhanced Training (TET) throughout the British Armed Forces.  A notable exception to this trend is the field of Aircraft Recognition; where training is still predominantly carried out by acknowledged recognition expert(s) using a mix of photographs, slideshows and briefings.  These methods are costly, time consuming and involve minimal student interaction.  Opportunities for self study and assessment are limited by the distribution of expensive, recognition specific, journals and magazines which, although they contain excellent source material, have limited training benefit.
This paper covers the design and implementation of the Aircraft Recognition Trainer for the UK Tri-Service Recognition Committee.  It examines the decision to develop a dedicated solution rather than purchase an existing off-the-shelf package, together with the reasons behind the decision to use an in-house resource such as the Department of Technology Enhanced Training (DTET) at the RAF Training Development and Support Unit (TDSU) in preference to a commercial developer.  It includes the Human Factors, Psychology and Human Computer Interaction (HCI) aspects considered during the evolution of the user interface and highlights the importance of subject matter experts having continued input to the ongoing design of a CBT package.  It also covers the opportunities offered / difficulties encountered during  the incorporation of new technologies such as Fractal compression, 3D modeling software and 32 bit operating systems.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

EMBEDDED TRAINING FOR TACTICAL AIRCRAFT: ITS TIME HAS COME

John Burkley
Lockheed Martin Tactical Defense Systems, Akron, OH

Claudia Slaton
Naval Air Warfare Center/Training Systems Division, Orlando, FL

Wendell Neubert
Lockheed Martin Tactical Defense Systems, Akron, OH

Embedded Training (ET) systems for tactical aircraft have shown promise over the years as effective training media.  However, these systems have gained only limited acceptance because of concerns about impacts on aircraft availability, performance, safety, and affordability.  Recent technological advances, however, show that ET can overcome these concerns and become a key component of the total training system for the next generation of tactical aircraft, such as those resulting from the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program.

In the next century, tactical aircraft must address a new training requirement. Not only will the pilot be trained to operate his aircraft and all its weapon systems, he will have to learn to operate in a more fully integrated joint battlespace. This will require familiarity with a myriad of support systems, joint forces and integrated command and control.  The total training system of the future must also provide for delivery of training and mission rehearsal wherever the aircraft and pilot are deployed.  ET is a viable training media to meet all these needs.  In-flight, it can enhance the training fidelity of existing range facilities to support more complex training scenarios. It can also provide a "portable range" for team training capability anywhere/anytime. On the ground, ET can support continuation training wherever the pilot and aircraft are deployed.  ET can link the aircraft with the emerging global training network system. New aircraft avionics systems can support these features with minimal impact on aircraft performance and availability. 

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

A LOW-COST COCKPIT FAMILIARISATION TRAINER FOR THE EH101 HELICOPTER

Dr Michael Reakes, Systems Engineering Manager
Westland System Assessment Limited, Yeovil, United Kingdom

This paper describes a novel and low-cost approach to a Cockpit Familiarisation Trainer (CFT) for the EH101 helicopter. A training device was needed to allow aircrew and maintainers to become familiar with the cockpit of this new helicopter type. Training objectives for the CFT focus on the identification and location of cockpit controls, switches and indications, and the performance of normal and emergency cockpit drills. Following correct student actions, system reaction is required, incorporating visual, audio and tactile cues. The correct three-dimensional spatial relationship of the controls and displays is essential. All these requirements cannot be fully satisfied by conventional Computer-Based Training (CBT). The CFT utilises a replica cockpit structure (a disused engineering rig), populated with replica controls and displays interfaced to a personal computer. Four commercial monitors were repackaged to replicate the aircraft's "glass" cockpit (Electronic Instrument System - EIS). Procedural scenarios were created using a CBT authoring system. These scenarios respond to the correct checklist sequences, and display the appropriate indications on the replica cockpit panels, including animated graphics on the EIS (e.g. for engine start-up/shut-down) with appropriate audio cues (cautions, warning etc.).  The scenarios span all phases of flight: pre-start; after-start; pre-take-off; pre-taxi; after-take-off; pre-landing; after-landing; shut-down; as well as en-route checks and emergency drills. A novel feature is that conventional CBT courseware describing the operation of aircraft systems can be concurrently delivered to students in the cockpit environment (from a separate personal computer). The CFT uses commercial off-the-shelf technology to satisfy the requirements for practising and learning cockpit drills. The requirements are satisfied by the CFT with a much lower capital and running cost than a flight simulator or fixed-based simulator.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

USE OF AIRCRAFT OPERATIONAL FLIGHT PROGRAMS (OFPs) ON MAINTENANCE TRAINERS

Cynthia L. Turner, Karen Barnes, and Kenneth Woodall
Hughes Training, Inc., Arlington, Texas

A common methodology for generating maintenance trainer software is to simulate aircraft functions using specially developed software modules. The advantage of this method is that it allows the early fielding of trainers because it utilizes functional software development methods to create software from aircraft software documentation. However, updates to the aircraft systems require significant time to incorporate into trainer simulations. The principal causes of the delay include the additional functionality to be modeled, and the extensive analysis and retest required to determine any ripple effects due to the links between simulation modules.  Moreover, aircraft changes occurring past the trainer data freeze date are usually too late to be incorporated into the simulation.

By using the techniques, tools, and processes created to rehost aircraft OFP software for aircrew trainers, maintenance trainers can be developed, updated,  and maintained with lower costs and higher fidelities.  This paper describes the results of an investigation into the feasibility of using aircraft operational flight programs for sophisticated aircraft maintenance trainers.  The paper documents the results of a study using F-16 aircrew and maintenance trainers as a baseline.  It describes the problems encountered in reuse of aircrew trainer software for maintenance trainers especially in the area of providing malfunction insertion capabilities to support troubleshooting tasks.

The paper describes how hardware and software commonality between aircrew and maintenance trainers increase training capability while reducing program software development time and life-cycle costs. As a result, the customer is assured that as the operational aircraft is updated, the maintenance trainer can be upgraded on a similar time line to  meet any new requirements for the constantly changing operational mission.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

TRAINING SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT AT HMAS WATSON

Commander Ian Curl, RAN and Mr. Andrew Weisz, Serco Australia Pty Ltd
Royal Australian Navy Surface Warfare School, Watsons Bay,  NSW  Australia

Surface Warfare training for Royal Australian Navy (RAN) personnel is undertaken at HMAS WATSON in Sydney.  Individual operator, command team and task group level tactical training is conducted on a variety of systems, including functional simulators, Milspec equipment and CBT suites.  Most of the smaller training systems have been developed at WATSON by personnel from the RAN and Serco Australia Pty Ltd, the major on-site engineering support contractor.  Even though these training systems have been developed and built in-house at very low cost, they have proven to be extremely effective for shore based operator training.

This paper discusses two of the many in-house development projects completed at WATSON.  Firstly, the recent development of a low cost, high fidelity emulator for the AN/SQS-56 sonar display console as fitted on the RAN's FFG-7 Class guided missile frigates and an associated scenario generator is described.  The second project discussed is the development of a medium fidelity PC based Generic Radar Display Simulator that has been designed to provide shore based radar operator instruction for training functions that previously could only be carried out at sea.

Some of the lessons learned and the benefits and shortcomings experienced in using PC hardware and software development tools for these types of projects are discussed. A brief summary of the future directions for the in-house development work is also given.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

ADDRESSING EMERGING OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS WITH LEGACY MODELS

Gale N. Smith
BoozòAllen & Hamilton Inc., Arlington, Virginia

James T. Blake, Ph.D.
Resource Consultants, Inc., Vienna, Virginia

Today's training simulations are only marginally able to address emerging operational requirements.  Operations other than war, small unit operations, and countering weapons of mass destruction are a few examples of training challenges facing our forces.  Unfortunately, wholesale rework of legacy models to look at new requirements is too time-consuming and expensive and usually requires new hardware platforms.  Recent funding cuts from the Services' modeling and simulation budgets are further exacerbating the problem.  This paper describes the integration of adjunct models with legacy models to provide an evolutionary approach to address emerging training requirements.  The Army's Corps Battle Simulation (CBS) is used as an example to explain the concept and highlight the recent integration of an adjunct model to address battle drill for ballistic missile threats.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

OBJECTIVE VERIFICATION OF THE TANKER VISUAL POSITION 

Brian A. Whatcott
FlightSafety Services Corporation, Altus, Oklahoma
 (Copy filed with FAA, National Simulator Program Office Atlanta Ga., by request)

Regulation of flight simulator performance, both civil and military, is provided by the Federal Aviation Administration for the United States in advisory circulars AC 120 -40 and AC 120 -40B. In performance areas where there is no civilian usage, the FAA cedes performance-test to the appropriate military arm. A leading example of usage which is particular to the military is the aerial refueling task. This note sets out a uniform method for setting the visual image in this otherwise unregulated task.

After visual acquisition of the Tanker airplane at several miles range, the refueling task is unusual in that the process is visually controlled. Suppliers have typically relied heavily on the judgment of the test/acceptance aircrew in adjusting the image of the tanker in the refueling position. The well-known advantage of using crew-judgment is that it strongly encourages student acceptability.

A disadvantage of this subjective method is the debate and readjustment which tend to result when simulator evaluation crew-members are reassigned. Accordingly, this short paper sets out an objective method for adjusting the tanker visual image in a precise fashion, in conjunction with pilot assessment. It makes no assumptions about aircraft/boom/nozzle/receptacle dimensions but instead verifies that the visual angles subtended by the tanker at the receiver aircraft pilot's eye level are replicated in the simulator. 

A sextant 'shoots' the angular separation of prominent visual features of the tanker and their position with respect to the horizon.  Suitable features include engine tailcones, fuselage centerline markings, antennas and external guidance indicators. It is shown that these measurements fix the visual position of the tanker image to the desired precision.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

MIRAGE - A NEW KIND OF VISUALIZATION TOOL

Scott H. Smith
Institute for Simulation and Training, University of Central Florida

Michael Garnsey
U.S. Army Simulation, Training, and Instrumentation Command

A prototype of a new form of visualization system is described and its applications are discussed.  "Mirage" is a 3D, stereoscopic, pseudo-holographic display system which generates an image that appears as a scale model resting on a horizontal table top in front of the viewer.  The viewer may walk around the display, examining the image from various azimuths and altitudes or he may pan and zoom through the virtual space.

The system was developed at the Institute for Simulation and Training to be an "Ultra-Stealth" for viewing Distributed Interactive Simulation exercises but it could also be used to make sonar tracks, fluid flow patterns, logistics status, or other complex multidimensional data sets more easily understood.  Of particular interest is the fusion of abstract data, such as graphical representation of network connectivity, battlefield graphical control measures, tactical communications links, and simulation management functions with the 3D representation of terrain and simulation entities.  The unusual application of graphical transformations and projection algorithms is explained and promising application areas are discussed.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

MICROLASER-BASED PROJECTION DISPLAY FOR SIMULATION

Charles G. Fink, Robert Bergstedt, Graham Flint and David Hargis
Laser Power Corporation, San Diego, California 

Phil Peppler
Armstrong Laboratory, USAF, Mesa, Arizona

There have been many substantial improvements in flight simulator training in recent years. New technologies combined with distributed interactive simulation have pushed flight simulator training to a new level. However, flight simulator visual displays still cannot provide real world resolution, brightness, contrast, and detail. As a result, many training tasks cannot be performed. In some cases, negative training is an occurring risk.
Military pilots are trained to scan the surrounding airspace and terrain for threats, targets, and friendly aircraft. However, modern flight simulator visual displays do not provide adequate definition to identify other aircraft, ground vehicles, roads and bridges at realistic tactical ranges or to properly assess their aspect angle. Laser Power Corporation, under contract to Armstrong Laboratory, is developing a new microlaser based projector for flight simulator displays to address this requirement. 
Recent developments in microlasers now promise the means to construct a portable, efficient, and relatively low cost laser projection display. The microlaser based "direct write" projection display produces realistic images never before seen in simulators. The revolutionary improvement in image quality and brightness results from the development of high power red, green and blue microlasers. These sources, combined with the high resolution, high contrast modulators produce a 24-bit color gamut capable of supporting the full range of real world colors. The unique modulator and the optical scanner of the "direct write" configuration produces the high resolution display required for the dynamic visual scene detail of the demanding simulation environment. The "picture window" imagery supported by this display will provide the detail required for fighter aircraft visual displays and will challenge the image generators to continue to improve source imagery.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

MULTIPLE IMAGE SUPPRESSION IN A LOW-COST VISUAL SYSTEM

Ronald G. Moore
Evans & Sutherland Computer Corporation, Salt Lake City, Utah

To maximize display resolution, scene density, and image quality at an affordable cost, the U.S. Army Close Combat Tactical Trainer (CCTT) employs a 15Hz image update rate visual system.  When operating at this low image update rate, visual anomalies occur which hinder the training task.  Multiple imaging is one of the most serious visual anomaly observed in a low update rate visual system.  Multiple imaging negatively affects image resolution, and can cause loss of situation awareness, and in some cases, simulator sickness.  A technique, called Multiple Image Suppression (MIS), is used in the Commander's Popped Hatch (CPH) panoramic display in the CCTT visual system to significantly reduce the negative effects of multiple imaging.

This paper introduces the reader to the artifacts of multiple imaging that result from an image update rate that is less than the display refresh rate.  It describes the side effects that can occur as a result of using Multiple Image Suppression.  It describes the Multiple Image Suppression technique as implemented in the image generator and used on the Commander's Popped Hatch panoramic display of the M1A1, M1A2, and M2A2/M3A2 manned modules on the CCTT program.  This paper explores the cost and performance benefits of Multiple Image Suppression.  And finally, the paper examines expanded uses of the Multiple Image Suppression technique.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

A "SYSTEM OF SYSTEMS" JOINT TRAINING, ANALYSIS, AND SIMULATION CENTER (JTASC)

Gregory F. Knapp, Systems Engineer, Major J. R. Reed, JT62
JTASC, Suffolk, VA

This paper describes the total training system developed for fulfilling the United States Atlantic Command's (USACOM's) JTASC mission to:
* Develop, execute and assess distributed joint training and simulation exercises;
* Integrate and rehearse assigned forces for worldwide employment in actual crisis;
* Provide planning facilities and a command post for joint task force commanders and staffs engaged in exercises and crisis rehearsals;
* Assess joint operational readiness of assigned forces; and,
* Provide a laboratory for demonstration and assessment of technologies, systems, doctrine, tactics, techniques, and procedures.
The synthetic environment necessary to meet the JTASC mission has been created by integrating C4I, training, modeling, and simulation into an interoperable system.  While the primary JTASC mission is designed to support Tier III Joint Commander Operational Training, this system of systems is fully capable of supporting Tier II exercises.  Highlights are as follows:
* Information Systems - 2500 users,  60 miles of fiber optic cabling, TCP/IP LANs, collaborative workflow, document management, digital library, multimedia storage and retrieval, worldwide accessibility .
* Information Transfer - SONET transport links tactical circuits, DISN-LES, SIPRNET, DSI, Internet, Radio and/or satellite up/down links including DBS.
* Training and analysis - electronic classrooms, distance learning,  desktop VTC,  video conferencing and video production.
* Modeling and simulation - Aggregate Level Simulation Protocols, decision support systems,  debriefing systems, AAR.
* C4 - Operational Joint Operations Center, Joint Intelligence Center, 140 GCCS workstations.
* Intelligence - complete intelligence capability.
A systems engineering approach, rapid COTS insertion, and open system architecture principles quickly accommodate new developments, system reconfiguration, and system upgrades.  Advanced technologies allow the creation of virtual warfare at the command level C4I interface.  The resulting "system of systems" provides a baseline which supports rapid capability expansion, new technology insertion, technology reuse, and a model for other projects seeking a total system solution. 

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

INTEGRATING EXERCISE CONTROL AND FEEDBACK SYSTEMS IN DIS

Larry L. Meliza
U.S. Army Research Institute, Orlando, FL

Benjamin Paz
Simulation, Training and Instrumentation Cmd, Orlando, FL

Trainers for collective exercises control the exercise by manipulating mission, enemy, terrain, troop, and time (METT-T) situation variables to support a training or exercise objective.  The feedback system must then examine the performance of a unit as a function of the evolving METT-T situation.  Integration of exercise control and feedback functions is necessary to reduce and simplify the workload of  trainers and to make sure exercise control and feedback systems are mutually supportive.  Integration is especially crucial in the Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) environment for two reasons.   First,  efficient use of training resources requires substantial temporal overlap and competition between  exercise control and feedback functions to provide rapid feedback.  Second,  the exercise control function expands to include controlling the behavior of  enemy and friendly computer generated forces (CGF).  This paper  describes current problems integrating state of the art exercise control and feedback systems in the DIS environment and presents potential solutions requiring research and development.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

IN: THE 'N' DIMENSIONS OF INTEROPERABILITY

Roger D. Smith
Mystech Associates, Orlando, Florida

As simulations have evolved over the last two decades, interoperability between them has emerged as a fundamental technique for increasing their applicability and minimizing the cost of developing and maintaining them.  From totally independent systems, to manual interfaces, automated interfaces, messaging standards, control standards, and architectural standards, the field has been transformed from a set of independent programs to a loose confederation working together to maximize each others investments.  In the future, simulation value will be measured by the degree of interoperability that can be attained.  

Many efforts to realize broad interoperability have been pursued, each with an increasing degree of ambitiousness.  We are now envisioning systems and architectures that can support the connection of all types of simulators and are reaching into the broader realm of C4I systems.  This paper will define many of the dimensions of interoperability as they exist today, as are planned for the near future, and as could ultimately be achieved.  Twelve dimensions will be enumerated and an algebra defined to aid in describing the relationships and the implications of extending interoperability into the different combinations of these dimensions.  This algebra is motivated from the DEVS Formalism originally developed in the book Theory of Modeling and Simulation.  Graphical portrayals will also be explored as tools to aid in communicating the concepts.  The paper champions a structured approach that lays a foundation to support future growth, realizing that the capabilities envisioned today do not encompass the dreams of tomorrow. 

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

TECHNIQUES FOR INTEROPERABILITY BETWEEN TERRAIN DATA BASES

Brian F. Goldiez 
Institute for Simulation & Training, University of Central Florida Orlando, Florida

Interoperability between terrain data bases (ground, culture, and models) has been a problem for many years. Networked simulations make the problem particularly visible. Recognizing the problem is the first step in solving the problem. Measuring the problem is the next step. Minimizing or eliminating the problem is the last step. Completing all of the steps consistently yields a methodology to address interoperability. The Institute for Simulation has recently completed a research program for STRICOM and DMSO which directly addresses each of the above steps. This report will summarize the problem by reference to other papers and will concentrate on techniques to measure and minimize the problem. The techniques described combine automated and manual methods and are rooted in mathematics and statistics. Techniques for minimizing the problem are also described. Finally a methodology, with accompanying criteria, are presented for recognizing, measuring, and minimizing terrain interoperability problems. Use of computer generated forces as the criteria for assessment of interoperability is a key component of the method.

The techniques and criteria involve capturing terrain processing characteristics from image generators and computer generated forces and measuring the color, size, and placement of objects. Techniques are also presented for measuring correlation in terrain skin and culture. Remediation techniques are also presented for terrain skin. Finally a methodology using computer generated forces is presented for assessing whether interoperability has been achieved. The paper concludes with recommendations for additional research as the methodology presented is the first attempt at addressing this problem and therefore, is limited in its completeness.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

REAL-TIME DISTRIBUTED OBJECT MANAGEMENT FOR LARGE-SCALE SYNTHETIC ENVIRONMENT SIMULATION -- DESIGNING FOR TOMORROW'S NEEDS

Roderic Deyo, Ray Fitzgerald, Paul Isaacson
Simulation Software Development
Evans & Sutherland Computer Corporation, Salt Lake City, Utah

Evolving information technologies such as real-time distributed object management will have a major impact on the design of large-scale synthetic environments for simulation and training. As the software and database components of simulation systems grow in cost relative to hardware, buyers expect that today's modeling and simulation systems should not only meet their current needs, but provide the highly distributed, heterogeneous, and scaleable simulation environments required for tomorrow's needs.
Distributed object management, such as Common Object Request Broker Architecture (CORBA) from the Object Management Group (OMG), has been commercially used for several years as a framework for implementing heterogeneous distributed corporate computing frameworks and networked information systems.
This paper reports on the work done at Evans & Sutherland to combine distributed object management concepts with the needs of large multi-sensor database real-time simulation. Emphasis is given to several difficult problems. These include object identity, persistence, and transaction management, that the system must solve under real-time performance constraints. These services can then be used to integrate third-party tools, support incremental update, provide real-time control of database objects from real-time internal and external hosts, and facilitate system flexibility and growth. In this way objects are distributed among various domains, including a master modeling database, multiple real-time databases, and host applications. 

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

PROVIDING COMMON MUNITION MODELS VIA AN ORDNANCE SERVER

John DiCola, David Mutschler, Lawrence Ullom, Alexandra Wachter
ACETEF/MFS, Naval Air Warfare Center -- Aircraft Division
Patuxent River, MD

In Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) exercises, it is often required that simulated entities interact on an equal basis.  When different simulators use different models for the same munitions, combat between the simulated entities may be skewed in favor of one simulation over another.  Thereby, the validity of exercise data might be lessened and the worth of the exercise reduced.  

Using common munition models eliminates this problem.  One approach toward providing these models is to use an established procedure or object class library where an entity's simulator would also simulate the ordnance it fires.  However, since this library must be compiled and bound to the platform simulation, this approach may lead to integration and performance issues.

This paper describes an alternative:  an ordnance server.  The ordnance server acts as a common repository that interfaces directly with the network.  Once a munition is fired, the server assumes control and simulates it apart from its launching platform.  Given available information, the server employs the appropriate weapon model.  The server simulates weapon flyout, status, trajectory, impact, and other munition attributes.

Since the server may be located apart from simulation platforms, processing load may be better distributed.  Also, by operating within the DIS protocol, the ordnance server provides no additional network load.  Furthermore, it can be distributed to different sites about the network.  Lastly, by using ordnance servers near target sites, latency between a weapon detonation and its effect on a target can be substantially lessened.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

EXTENSIBLE EMISSION MODELING: A MEDIUM-CENTRIC APPROACH

Mark L. Akey
Hughes Defense Communications Company, Ft. Wayne, IN 46808

The DIS Distributed Emission Regeneration (DER) protocol family, and specifically, the Electromagnetic Emission PDU, provides ample latitude and support to perform emitter, medium, and sensor interaction modeling in a symbolic frequency and time domains. However, the Emission PDU's complexity and format bias developers toward a platform-centric as compared to medium-centric approach. When new emissions, sensors, and media effects need to be added to an existing simulation, often this platform-centric approach forces modification of very tenured code.
This paper develops a coherent API (Application Programming Interface) using an object-oriented design that supports extensibility in emission modeling. Extensibility is achieved by coercing emission data into a medium-centric format. The design supports a client-server relationship between a given medium and its client sensors. Sensors are decoupled from direct association with an emission PDU; sensor modeling concentrates only on enumeration, detection, classification, and localization within beam patterns. Media, on the other hand, are directly associated with emission PDUs and carry the responsibility for target clustering and obscuration, line of sight and earth curvature, propagation loss, and emission jamming.
Extensibility of emission modeling is supported in three ways. First, modeling is extended via the typical class hierarchy -- new sensors are derived from base sensors, new media are derived from existing media. Second, the attachment of new sensors to media is straight-forward via the client-server (CS) relationship -- a natural extension of the CS paradigm. Third, and again using the CS relationship, processor load partitioning is spread across computer platforms without the modification of base code -- extending the life and utility of the existing code.
Finally, the API unifies within the medium the treatment of emission and dead reckoning (DR) based sensors. Regardless of the source, emission or DR, treatment of the medium effect is the same.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

REQUIREMENTS FOR INTELLIGENT AIRCRAFT ENTITIES IN DISTRIBUTED ENVIRONMENTS

Lt. Colonel Martin R. Stytz, Ph.D., Major Sheila B. Banks, Ph.D., Eugene Santos, Ph.D.
Virtual Environments, 3D Medical Imaging, and Computer Graphics Laboratory
Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Air Force Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH

For computer generated forces to be useful in training environments, they must exhibit a broad range of skill levels, competency at their assigned missions, and comply with current doctrine. Because of the rapid rate of change in Distributed Interactive Simulation and the expanding set of performance objectives for any computer generated force, the system must also be modifiable at reasonable cost and incorporate mechanisms for learning.  The requirements pose an intricate set of challenges because the system must satisfy reasoning and fidelity requirements as well as performance requirements.  To address these circumstances, we developed a set of general requirements for aircraft computer generated forces and used them to guide our specification of a generalized architecture for aircraft computer generated forces.  In this paper, we present a component-wise decomposition of the system and describe the structure of the major components of the computer generated force decision mechanism.  We illustrate the application of this architecture by presenting its application to the design of an aircraft computer generated force, the Automated Wingman.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

HUMAN IMMERSION INTO THE DIS BATTLEFIELD

Robert Anschuetz (Veda), Charlie Jones (Veda), Patrick Kelly (Veda),
James Molnar (Veda), and Traci Jones (STRICOM)

Veda Incorporated, Orlando, FL  32817

STRICOM, Orlando, FL

Recent advances in human motion capture and head mounted display technologies, coupled with Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) capabilities, now allow for the implementation of an untethered, fully-immersable, DIS-compliant, real-time Dismounted Soldier Simulation (DSS) System.  The untethered soldier, outfitted with a set of optical markers and a wireless helmet-mounted display, can move about freely within a real-world motion capture area, while position and orientation data are gathered and sent onto a DIS network via tracking cameras and image processing computers.  The soldier's interaction in the virtual environment includes the ability to move within the battlefield unencumbered by wires or other peripheral devices, fire an M16A2 rifle, hear DIS battlefield audio, and communicate with other entities via a DIS radio simulator.  Fully articulated human motion rotations and translations are sent onto the DIS network using Entity State and Data PDUs.  Along with position and orientation information, the dismounted soldier's discrete state is transmitted in the Entity State PDU appearance field so that all receiving entities know what the virtual soldier is doing (i.e., running, walking, or crawling).  Data PDUs are sent out with the real-time motion information so that simulations interested in displaying an articulated human figure know how the figure is moving.  The Data PDUs are 288 bytes in length and are sent out at a frequency of 1 to 30 per second.  When the soldier pulls the trigger on the M16A2, a wireless signal is sent to the host computer, which generates Fire and Detonation PDUs.  Data has been captured and analyzed in the following areas: motion capture accuracy, transport delay, latency, image refresh rate, bandwidth usage, firing accuracy, and simulator sickness.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

PLAYER INSTRUMENTATION FOR URBAN-ENVIRONMENT TRAINING AND TESTING

James C. Solinsky, Ph.D.
Cubic Defense Systems, Inc., San Diego, CA

Live player instrumentation has previously focused on field-action, where direct and indirect fire player pairing has been supported with MILES and RF communications equipment. In urban-environment training, such as in Military Operations in Urban Terrain (MOUT), or in urban-environment testing, such as in new equipment used for Military Operations in Built-up Areas (MOBA), new requirements are defined relative to field-action instrumentation. These requirements relate to the higher fidelity of player location and action, and the interaction with other types of indirect fire which are unique to the MOUT/MOBA environment. A major goal in MOUT training is to instrument the player in a seamless manner to the MILES field equipment, and in MOBA testing, to provide near real-time monitoring of player location throughout the site buildings and other structures to verify proper data collection. A variety of mission training and equipment testing enter these new instrumentation requirements, which upon examination can be shown to be best met with a modular approach. At the same time, the use of commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) products can be useful in meeting overall initial low instrumentation costs and life-cycle costs. The paper defines a set of instrumentation requirements, which include interactive simulation for live-fire and indirect-fire effects. The requirements are divided into the usual elements of combat training centers (CTCs), but with the additional issues of equipment testing and data analysis. This type of construction can lead to a later merging for embedded training in new dismounted soldier equipment. An analysis of COTS technologies is used to first define physical approaches and then to highlight the MOUT/MOBA unique alterations. The instrumentation control and data gathering also is discussed in these altered environments, and the data link connectivity provided between the player and the CTC analysis center. RF data collected at the Joint Readiness Training Center (JRTC) MOUT site, and modified COTS hardware, show a cost-effective design approach to meeting these requirements for MOUT player instrumentation.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

MODELING INDIVIDUAL HUMANS FOR COMPUTER GENERATED FORCES

Douglas Reece
Institute For Simulation And Training, University Of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida

IST has been building computer generated humans-combatants and civilians-to populate a virtual battlefield as part of the Team Target Engagement Simulator (TTES) project.  This project, which is sponsored by the Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division in Orlando, will train small infantry units to fight in urban terrain.  Such a low level simulation with direct human involvement requires detailed models not only of terrain and human behavior but also of human physical characteristics.  This paper presents an overview of the problems that a designer of computer controlled humans must address to create realistic entities.  The problems span all levels from low level modeling to cognitive behavior.  At the simulator infrastructure level we discuss DIS representation and urban terrain databases.  At the physical environment level models of visible line of sight, sound generation and propagation, weapons effects, and movement are important.  The next level addresses physical entity characteristics and requires modes of vision, hearing, movement, wounds, and fatigue.  The last level is cognitive, and comprises two parts: automatic behavior such as perceptual processing, feedback-based motion control, and weapon aiming; and deliberate problem solving and action selection.  The paper briefly describes our approach to building all of these models.

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

TARGET RECOGNITION AND IDENTIFICATION IN 21st CENTURY TRAINING SYSTEMS

Graham Beasley &  Javier Castellar
Silicon Graphics Inc., Mountain View, California

In the training realm, industry's responsibility to the joint services should be to tune image generators for the best possible target detection and identification performance.  Unfortunately the test criteria and specifications used for recognition are often based on old or obsolete technology.  As an example, "Johnson's Criteria", published in 1958 by John Johnson, is still used as one of the primary selection criteria.  This paper was indeed brilliant and years ahead of its time; however, it is often referred to out of context.  One should keep in mind that this was the era of vacuum tubes, black & white interlaced displays, etc.  In fact, very basic technology such as high resolution and non-interlaced color displays were not developed when this paper was written. It is, at best, an extrapolation specifying today's hardware with some of these early principles.  
New technology such as color, frame buffer resolution, subpixel positioning, multisampled framebuffers, dynamic resolution, and wider bandwidth video Digital to Analog Converters (DACs) are being deployed and will be training students into the next century.  If we combine these recent improvements in image generators with the current display technology (like non interlaced displays, color Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD) and field sequential video formats), it is clear that a reformulation of the target and resolution criteria is needed.
This paper will examine new resolution and target recognition criteria pertinent to today's technology. Classic display parameters like the Kell factor will be revisited, together with new parameters for the study of variables such as the eye-target relative speed resolution, non-constant update rates, etc. Where possible, the transfer functions for today's image generators rendering stages will be defined, as well as a final empirical evaluation method for the most frequently used display systems.
Through the application of these principles, it is possible to minimize negative training for the 21st Century Image Generator configurations. 

This paper is available on the 1996 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website

LOW-COST VISUAL SIMULATION: WORKSTATIONS OR IMAGE GENERATORS

Michael J. Panzitta, Ph.D., P.E.
Prosolvia Research & Technology, Inc., Salt Lake City, Utah

Advances in computer graphics and related technologies over the last several years have resulted in dramatic performance increases, numerous feature enhancements, and signifi