I/ITSEC 1997
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Training, Development And Delivery
Designing, Developing And Implementing WWW-Based Distance Learning
Training Over The Intranet: A Shockwave Case Study
Internet/Intranet Training Delivery: What's Available, What Works?
Application Of Digital Video Technology To The AAR Training-Feedback Process
Tradam: A Catalyst For Training Technology Infusion
Distance Learning In Joint Public Affairs And Visual Information Training
On The Design Of Classrooms For The 21 St Century
Advanced Learning Environments
A Training Task Analysis Methodology For Operational Flight Trainers
Scenario-Based Training: An Architecture For Intelligent Event Selection
Essential Training Needs And Resources For Simulation Observer/Controllers
The Joint Simulation System Architecture: A Foundation For Future Training Systems
Establishing A Learning Environment For JSIMS: Challenges And Considerations
Team Coordination And Performance During Combat Mission Training
A Team Perspective On Situational Awareness (SA):Cueing Training
An Approach To Automating Development Of Interactive Courseware
Authoring For Web-Based Training: What Are The Options?
Education, Instruction, And Training Methodology
A Decision Tool For Making Trade-Offs In Multimedia Based Training
Interactive Multi-Media Distance Learning: An Instructional Design Challenge
Interactive Distance Learning Over The Internet: A Hybrid Solution
Effects Of Structure And Interactivity On Internet-Based Instruction
Lowering The Lifecycle Cost Of Training Via Networks
Above Real-Time Training Applied To Air Combat Skills
Cviplus: A Multi-Media, Computer-Based Solution To Thermal Sight Training
Networked Simulation And Combat Mission Training
Simulation And Training Systems
A Reconfigurable Software System Architecture
Applying Simulation Based Virtual Environments For Surface Combatant Training
Virtual Environment Deployable Simulation (VEDS)
To Move Or Not To Move? That Is The Question
AMC Simulator Aerodynamic Upgrade Program-Source Data For Advanced Training Simulations
A Low Cost Holographic Heads Up Display For Aircraft Simulation
Lessons Learned In The Development Of High Fidelity Maintenance Trainers
Aegis' Expanding Training: Enabling Team, Fleet, And Joint Simulations
Design Requirements For Emulation Of Graphic Instructor Consoles On Flight Simulators
Interview And Interrogation Training Using A Computer-Simulated Subject
SBC Town: Cost-Efficient Training In A Virtual Urban Environment
Development Of CATT Compatible Infra-Structure To Support Aviation Exercises
Embedded Simulation For Army Ground Combat Vehicles
Distributed Interactive Intelligent Tutoring Simulation
Modeling And Simulation
Darpa Stow Synthetic Environments
Requirements-Driven Development: A Conceptual Model For Close Air Support
Conceptual Models For Warsim 2000 Modeling And Simulation Subcommittee
A System Object Methodology Improves Simulation Development
An HLA Gateway For DIS Applications
Lessons Learned From Human-In-The-Loop HLA Implementation
Multi-Level Secure Encryption For Distributed Simulation Application Of Fortezza To DIS
Innovations In Video Acquisition And Processing Methods For Visual Databases
Shallow Water Acoustic Requirements For Real-Time Model Implementation
A Graphic Approach To Sonar Simulation
The 21st Century Surface Combatant Modeling And Simulation
Synthetic Environment : The French Situation
SIRA-Command And Staff Training On Battalion And Entity-Level (A German Combat Simulation System)
Object Correlation For Simulation And Command And Control Systems
Use Of Visual Simulations In City And Urban Design And Planning
User Modeling For Military Training: Intelligent Interface Agents
Research And Development Technology Application
Developing Speech Recognition Models For Use In Training Devices
Natural Language Processing In Virtual Reality Training Environments
An Efficient Environment For Real-Time Community Visualization
Advanced Embedded Training Concepts For Shipboard Systems
Evaluation And Assessment Of A Virtual Environment Advanced Technology Demonstrator
Natural Interactions In Virtual Environments
Disaggregation In Support Of Intelligence Training
A Scaleable Architecture For Distributed Interactive Systems
Latency - The Adversary Of Real-Time Distributed Simulation
Reconfigurable Crew Compartment Development Simulator For Research, Development And Acquisition
Wearable Computer Based Training And Performance Support Systems
Hierarchical Multiresolution Terrain Tin Generation Using Wavelet Filtering
Automated Performance Monitoring
An Approach For Predictive Battlefield Simulation Using Knowledge Discovery
VRML 2.0 As A Format For Real Time Visual Simulation
Policy And Management
The Joint Simulation System (JSIMS) Enterprise -Supporting Joint Development Through Collaboration
Design Strategies For A Cost Effective F-22 Training System
Standards To Support Interoperable Simulation
Acquisition Reform And Streamlining - A Case Study
Improving The Acquisition Process Through Acquisition Reform Training
The Integrated Program Team (IPT) Concept Implementation For Success
What Management And Trainers Should Know About Training
Naval Aviation Training Decision Support System (NATDSS)
Estimating Software Size: Impact And Methodologies
Service Life Extension For Aging Trainer
Contractor Operations And Maintenance Of Simulators
Live Fire Testing And Training: Readiness And Survivability Partnership
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The rapid advancement of communication technologies is resulting in an overwhelming list of design and development choices for distance learning projects. The 58th Special Operations Wing at Kirtland AFB, New Mexico is developing a prototype distance learning project designed to serve geographically separated student populations. This project, begun in August of 1996, designs, develops, and implements a prototype transportable process for transmitting interactive multimedia curriculum instruction over the World-Wide Web (WWW) to geographically distant locations. This curriculum strategy uses standard PC-based hardware and commercial off-the-shelf authoring and playback software and hardware. Course and lesson content include use of compressed video, digital audio, and graphic animation to deliver instruction and solicit interactive feedback. This paper details the process used to design, develop and plan implementation for this prototype program, and describes the problems encountered and solutions used to solve those problems. This paper concludes with implementation recommendations for distance learning developers who may be contemplating using this technology.
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Using the Web for delivery of computer based training (CBT) has a number of well documented and appealing advantages. These include use of existing networks with no special hardware requirements, access when and where end users want ("just in time training"), easy updating of instructional content, and elimination of costly printed material or CD-ROMs. The current bandwidth limitations of the Internet make delivery of dynamic, graphically intense, interactive CBT difficult if not impossible. However, corporate and institutional intranets are well suited for delivery of multimedia rich CBT. The Boeing Company currently has approximately 2.5 gigabytes of 777 Flight and Maintenance Computer Based Training with individual lessons varying in size from 3 megabytes to over 50 megabytes. The 777 CBT, developed originally in Authorware for Macintosh Version 2.0, presents several challenges for delivery in an intranet Web environment including extensive use of libraries, external text files, full audio, large bitmap graphics, and numerous animations. Using Authorware 4.0 and Shockwave for Authorware it is possible to deliver this CBT on the internal Boeing network (intranet). Any of the over 200,000 Boeing employees will have access to this CBT seamlessly from either Mac or PC workstations with performance equivalent to CD-ROM delivery. With the 777 CBT as a case study, this paper describes the process for creating Shockwave content and the most common technical problems associated with intranet delivery of large-scale CBT and solutions to those problem.
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One of the most frequently asked questions concerning training related web sites is "what training courses are available here?" It seems that everyone has heard the cost-saving promises of Internet/Intranet training delivery, and many are surfing for that promised training pot-of-gold they've heard about. One training site, the OTT SPIDER, provides samples of available on-line training and links to experts working in this area. The successful adaptation of training courses to the ubiquitous world of on-line delivery has been achieved in some very diverse areas. Networking and telecommunications technology have also provided alternative distribution and management of training via downloadable courses and on-line course registrations. In this paper, a review of courses currently delivered on the Internet/Intranet are presented and evaluated to help characterize worlds via Virtual Reality Markup Language (VRML) and the unique advantages that 3-D desktop simulation, on-line synchronous audio, and interactive digitized video may offer for a next generation of on-line education and training, provide a glimpse into what we can expect in the next century.
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The National Training Center at Fort Irwin provides Force-on-Force and Live-Fire training of US Army soldiers in an environment that is as close to real-world conditions as possible. Training exercises are conducted and recorded, with important sequences edited and played back for evaluation of the soldier's performance - a process known as "After Action Review" (AAR). During a simulated battle using live players, material is gathered from numerous sources including video, audio, tactical communications, instrumentation system graphics and data. Actions involving Armored and Mechanized Tactical Maneuver units, Light Infantry, Air and Fire Support units are recorded on videotape for subsequent incorporation into the AAR. The increased workload imposed by the Advanced Warfighter Experiment (AWE) created a need for better and faster AAR preparation. To address the additional requirements of AWE, a new approach, involving the application of digital video technology on a previously unheard of scale, was designed and implemented at the NTC. The new system includes one theater presentation, nine video logging, and four edit/post-production workstations. The architecture is based on four networked video servers, each supporting four workstations, providing shared access to 810 GBytes of RAID 7 storage. This system cuts AAR preparation time in half, allows simultaneous digitizing, sharing, and editing of up to thirteen video sources, and eliminates the cumbersome storage of hundreds of videotapes from each rotation, while maintaining broadcast quality video.
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With declining resources available to support training, organizations today are turning to advanced training delivery technologies, seeking efficiencies without compromising training effectiveness. The judicious selection of appropriate training delivery technologies will allow initial investment costs to be offset by longer term cost avoidances. Experts agree that cost avoidances can be anticipated from decreased student travel and per diem costs, reduction of shore-based schoolhouse infrastructure costs, reduction of student and instructor costs, etc., as a result of this infusion of advanced training delivery technology. The question faced by training managers is which training courses are the best candidates for infusion of new training technologies. This paper describes the Navy's Training Delivery Assessment Model (TRADAM) which is designed to assist training sponsors, training managers, course developers, and instructors in selecting the most appropriate advanced training technologies for cost effective training delivery. The TRADAM process allows a quick assessment of the potential for resource savings through the implementation of appropriate advanced training delivery technologies in a given course. TRADAM views the training delivery technology selection process as consisting of three phases: (1) selecting candidate courses that have the most potential for advanced training delivery technology application, (2) selecting the training delivery technology alternatives that match the learning requirements of each candidate course, and (3) performing an economic analysis of the selected training delivery technology alternatives. TRADAM has been used to estimate training technology infusion potential on over fifty traditional classroom training courses, with 19 of the examined courses being identified as excellent candidates for training technology infusion. Projected payback of the initial training technology investment for these 19 courses was predicted to occur in less than three years after implementation.
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The purpose of this paper is to report the progress of an initiative to introduce technology-enabled and distance learning to the Defense Information School (DINFOS), Ft. Meade, Maryland. The effort to introduce instructional technology reflects the need to find a creative solution to joint-Service requests for increased student quotas, reduced military instructor manpower, and an expanded career field curriculum. Additionally, reduced travel dollars suggest the application of technology to minimize resident training. The conversion of a pilot course was undertaken as a way to provide "proof of principle" for meeting joint-Service requirements through technology. Although each of the military Services has already demonstrated the successful use of technology to deliver training at a distance, the unique considerations posed by the joint environment suggest a cautious approach to the investment required in a large scale conversion of the curriculum. The pilot enables us to evaluate: (1) the effectiveness of selected training media and technologies, (2) the critical factors in administering a joint-Service distance learning program, and (3) the Services' response to the different delivery systems. At the same time, we can assess our ability to leverage in-house expertise in broadcasting, videography, graphics, instructor training, and curriculum development to convert and deliver other DINFOS courses. This paper will describe the rationale and issues in redefining resident training, and the strategy that was articulated to introduce technology to meet common core, joint-Service, and Service-specific training requirements for officer, enlisted, and civilian personnel in the career fields of Public Affairs and Visual Information in the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines, and Coast Guard. The initial steps in the design and development of the pilot will also be described.
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Classrooms which address the needs of 21st Century learning are being developed for military, commercial, and public education applications. These classrooms are designed to support multiple modes of learning, to include: independent study, collaborative learning, mentoring, visualization, and immersive learning. In this paper, we describe how classrooms can support these multiple learning modes. The paper focuses on the design of the classroom infrastructure and its support for collaborative learning. This paper draws on two examples: · WarLab XXI, an advanced classroom developed for the Battle Command Battle Laboratory under the direction of the Army Simulation Training and Instrumentation Command, and · ALIVE, an advanced classroom developed by and for the Research Triangle Institute that focuses on the application of Virtual Reality (VR) and related technologies to enhance learning. Both classrooms provide multiple learning environments, including an immersive classroom environment that supports group VR experiences, realistic work areas for simulations and "learning by doing," and support for remote access to allow distant learning. Both classrooms provide multiple networks that support sharing and presentation of multiple media between the instructor and the class. Both classrooms provide infrastructure to allow the instructor at a central location to control the media and to present student's work to other class members in a variety of forms. The WarLab XXI application supports a form of collaborative learning where specialists from different disciplines learn to cooperate in pursuing a common goal. In this context, specialists use a common virtual environment as a shared "3D blackboard" to integrate technical information for visualization by the students in the class.
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Leading-edge technologies, integrated with emerging educational methodologies, now make the Advanced Learning Environment (ALE) model cost effective and efficient for learning. This paper describes the ALE concept and issues associated with effectively using these environments. The ALE integrates virtual reality and other enabling technologies such as natural language processing, animation, video, courseware, sound, projection, CD-ROM, and distant learning, with advanced educational methodologies, student questions, records and tracking to present optimal learning environments. The resulting multimedia environment is well suited for acquiring cognitive skills and knowledge about the processes, procedures and sequence of actions necessary to perform an assigned task. When appropriate (e.g., training for maintenance technicians), the ALE integrates the multimedia environment with physical hardware trainers to support practicing and mastering the motor and mechanical skills required for the task being trained. The integration of multimedia and physical hardware trainers provides a more complete learning experience in less time and for less-life cycle cost. These environments are excellent for training involving equipment that is costly or does not yet exist in quantity, tasks that are dangerous, and for supporting surges in student populations. The process for creating the ALE includes determining the tasks to be performed, the skills required for performing the task, and the optimal learning environment for acquiring these skills. As multimedia learning environments are developed, there is sensitivity to ensure that the needs and expectations of both students and instructors are considered. The facility supports a range of educational modes that include immersive classroom environments and group study. The ALE can also be used for conducting evaluations in a controlled setting. The components of the ALE include state-of-the-art facilities, infrastructure, materials, a training support package, and evaluation.
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The USAF Battlestaff Training School (BTS) provides command and control training opportunities for the Joint Force Air Component Commanders (JFACC) and their staffs who man the Joint Air Operations Centers. The JFACC is responsible for all allied air operations in a theater of war, and produces the Air Tasking Order for each day of the war. The BTS conducts this joint-service training via three BLUE FLAG exercises yearly for thousands of warfighters. The training emphasizes the use of real-world plans, procedures and C4I equipment. The BTS employs extensive computer simulation and uses distributed technology to train warfighters at local and deployed sites. This paper describes the BTS's training philosophy, strategies, and assets. In addition, it explores certain training challenges and opportunities which BTS is currently addressing. Applied R&D is being used to examine a number of techniques and technologies which may enhance the BTS's capability. For example, the BLUE FLAG exercised have traditionally been based solely on constructive wargame models. This approach has worked well given the main objective of the BTS is improvement of command and control decision making. However, wide area networking and the use of Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) has now made it possible to link BLUE FLAG exercises with live and virtual assets. The use of Advanced Distributed Simulation (ADS) techniques has enhanced the ability to stimulate the Command and Control equipment with real-world datalinks and operational feeds. BTS has participated in demonstrations of this capability, but there are still many questions that remain about the utility of making these links. Will overall command and control training effectiveness be improved as a result of these interactions? What part of JFACC training might benefit most from distributed networking? These and a number of other networking questions are being explored and are discussed. Another topic of interest is developing better techniques for providing accurate and timely feedback to the JFACC staffs about their performance during BLUE FLAG exercises. Possible future approaches to automating the analysis and feedback function for use by the hundreds of warfighters involved in BLUE FLAG exercises are described.
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The acquisition of flight simulators for the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) has generally been guided by requirement precedents set
overseas to suit other nation's operational circumstances. A training task analysis methodology has recently been developed by Australian Defence Force
Materiel Division staff to provide a means for determining unique RAAF requirements. This paper will discuss the analysis methodology, how
it differs from other established approaches, the results of its trial implementation, and some transfer of learning considerations. The analysis
methodology was applied in early 1997 to a new Operational Flight Trainer for the RAAF's upgraded AP-3C Maritime Patrol fleet. The trial methodology firstly
compares training tasks and candidate training platforms in terms of Aircraft System stimuli, Environmental stimuli and Instructional parameters. Activities
listed in associated syllabuses of training were not considered adequate for the purpose of identifying training tasks since a single 'task' may be spread
over several activities. Consequently, a hierarchical scheme of training tasks was identified through both a review of training documents and interviews
with experienced instructional staff. The training task hierarchy comprised
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The generation and delivery of highly complex team and individual scenario-based training is bounded by a variety of requirements. This training method must accurately replicate conditions that include a realistic environment, rapidly changing events, multiple information sources, rules and procedures, and time and command-induced performance pressure. Past research indicates that training scenarios should be tailored to in-corporate events to create valid learning opportunities, stimulate desired performance, and provide team stress management insights. However, the complexity of tailoring this "curriculum" presents a daunting task for novice and expert shipboard trainers. Therefore, a strategy to intelligently manage the process of event selection was determined to be important. Following our analysis of the state-of-the-art in scenario-based training systems, it was evident that, during scenario development, the event selection or creation process was left to the user. This places a nearly impossible demand on novice trainers to ensure that scenarios and supporting products are related to the mission, training objectives, and past performance. Indeed, while this task is within the capabilities of expert trainers, it is very time consuming, and not often done. This paper outlines efforts to create a formalized, user-centered architecture for assisting trainers in the selection of scenario events using performance history data, mission criteria, trainee identification, and other factors. To enable this, an event library had to be created that would "understand" training objectives, complexity, and inter-event relationships. Success will provide the capability for novice and expert trainers to harness the power of scenario-based training.
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Mona J. Crissey, EdD The highly developed military skills of Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) are necessary for observing and assessing simulation training exercises, but may not be sufficient to ensure that unit mistakes made during exercises can be turned into positive learning experiences. A few resident Observer/Controller (O/C) training programs exist to train SMEs in appropriate skills. However, existing courses are generally site-specific and heavily dependent on "right-seat" O/C experience gained under one-to-one guidance of experienced O/Cs. Other O/C training courses focus primarily on military strategy topics without emphasizing facilitator training. Further, existing resources do not address simulation environment needs. Finally, existing O/C training courses may not be designed to prepare enough O/Cs for the increasing number of simulation training exercises at the large number of distributed sites. Consequently, STRICOM tasked CSERIAC to identify essential elements for inclusion in a comprehensive "Train-the-Trainer" course for simulation O/Cs working at distributed sites. Special emphasis was placed on identifying existing and needed resources. After conducting an O/C task/skill analysis to guide the investigation, CSERIAC developed the O/C Task/Skill/Information Resource Matrix delineating needed expertise and available O/C training resources to construct a comprehensive course. This paper discusses required skills taught in existing courses and makes recommendations regarding the need to extend course coverage to include the following areas: teaching/training, coaching, and group facilitation techniques; conducting or providing input to After Action Reviews (AARs); and providing tailored feedback to different users of exercise evaluation data.
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Over the last several years there has been a proliferation in the use of Computer Based Training (CBT) systems. One of the key factors in the growth of CBT systems was the advent of authoring tools that allowed the courseware developer to focus on the content vice the supporting infrastructure. The production of a core infrastructure that abstracts out many of the underlying details is on the key goals of the Joint Simulation System (JSIMS) program. As the model developers develop the content, they will then be integrated with the common JSIMS core to provide a M&S capability with reduced developmental costs. This paper presents an overview of the JSIMS architecture focusing on the mechanisms for achieving composability, scalability, distributability, and increased training efficiency. The JSIMS architecture contains four layers, each addressing more abstract levels of functionality. The lowest layer represents the virtual network. The JSIMS Object Services layer adds an HLA-compliant RTI as well as an Object Management Framework that allows end-to-end object management. A support services layer adapts each application (resident in the application layer) to the underlying infrastructure. The construction of the layered architecture allows the developer to focus on the development content, in this case the applications and mission space objects (MSOs), which is the true value added portion of a model.
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The Joint Simulation System (JSIMS) is comprised of modeling and simulation technologies that represent the next generation of large-scale training systems. One goal of JSIMS is to provide enhanced capabilities for planning, preparing, executing, and evaluating training across a variety of audiences (e.g., Joint Task Force, Multi-Service, and Single-Service). JSIMS will provide appropriate representations of strategic, tactical, and operational environments. While this synthetic environment holds considerable promise for conducting training, models and simulations by themselves will not result in effective learning environments. Effective learning environments result when appropriate learning strategies, tools, and methods are integrated with technologies to support training. While detailed processes exist for development of synthetic environments, similar methods for establishing effective learning environments are only beginning to emerge. One method with considerable promise for JSIMS is known as the Event-Based Approach to Training (EBAT). EBAT provides a systematic approach for developing learning objectives, generating scenarios, measuring performance, and providing feedback. EBAT has been successfully used in a number of settings to establish effective learning environments which have in turn, resulted in improved performance. EBAT provides a basis for developing a learning environment for JSIMS and supports the requirements of the Joint Training System (JTS). This paper will (a) provide an overview of JSIMS, (b) present a conceptual model of a learning environment, (c) describe JSIMS in terms of the conceptual model, (d) identify the major challenges and considerations for establishing a JSIMS learning environment, and (e) discuss the implications of the framework for other training systems and required research and development efforts.
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Combat mission training and crew coordination are both integral parts of aircrew training. The research presented here demonstrates a direct empirical link between crew coordination and crew mission performance. Eleven Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC) MC-130P aircrew, composed of two Pilots, two Navigators, one Flight Engineer (FE), and one Communication Systems Operator (CSO), were observed during the preparation and execution of a highly complex combat mission scenario in the MC-130P Weapon System Trainer (WST). Five subprocesses of crew coordination were previously identified (Time Management (TM), Function Allocation (FA), Tactics Employment (TE), Situation Awareness (SA), and Command, Control, and Communications (C3)). These subprocesses, along with several mission performance variables (e.g., chart preparation, briefing quality, mission phase performance, etc.), were observed and rated across mission preparation and four phases of execution (Low-Level (LL), Air Refueling (AR), Air Drop (AD), and Infil/Exfil (I/E)). The results demonstrate: (1) a strong positive overall process-performance correlation (r = .86); (2) differential impacts of overall process on phase-specific mission performance; (3) differential impacts of mission phase process on overall performance; and (4) differential impacts of particular subprocesses on mission phase performance. We conclude with a discussion of the training implications of our results and observations.
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A current philosophical trend in Navy training is to place less emphasis on traditional shore-based training and more on shipboard training. While many technological advancements help achieve this goal (e.g., embedded training), a lack of adequately trained instructors represents a potential problem to shipboard training. Shipboard instructors must manage the scheduling and conduct of a complex web of interconnected training exercises designed to meet learning objectives for multiple teams, as well as individual-level objectives for specific watchstanders. All this takes place within a functioning operational environment where task requirements compete with training demands. In order to provide meaningful, coordinated instruction in this environment, instructors must have a clear understanding of the instructional processes involved. A one-day instructor workshop was conducted in order to shape instructors' "mental models" of the scenario-based training cycle. As part of an effort to validate this training, we examined changes in the mental models of 17 shipboard instructors from a pre-commissioned ship using a concept ordering task before and after the training workshop. Using these data, instructors' mental models were compared to an expert's model (i.e., the course developer) in order to validate the training received. Results are discussed in light of mental model theory as well as the demands of shipboard instructor training.
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With the importance of situational awareness (SA) well established, there is a dire need for training to improve this crucial skill. This is also apparent in the team environment, because the skill of team SA is required to enable teams of operators to develop a compatible understanding of the situation at hand so that they can take appropriate actions in concert. This paper identifies and discusses one potential strategy for improving team SA - cueing training - in which relevant information in the task situation is made salient to the trainee. We describe a theoretical perspective of how this strategy was derived, discuss how this strategy might be implemented to heighten team SA, and provide an example of what this strategy might look like.
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Since the early 1970s, the computer-based training industry has grown to the point where most American government agencies and private organizations, and a significant number of international organizations, implement some type of interactive courseware (ICW) in their training programs. Some organizations rely solely on ICW to deliver training, while others combine ICW with other delivery methods, such as classroom instruction, on-the-job training, and simulator-based training. Historically, the process of developing ICW has been viewed as complicated and risky. There are as many documented cases of cost overruns and poor-quality products as there are successful programs. However, even with the risks and high costs associated with ICW, it has emerged as the most popular training delivery system within the last 30 years. With more powerful computing technologies now available at lower cost, and the emergence of digital multimedia, the popularity of ICW is increasing. It has long been accepted by those who develop multimedia ICW that it is necessary to automate critical aspects of the ICW development process. There is less agreement on which aspects should be automated and the approach that should be taken to automation. This paper will describe a research project in which critical elements of an automated development system were identified and prototyped. The prototype system incorporates a multimedia database which contains all completed, planned, and partially completed media elements. A Web-based approach was taken to overcome the problems of platform dependence. The system consists of an electronic storyboard tool which allows designers to enter data elements as they perform preproduction design and development activities; a media production tool which provides access to and reports from the multimedia database; and a project management tool which provides information to ICW development managers. A comparison of ICW development using the traditional approach and the automated approach with the prototype system was performed. The result was a reduction in labor hours of approximately 30 percent using the automated approach.
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With the growth of the World Wide Web, the training industry is beginning to take advantage of the potential for cost-effective, worldwide delivery of interactive courseware. Initially, most of the documents and programs on the World Wide Web were created in HTML and programs such as PERL. Authoring languages, such as Authorware, ToolBook, and IconAuthor were limited to delivery via diskettes, CD-ROM, or local area networks. Recently, Authorware, IconAuthor, Quest, and other authoring systems have added new features that allow for development to take place across multiple platforms and to accommodate delivery via the World Wide Web. This paper will focus on the considerations for selecting a Web-based authoring tool that is appropriate based on courseware content, target audience, and delivery requirements. In particular, an outline will be provided that includes the advantages and disadvantages of using Macromedia's Authorware and Director, AimTech's IconAuthor, Quest, and Asymetrix's ToolBook II for Web-based delivery of training. Topics will also include comparisons between the authoring tools and other Web-based development programs, such as HTML, Java, JavaScript, and ActiveX.
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The evolving technologies of computers, communications, and digital hypermedia have provided new vistas for the design of learning environments. Multimedia presentations can be used, for example, with video, high resolution graphics, and animation to allow a student to better visualize physical and logical events, as well as relationships among phenomena and parts of a system, equipment or problem. However, with all that functionality and potential gain comes a hardware and software technology that has advanced faster than the instructional technology decision aids needed to support multimedia learning environments. In particular, there is a significant lack of tools to support the decision making needed for analyzing multimedia options and conducting trade-offs to decide optimum solutions. Those solutions must not only be based on sound principles, theoretically framed and empirically validated, of cognition, learning and pedagogy but also must consider parameters of cost, benefits, logistics and infrastructure to make the learning system viable. A tool that has intelligence to automate support of trade-off decisions for multimedia instruction is needed to ensure proper return on investment. The work to be described was completed under a Small Business Innovation Research contract, Phase I, and was formulated with the objective of defining a basis for the Phase II development and fielding of a computer based tool for performing trade studies on multimedia. The Phase I effort focused on specification of an intelligent tool that guides practitioners, whatever their level of instructional and media technology or content domain expertise, through the analysis process to determine and document how, when and for whom the multimedia can be used, its logistic impact, life-cycle parameters, and estimated costs/benefits.
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Among the more difficult and time-consuming steps in the training development process is the elicitation from subject matter experts (SMEs) of the skills and knowledge to be taught. As the use of advanced multimedia training technology has become more common, training development increasingly involves translating SME knowledge into appropriate media representations. This paper describes a procedure for identifying specific tactical decision making (TDM) knowledge requirements, and possible media-based representations of that knowledge. The intent of this procedure is to provide the basis for constructing tactical training documents using multimedia technology. The procedure, called Sea Stories, is built around the construction and analysis of a scenario by one or more SMEs. Sea Stories allows a team of domain experts to "articulate" their knowledge by describing a scenario (their sea story) in a series of computer-based storyboards. These storyboards include, for example, spatial situation overviews, team interaction diagrams, task flow charts, and equipment diagrams; and are integrated though a detailed timeline. Applied training research provides knowledge frameworks that can be used to guide and prompt experts to identify and refine components of the knowledge. The storyboards provide the basis for identifying these knowledge requirements, and the media representations that are associated with a tactical problem. Computer Supported Collaborative Work (CSCW) technologies facilitate communication among groups of subject matter experts using annotation techniques and revision control and tracking.
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Pressures to reduce system acquisition and life cycle costs are at the heart of acquisition reform. Indeed, the challenge of designing a platform that achieves performance goals akin to those obtained in current systems but with fewer people and at a dramatically lower cost is daunting. One way to meet these challenges is by developing effective and responsive training systems that allow for maximum flexibility in crew resources. This can only be achieved through careful consideration of human performance and training requirements early in the system design and acquisition process. It also demands that a "Total Ship Training" philosophy be adopted, where the platform becomes a focal point for the management of crew competencies, development and training. The purpose of this paper is to describe a Total Ship Training approach for the LPD-17 class of ships. We begin this discussion by first delineating the 21st century challenge for training in afloat systems. Next, we describe LPD-17, its mission and its training drivers. We then lay out a philosophy about human performance in complex systems and about how and where training resources are made available to the crew to ensure that crucial missions are accomplished. We then briefly describe our efforts to design training for LPD-17 and to accomplish training technology insertion. We conclude by discussing some acquisition reform issues as they relate to training system design and development.
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Training is undergoing a substantial change in the military. In particular, there is a strong push to move training from the traditional "schoolhouse" model into the field. The motivations behind this are several. First, there is a tremendous cost both in real dollars and opportunity to bring soldiers to the schoolhouse to receive training. In addition to travel and per diem costs ("real dollars"), soldiers spend time away from their units and hence temporarily suspend performance of their regular duties ("opportunity costs"). Given the downsizing of the military both in budget and size of the active force, both of these costs represent a strain on the goal of providing a ready, well-trained fighting force. Second, there is tremendous concern that the effects of schoolhouse training may degrade before the skills that are trained are actually put to use on the job. This is particularly true of National Guard and Reserve personnel that see duty only a fraction of the year and have little opportunity to practice and maintain military (or MOS) skills while they are performing their "full-time" jobs. In fact, Leddo et al. (1990) found that most experts they studied felt that the bulk of their expertise was acquired through on the job training rather than at the schoolhouse. This type of finding has led to the notion of "just in time" training, where training is delivered to the job site when it is needed so that the skills being trained will be at their sharpest when they are actually used. The need for "just in time" training is at its peak and will only grow.
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Currently, Air Force technical training courses are taught traditionally, i.e., in a classroom with instructor lecture as the primary method of instruction. This requires students to travel where classes are being offered, often for extended periods of time. When distance learning is introduced, there is rarely a departure from the traditional instructional lecture paradigm. This paper reports the development of a distance learning system and instructional design approach that changes these practices for improved learning.
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Global Information Systems Technology, Inc., under contract with the Air Force Material Command, Armstrong Laboratory, Advanced Training Technologies, at Brooks Air Force Base Texas (Lab), has completed, and placed in service, a Hybrid Internet training solution. The Military Decision-Making Process (MDMP) training was developed for the Armor Officer Advanced Course at the Army Armor Center, Fort Knox, Kentucky. Evaluation, using 294 students, is underway as of the writing of this report. Results will be presented at the conference, with an updated paper/presentation with these results posted on http://gist-inc. com/intech. Additionally, a short demonstration of the course will be presented in the session. The MDMP is the decision making process used by Army officers for battle planning. This domain was selected to: 1. Evaluate instructional strategies for automated training over the Internet; 2.Assist the Army in reducing the length of their course while optimizing instructor time, increasing the retention, and increasing the learner's acceptance of the course material; and 3. Provide remote delivery for the MDMP training to personnel not located at Fort Knox. The tutor allows small groups of students in a collaborative environment to use a menu-driven system to learn the component parts of MDMP. Required reference materials are available on-line to students at all times.
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Internet-based instruction is acknowledged as a method of instructional delivery. However, there is limited research on its
effectiveness. This study investigated the effects of structure and Interactivity on the achievement of students receiving Internet-based instruction.
Structure was defined as the instructional strategy that provides the framework for the learning activity, giving the learner an advanced organizer.
Interactivity was defined as the instructional strategy that provides the student the means of being actively involved in the learning activity.
Participants were registered in twelve sections of Principles of Educational Media at Kent State University. They followed one of four instructional
interventions incorporated within the course syllabus during the Instructional Design (ID) Module. Lessons covered the use of the Internet/Web, an
introduction to instructional design, and writing objectives. In using Internet-based instruction, Designer's Edge ™ provided the framework for learning
the concept of writing objectives. Information Mapping® of Web pages involved the participant in active learning with feedback on writing objectives. This
study confirmed that good ID of Internet-based instruction improves student achievement of learning outcomes. The effects of structure were also
significant. This paper concludes with recommendations for further study.
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A chief advantage of computer networks is the integration of resources and processes. While computer-based training has been around for decades, issues such as computer security and heterogeneous machines have posed barriers to the effective integration of training systems. Recent and emerging standards for networks offer an opportunity to dramatically reduce training costs by increased integration. We present an architecture for an integrated training system by levering such standards. A cohesive training system is particularly crucial for military training. The stringent cost, time and mission requirements of military training are exacerbated by the geographically dispersed and culturally diverse training audience. This paper examines how existing database, World Wide Web software, and multimedia tools can be combined in a common framework to facilitate an integrated training environment. This environment, provides capabilities such as: integrated course registration, automated grade reporting, sophisticated personnel profiles (e.g., for tailoring materials presented and integrating reporting), eased courseware configuration, integrated testing and fully automated grading, automated remediation, integrated mechanisms for student feedback and collaboration, and context-sensitive help and multiple levels of materials explanation. Application of these factors promises to dramatically reduce the cost and improve the of offering a large number of training courses compared to their paper-based counterparts.
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Experimenters tested the training benefits of an instructional strategy in which simulated events in a real-time simulation are made to occur faster than normal. Two experiments were conducted to evaluate applications of above real-time training (ARTT) for training air combat skills and emergency procedures. In the first experiment, experienced, Air Force F-16 pilots practiced emergency procedures and air intercepts using conventional, real-time simulation or ARTT at 1.5 times real time. The pilots trained using ARTT received the same number of training trials but less clock time in the simulator as pilots trained in real time. All pilots were then tested in real time. Pilots trained using ARTT performed emergency procedures and defeated bandit aircraft significantly faster than pilots trained in real time. In the second experiment, student F-16 pilots practiced using air-to-air radar in real time or ARTT. Students trained using ARTT received more training trials in approximately the same amount of clock time as the students trained in real time. ARTT students performed better on a real-time test than students trained in real time. It is concluded that ARTT which does not overload a trainee's working memory is more time efficient than conventional, real-time simulation and can improve performance by allowing more training events to be experienced within a given period of simulator time. ARTT also supported better real-time test performance under some conditions. As an instructional strategy, ARTT was found to be simple, inexpensive, and robust.
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Combat vehicle identification (CVI) training materials for thermal sights have been lacking since the Army's fielding of thermal sights for anti-armor weapons in the 1970s. The night fratricide incidents in Desert Storm/Desert Shield can be attributed, in part, to inadequate thermal signature training. The paper covers training effectiveness research on a computer-based, multi-media training program, called CVIPlus, aimed at providing thermal signature training to support most of the Army's current and future thermal sights. An assumption underlying program development was that the dynamic nature of thermal imagery and the uniqueness of thermal cues demand actual, not simulated, imagery to train skills adequately. Consequently, the training data base is digitized, high-resolution, thermal images of combat vehicles, collected specifically for the program. Night and day, black-hot and white-hot, thermal images of US and non-US vehicles at eight aspect angles at four ranges are included. Visible images of each vehicle are shown as well. The version of the program available for research included pre- and posttests, a library of all images, and interactive training and testing exercises. Three training experiments were conducted to determine the program's effects, determine effective training strategies, and identify needed improvements. The first experiment examined part-task training issues. The second addressed the effectiveness of fixed-pace training with knowledge of results feedback versus self-paced training with knowledge of performance feedback. The third focused on training at near versus far ranges. Within each experiment, the extent to which skills transferred to imagery not included in the training exercises was also examined. The findings supported changes to the instructional design of the program.
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Networked simulation to support combat mission training is now a reality at the 58th Special Operations Wing (58 SOW). As part of Annual Refresher Training (ART), trainees perform a challenging tactical mission (airland at night in a medium threat environment) in which four weapon system trainers (WSTs) are netted together: an MH-53J Pave Low, MH-60G Pave Hawk, MC-130P Combat Shadow, and a TH-53A. The latter is used as a dynamic aggressor aircraft. To determine the effectiveness of integrated simulation, nine sessions of ART-totaling 99 crewmembers (pilots, flight engineers, navigators, communications specialist)-were observed over four months. Crews completed a two-page questionnaire where they rated the value of networked simulation to support the training of 33 mission elements (airdrop, terrain familiarization, crew coordination, threat evasion, systems malfunctions, etc.). Crews also critiqued the strengths and weaknesses of networked training for the briefing, planning, execution, and debriefing phases of the mission. The results of the survey strongly support the value of networked training in a number of key areas: multi-ship tactics, aerial refueling operations, formation flight, situation awareness, command & control, and mission team coordination. However, crew comments and our own observations also revealed a number of areas where the delivery of networked training can be improved. These include a more cohesive mission briefing, establishment of clear-cut training objectives, incorporation of emergency procedures into the scenario, and a "leveling" of task demands across crew positions and weapon systems.
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The vehicle simulation community has recognized the need for a simulator that can be used to train military personnel on different vehicle configurations while utilizing the same simulator platform. Lockheed Martin Information Systems (LMIS) has responded to the market by developing the Lockheed Martin Reconfigurable Simulator (LMRS). The LMRS design utilizes a unique hardware and software approach that provides for an open, scaleable, reconfigurable system architecture for simulation applications. This paper addresses the reconfigurable software system architecture developed for the LMRS system.
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In current Navy surface combatant training, new crews are trained using real combat consoles in a classroom environment. This approach has disadvantages that include the considerable expense of supporting, maintaining, and reconfiguring the real consoles used in these facilities. As visual simulation and virtual reality (VR) have increased in capability and decreased in cost, these technologies can provide cost-effective solutions for training. The Naval Research Laboratory is currently using virtual reality, simulation, and multimedia tools to train combatant crews in a realistic combat engagement atmosphere instead of a classroom-like environment. It also simulates the equipment that the crew can interact with to perform detection, classification and target engagement activities. Information visualization will aid students in learning different tactical doctrines. Intelligent agents will be used to compensate for different educational levels of recruits and to reduce the number of instructors. The system will accommodate geographically distributed sites and provide better system availability. The virtual CIC's network capability will be implemented through a High Level Architecture (HLA) federate: crew members within the Federation Object Model (FOM) will communicate with each other, and a FOM representing the entire ship's CIC can participate in HLA exercises. This paper describes the project requirements, technical approach, system tradeoffs, current accomplishments and future direction.
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Military training and exercise budgets are continually challenged. Training airtime cannot be afforded at a level consistent with the desires of our fighting troops. The next best training method is simulation, allowing the aircrew to manipulate equipment as close to the "real thing" as possible. The drawback is the expense of high-fidelity simulators in fixed facilities constrained by rigid training schedules. An avenue now open to exploration is leveraging use of the actual aircraft as a simulation device, either in the hangar or on the ramp. One approach being pursued by Lockheed Martin in an ongoing Internal Research and Development (IRAD) project allows a powered-down aircraft cockpit to be transformed into a simulated training environment. This would permit a simulator training capability to be taken into the field with the warfighter, and do much to advance the state-of-the-art in cost-effective, deployable simulation training. The research centers around combining a minimal amount of equipment: a COTS high-fidelity helmet-mounted display (HMD), commercially available "blue screen" video-mixing equipment, blue window placards, and a commercial image generator, along with several custom enhancements. By covering the cockpit windows and instrument faces with a blue material, images can be mapped and registered to specific cockpit locations. This results in a layered image of computer-animated instruments as well as out-the-window (OTW) scenery displayed through the HMD. Plans for CY97 include the addition of a VEDS data glove to permit the manipulation of aircraft switches and knobs in the training exercise. The cockpit can be mapped as a 3-D environment and through use of glove-tracking sensors, switches can be selected in the virtual simulation. This paper describes results to date.
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This paper analyses the motion cues used for control of the flight path in aircraft, relates them to the simulator systems available, and draws conclusions. Aircraft systems are discussed because all six degrees of freedom are constantly involved and so they demonstrate the principles of motion cueing better than vehicles with less degrees of freedom. However, the same principles apply to simulations of other moving vehicles.
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The USAF Air Mobility Command (AMC) Simulator Aerodynamic Upgrade Program will provide increased training capability, improved readiness and support the service life extensions for the C-5, C-17, C-141, KC-10 and KC-135 aircraft. The upgrade program seeks to duplicate the highly successful and cost-effective practices of the commercial airline industry through the increased use of simulation for aircrew training and qualification. Integral to the development of the upgraded simulators is the fundamental requirement to design and validate that the simulations are based on certified aircraft source data. The effort to develop the source data necessary for the AMC upgrade program encountered a broad range of challenges including "plowing new ground" in several areas. The most significant challenge was the development of the source data products required to support the highly complex aerodynamic modeling and simulation associated with the aerial refueling environments. This paper provides an overview of the Phase I and II of the AMC Simulator Aerodynamic Upgrade Program which will develop the requisite source data products to support the Phase III implementation of the upgrade modifications. Included are discussions of the technical and programmatic aspects of the Analysis, Data Collection, Model Development, and Validation of the source data products necessary for the advanced simulation of aerial refueling training in the C-5, C-17, C-141, KC-10 and KC-135 aircraft, as well as pilot training for terminal maneuvers in the KC-10 and KC-135 aircraft. The discussion provides an overview of the processes used including training requirements analysis, technological developments, flight test programs, flight operations, model development, and validation of the source data products. The benefits of this program will be measured in terms of increased ground training capabilities for AMC pilots and boom operators and optimized use of budget limited aircraft flying hours.
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The paper presents a low cost Heads Up Display (HUD) which was specifically developed to support multiple configurations of high fidelity flight simulators. It begins by discussing the basic requirements for HUD simulation, from presentation of the HUD image to replication of the combining optics. The paper presents the traditional high fidelity approaches, e.g. using modified aircraft devices, typically the highest cost approach but providing the highest fidelity and realism, and superposition of the HUD imagery on the Out-the-Window visual scene, which is the lowest cost approach and provides the lowest level of realism. Problems, complications, advantages and disadvantages of these approaches are discussed. The paper then describes the HUD device that was recently developed by HTI specifically for simulator applications. It discusses the reasoning for developing such a device and the design criteria used. The system diagram and major components are presented which include: holographic combiner, optical system, high resolution raster scan monitor, pilot control panel, and mechanical housing. The design considerations for tailoring the device to different simulation requirements such as field of view (e.g. LANTIRN HUD, WAC HUD, etc.), collimation distance, and mechanical presentation are presented. A photograph of a production device is provided. Performance characteristics including field of view, brightness, contrast, resolution, and viewing volume are presented along with other characteristics such as video interface and weight. Finally, a comparison of the advantages, disadvantages, and cost of all three approaches is presented.
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In the spring of 1989, the Air Force contracted for the development of a suite of high fidelity maintenance trainers to support the training and certification of maintenance technicians for the C-17 air-lifter. This set of 11 trainers encompassed the simulation and replication of every subsystem of the still-in-development C-17 aircraft. The development of the C-17 Maintenance Training Devices (MTD) would be the first attempt on such a large scale to support certification of technicians on equipment other than the aircraft. Tenets of the program included: minimizing the use of aircraft parts, causing a great dependence on aircraft data; no formal training on the aircraft, thus eliminating parsing of tasks between aircraft and trainer; and delivery of the trainers concurrent with deployment of the aircraft to Charleston AFB, SC. As the amount of training time available on modern aircraft decreases, and formal training programs extend to the flight line, training/certification devices with comparable fidelity requirements will proliferate (i.e., MV-22, F/A-18E/F, F-22). This paper discusses some lessons learned from the development and test of the C-17 MTD program, with emphasis on the definition, design, and test of adequate fidelity, to support the certification requirements of the user (specifically, Air Mobility Command). In retrospect, a recurring theme throughout the various phases of the C-17 MTD development, is that the evaluation of higher level requirements and the definition of lower level requirements continues on through the test program. Hopefully, this paper will evoke some thought for harnessing the inevitability of this requirements process so that future programs will result in products that meet the user's requirements and expectations.
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AEGIS recently expanded its training for Team, Fleet and Joint simulations. This was accomplished through an open architecture reengineering of the training system, the use of the Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) protocol, and an alliance with Battle Force Tactical Training (BFTT). This paper explores each of these contributions (Section 2) and presents the corresponding benefits to training (Section 3). First, however, the paper provides a brief historical perspective.
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Flight Simulators developed in the 1975 - 1985 time frame typically utilize a Graphic Instructor Console with a Keyboard and 3 Graphic Display Monitors for display of menus, flight parameters, maps, vertical profiles, and cockpit instruments. The Graphics Display Monitors are typically driven by a proprietary Graphics Controller interfaced to a Host Computer by means of a Buffered Parallel Interface. Vector Graphic Entities such as lines, circles, arcs, and text are requested by the Host Computer, and the proprietary Graphics Controller generates the Raster Scan or Vector Draw signals required to display the requested Vector Graphic Entities on the 3 Graphics Display Monitors. A requirement exists to keep a number of older Flight Simulators operational for a period of 10 to 15 years beyond the planned Life Cycle. Support of older subsystems, including proprietary Graphics Controllers and proprietary Graphics Display Monitors, may limit the remaining service life of older Flight Simulators. Hardware-compatible and software-compatible emulation of the existing proprietary Graphics Controllers and Graphics Display Monitors with a PC-Based Computer System and 3 SVGA Monitors would be technically feasible and would eliminate the support problems associated with the existing proprietary hardware. If other computer peripherals in the Flight Simulator do not have significant support problems, this approach could be a low-cost alternative to a major Computer Rehost modification. This paper examines the design requirements for emulation of an existing Graphic Instructor Console and provides an overall design for a PC-Based Console Emulation System which will provide hardware-compatible and software-compatible emulation of a typical proprietary Graphic Instructor Console which is utilized on an older Flight Simulator. Hardware and software design issues which are examined include interfacing to the Host Computer, interface timing and handshaking, receiving of Message Packets from the Host Computer, transmitting of Reply Packets to the Host Computer, interpretation of Vector Graphics Entities, generation and display of Pixel Graphics from Vector Graphics Entities, receiving and display of Instructor Keyboard inputs, and transmitting of Keyboard Data Packets to the Host Computer. Design problems, alternatives, enhancements, and debugging techniques are also considered. Potential cost savings resulting from this approach are also examined.
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New and experienced law enforcement agents, among others, need extensive training in techniques for interviewing and interrogation. However, it is often difficult for the student to practice those techniques before putting them to use in investigative work. Practice interviews using actors are not always realistic and are too expensive. As a result, interactive, multimedia software that involves a simulated subject has been created to help trainees develop their interview and interrogation techniques using personal computers. Although the trainee must select questions from a predetermined list, the available questions are many. Users are required to observe both verbal and nonverbal behavior and to make well-reasoned decisions. Chances to make errors are presented at every decision point. The simulated subject responds differently each time the system is used and will sometimes be deceptive or truthful. Even the truthful subject will react to questions and show signs of deception. The goal of the trainee is to navigate the subject through different behavioral states and then determine if the subject is truthful. (The FBI is funding this program.)
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This project has two goals. First, decrease the deaths due to combat wounds by having better trained medical staffs and, second, provide a mechanism for analysis and for test and evaluation (T&E) of issues in casualty medical treatment. To meet these goals, a prototype dual purpose training and analysis system is being developed that realistically and physically simulates the emergency medical treatment process from the time of injury through initial treatment at the field hospital. The central component of this system is a physical simulation of a casualty (an instrumented mannequin), the Human Patient Simulator (HPS). The HPS was developed for training anesthesiologists and provides a dynamic, physiologically accurate simulation of a patient whose condition must be diagnosed, treated, and monitored. The premise of this project is that improved training for combat casualty care will result from the treatment of "virtual casualties" simulated by HPSs from initial trauma throughout treatment and transportation. This paper reports on the first phase of this project which provides a medical training and test and evaluation capability not achievable currently in force on force exercises. In this phase, the HPS was customized to simulate patients with combat trauma, linkage created to the Simulated Area Weapons Effects/Multiple Integrated Laser Engagement System (SAWE/MILES) force on force system, an ancillary medical simulation created, and a training or analysis methodology investigated. During SAWE/MILES force on force combat training exercises, virtual casualties occur when soldiers are "hit". A virtual casualty created by a SAWE/MILES Electronic Casualty card (ECC) is transferred to a HPS for initial treatment at a Battalion Aid Station through a new software prototype and then transported (if necessary) to a field hospital. From initial trauma to treatment at the hospital, medical personnel interact with ECCs and HPSs representing virtual casualties. The new software prototype models combat casualties and missing caregivers while the virtual casualties are not simulated by HPSs or ECC's.
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This paper focuses on the development of a virtual reality-based training application that strongly suggests virtual reality is a viable mechanism for cost-efficiently delivering technical training. The focus is on the development of SBC Town, a virtual city that EDS built for Southwestern Bell, and argue that its strengths are readily transferable to city, climb poles, splice cable, open crossboxes, descend into manholes, and use virtual tools to zero in on circuit glitches. The system allows users to focus exclusively on learning to find circuit problems. Southwestern Bell is spared the cost of sending technicians to remote training facilities, and technicians can continue their daily responsibilities while refining their fault-locating skills. The SBC application models the way its target systems and environments behave in the real world. It reproduces in virtual space the actual behavior of urban communications circuits. Unlike many virtual environments, SBC Town isn't a place for users to passively examine things. They act on circuits, which, in turn, respond. This interactivity ensures a constant and realistic dynamism between student and virtual world. The SBC Town application's uniqueness lies in the complexity of its elements, their interactions, and the faithfulness with which those elements' virtual behaviors reproduce a realistic version of the real thing in a virtual space.
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The fielding of the Close Combat Tactical Trainer (CCTT) System has established an initial infra-structure and set of tools defining the virtual battlefield environment for the Combined Arms Tactical Training (CATT) family of training systems, primarily focused on ground vehicles. This paper discusses the work undertaken by Lockheed Martin Information Systems Company to add the capability to the current CATT infra-structure to fully support aviation exercises. In addition to providing a selectable infra-structure fidelity and CCTT compatible simulation environment, it emphasizes inter-operability with other training devices. This scaleable, packaged support environment, along with a simulator, constitutes a complete training system. Modifications have been made to the architecture and applied using a reconfigurable simulator. The existing CCTT infra-structure and code formed the baseline for this work. The system will be used to develop aviation behaviors and functionality to support aviation-oriented planning and debriefing techniques. The system will also be used to investigate high level architecture (HLA) compliance and compatibility issues, upgrade of CCTT to HLA compatibility, and functionality requirements of exercise management, instructor/operator station, computer generated forces and their control, and after action review. The system incorporates web technologies and other strategies to provide independent platform capabilities and to enhance system intuitive control and expanded access.
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In the past, embedded training has been dismissed as too hard and too expensive. Simulation, Training and Instrumentation Command (STRICOM) simulation technology division (AMSTI-ET) has an ongoing program to leverage current simulation technology into a form suitable for embedding into ground vehicles for training and other uses. This paper presents the concept and challenges driving this investigation. This concept embraces the warfighter using simulation for training from a stationary single crew, to fully interactive vehicle on the move, and beyond to enhancement of situational awareness. The concept is based on low cost image generation, with pre-recorded databases providing a background to computer generated forces. Providing a DIS/HLA type linkage for team interaction expands this. Technology issues include image generation, live and virtual image registration, communications support for the simulations, and signal injection into appropriate platform subsystems. Efforts are underway to identify a common embedded simulation interface for future upgrades to Army combat vehicles.
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Simulation has played a major role in military training. Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) allows multiple trainees to interact in real time on a common training problem. While DIS is a powerful training tool, a trainer is typically required to review trainee performance and make the appropriate teaching and remedial points. As training scales to larger and larger exercises, the trainer will naturally focus on general team performance at the expense of individual training needs. Intelligent tutoring systems (ITSs) have focused on providing instruction on a one-to-one basis. Integrating DIS and ITS technologies offer the opportunity to capitalize on the strengths of both: the ability to conduct large scale team exercises while providing each trainee with personalized instruction. The present paper reports a Phase II Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) project, sponsored by the U.S. Army Simulation, Training and Instrumentation Command (STRICOM) in which a Distributed Interactive Intelligent Tutoring Simulation™ was developed to train Army Infantry squad and fire team leaders the skills they need to cooperatively perform military operations in urban terrain (MOUT).
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The Synthetic Environments (SE) Program, a technology component of DARPA's Synthetic Theater of War (STOW) initiative, has developed novel technology to create and use digital battlespaces of increasing size, fidelity and complexity needed for large-scale distributed simulation at the Joint Task Force level. The technical objective was to model tactically significant battlefield detail and phenomenology that impact the performance and behavior of entity-level combat platforms, sensors and weapons (e.g., tanks, helicopters, ships, missiles, rounds). The developmental strategy was grounded on the transformation and rationalization of operational terrain, bathymetric, meteorological and oceanographic data products into an integrated environmental data base and the adaptation of environmental models to real-time operations. Considerable progress has been achieved in a period of three years. The spatial extents of STOW environmental data bases have been systematically extended to support combined air, amphibious, ground, naval and special operations over large areas with geodetic rigor. Internally, 3D spatial topology has been developed to support multiple elevation surfaces including ocean surface and ocean floor, bridges, tunnels and multistory buildings. Mechanisms to represent and distribute dynamic meteorological and atmospheric fields have been incorporated into the synthetic battlespace. Where the STOW Europe synthetic environment of 1994 was a static benign world populated by dynamic warfighters, the STOW 97 synthetic environment featured dynamic natural effects (e.g., time-of-day, wind, rain, fog, dust) as well as man-made environmental effects (e.g., smoke, flares, destroyed bridges and buildings). Progress in dynamic terrain, one of the most difficult issues in distributed simulation, has been exceptional to include terrain cratering. Real-world weather has now been introduced into distributed simulation within an architecture that support execution of nested feature and effects models.
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Peter Muller The Synthetic Forces Program is an integral part of the Synthetic Theater of War 97 Advanced Concept Technology Demonstration (STOW-97 ACTD). It has produced, over the last three years, the forces needed to train in a platform-based, seamless, joint synthetic battlespace. Building off Modular Semi-Automated Forces (ModSAF), Synthetic Forces now exists for Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force platforms, as well as, Opposing Forces and United Kingdom Forces. The construct of these forces include finite state semi-automated forces, rule based multi-echelon command forces, and artificial intelligence pilots. Building decision-makers who plan, replan, and execute higher orders has been a primary goal of the program. Providing tools to efficiently laydown, control, and communicate with the Computer Generated Forces (CGFs) has also been a priority. This paper provides a description of the Synthetic Forces (SF) used for STOW-97 ACTD. The STOW-97 ACTD will be an integral part of United Endeavor 98-1 (UE 98-1), a United States Atlantic Command (USACOM) sponsored exercise held in late October and early November 1997. Included is a broad overview of how forces are simulated and describes how they move, shoot, communicate, think, and interact. Since this paper is being submitted prior to the UE 98-1 exercise, we will report exercise results in the presentation.
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This paper illustrates a systems engineering approach for modeling Close Air Support mission behavior. Successful simulation development is dependent on the exchange of ideas and experiences between end users and developers. Formal interaction is facilitated with conceptual models that serve as a common frame of reference between the user and the developer. Conceptual models are developed by subject matter experts (SMEs) and systems engineers to provide: (1) a "real world" description of a physical system or behavior, and (2) physical system or behavior functional requirements and testing guidance. The Close Air Support (CAS) conceptual model described in this paper is applicable to U.S. tactical aircraft performing CAS in the joint mission space and has been validated by the Navy Modeling and Simulation Fleet Project Team (Navy M&S FPT - the USN designated validation authority for models and simulations used in the fleet). The CAS conceptual model includes a task description, a logical depiction, and a set of functional requirements with associated measures of effectiveness (MOE). This paper describes the development of the CAS conceptual model and the manner in which this conceptual model was used to support validation of the CAS software model.
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There are three basic types of man-in-the-loop simulations: live, virtual, and constructive. Live simulations involve the use of actual equipment, virtual simulations use replicated equipment, and constructive simulations are heavily computational, with relatively little human intervention. Constructive simulations are further characterized by a large number of simulated entities performing behaviors and interacting within a simulated environment. Therefore, the development of constructive simulation requires representing the "real world" which consists of the physical environment, entities, and tasks (behaviors). Historically, descriptions of the particular subject domain have been directly implemented into simulations. However, performing a domain analysis for each new simulation has resulted in repeating past efforts. This is not a cost efficient approach when simulation domains overlap. Several large constructive simulation efforts have recently begun. These simulation systems include the U.S. Army's Warfighter 2000 Simulation (WARSIM 2000), the U.S. Air Force's National Air and Space Model (NASM), and the Joint Chief's Joint Simulation System (JSIMS). These wargames are intended to provide training to commanders and their staffs at higher echelons. Sponsors of each of these efforts have recognized the importance of accurately representing their respective domains before developing their simulations and have committed to representing their domain elements in conceptual models.
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Third generation object oriented methodologies are key elements in modern simulation software design. More effective software development requires effective inputs from systems engineering, especially definition of simulation system requirements with an effective allocation to software elements, and a simulation system architecture which can be efficiently implemented by software engineering. The complexity of modern simulations require close cooperation in the methodologies in use by systems and software. Lockheed Martin Tactical Defense Systems (LMTDS) has complete initial results on an advanced implementation of key technologies for this object oriented system simulation in its Distributed Mission Training Technology (DMTT) initiative. Two key third generation approaches to software object modeling considered for this initiative are the Unified Modeling Language (UML) and the Fusion Methodology (FM). For software engineering to take advantage of object development approaches such as UML or FM, systems engineering must follow compatible approaches to facilitate the software design of the simulation. The typical systems engineering functional approach causes problems in object oriented design of simulations due to the difficulties it creates in defining requirements in areas such as run-time operations and concurrent or sequential system behavior.
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The High Level Architecture (HLA) is an architecture for constructing distributed simulations, including virtual, constructive, and live applications. The HLA is intended to facilitate interoperability among all types of simulation models and promote the reuse of simulation components. One of the possible approaches to transition legacy systems to the HLA is a stand-alone internetworking device to provide interoperability between DIS and HLA applications. IST has previously reported the use of one such device, a prototype version of the IST HLA Gateway, to connect a SIMNET crewed M1 simulator to the HLA Platform Proto-Federation (PPF) using version 0.33 of the prototype Run Time Infrastructure (RTI). This paper presents the redesigned production Gateway, which translates between DIS and the Real-time Platform-level Reference (RPR) FOM. The Gateway uses a direct object-oriented interface to the RTI. Testing has shown that the average translation latency within the Gateway is less than 2 milliseconds.
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A distributed simulation experiment conducted using a High Level Architecture (HLA) federation object model and the Runtime Infrastructure (RTI) was performed by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (JHU/APL). To explore the utility of the HLA and RTI for representative military problems, the experiment simulated two power projection scenarios. For the first scenario, a simulated Tomahawk guided missile with intelligent anti-armor submunitions was launched against a Predator UAV) was simulated with virtual imagery in real-time and a user interface which allowed an operator to select and control the sensors dynamically. A Virtual Strike Battle Station (VSBS) with a virtual reality user interface was used to simulate the command and control center. Lastly, the Tactical Event System (TES) was simulated to provide detection information of Scud launch events in the second scenario. This paper describes the HLA implementation and lessons learned for using the HLA for real-time human-in-the-loop simulations. Specific problem areas are described and a suggested "road-map" for building HLA/RTI simulations is presented. human-in-the-loop simulations. Specific problem areas are described and a suggested "road-map" for building HLA/RTI simulations is presented.
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Realistic combined arms training and mission rehearsal, particularly at the command level, often requires the use of classified information. Typically such exercises are performed in system high security enclaves that do not accurately represent the battle space. The ability to train in a multi-level secure distributed simulation environment would permit a more realistic emulation of real warfare which is increasingly influenced by information warfare. A concept for implementing encryption to support multi-level secure distributed simulation is described. The concept makes use of hardware and software components developed as a part of the National Security Agency sponsored Multi-level Information Systems Security Initiative (MISSI). A principal element of the concept is the securing of sensitive information at the point of origin through encryption at the application level. This represents a major shift from the usual bulk encryption at the system high enclave boundary and potentially makes possible multi-level secure information flow within a simulation as well as between distributed enclaves at differing levels of security. The scope of this paper is focused on the technical feasibility of application level information encryption within a distributed simulation and between distributed simulation sites. Security issues associated with setting up and processing secure information flows within a distributed multi-level secure network configuration are addressed; however, it is assumed that a common security policy has been defined satisfactory to participants operating at differing security levels within the distributed simulation federation. A planned international demonstration of the Fortezza-based MLS concept is described. The demonstration will consist of a simple military battle interaction between three widely distributed MODSAF simulation workstations, two located in the United States (STRICOM and SPARTA in Orlando, Florida) and the third in Europe (TNO-FEL in the Netherlands). Selected data labeled and handled as secure during the simulation execution will only be viewable at certified locations. Projected estimates of the effect of Fortezza response on the interactive simulation are presented and implications discussed.
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Accurate and cost-effective visual databases, containing geometry and texture data, are needed to produce a realistic description of specific surroundings for training simulators. Currently, geometry data for visual databases are generated by creating 3D models from photographs and terrain elevation maps using modeling software. Present methods to create visual databases are labor-intensive and produce data which lack realism, resulting in noticeable differences between the computer-generated display and the real images. A new and innovative prototype system has been developed which is capable of producing more realistic 3D visual data and reducing the labor required to generate these data. The prototype hardware includes a professional-level camcorder, a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver, a Differential GPS receiver, an electronic compass, digital protractors, a custom-designed data acquisition board, and a laptop computer. Most of the equipment is mounted on the camcorder, making the entire system portable. Prior to data acquisition, the intrinsic parameters of the camera are determined by a unique target-based calibration method. Once data are acquired, processing begins by applying a completely automatic 2D point correspondence program which is based on a covariance region-matching routine. A 3D point set is automatically calculated using a least squares technique, and a 3D surface generation program automatically produces a dense set of triangles which are decimated to the desired level of detail for a given model. Results of prototype experiments to generate a 3D visual database are described and summarized. Current capabilities of the system are defined, including the effects of various process parameters on the ultimate accuracy of the system. Methods that will be applied to improve system performance for different applications are discussed, such as increasing the number of photographs used in point correspondence to reduce errors caused by similar features. The innovative system generates 3D visual databases readily, and will improve the effectiveness of training simulators in military and civilian sectors.
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With the end of the Cold War and the rise of tensions in other areas of the world, shallow waters have become new regions of interest and concern for today's military. In this sense, shallow water is used to include littoral water. The variability of the shallow water environments significantly increases the complexity of acoustic system operations. At the same time, operational experience at sea is diminishing due to fewer contacts and reduced operations. Experience previously gained operationally is therefore being replaced by on-board and shore-based training. Realistic training requires a shallow water model that accurately represents acoustic transmission and environment properties of the ocean.
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The current dramatic rise in the development and applications of modern graphics processors is evident in the world of 'virtual reality', but the immense power of these 'reality engines' and their suitability for other processing applications may, as yet, not be widely appreciated. The similarity in the insonification of sea bottom objects by a 'high profiling' sonar and the illumination of the same from a visual camera provided just such an application to explore these possibilities. The paper outlines a unique approach in the combination of the acoustic and visual simulation requirements within a host graphics processor for the production of high fidelity real time simulation in a complex mine-hunting scenario. It also demonstrates the benefits of improved performance and cost savings in the now familiar climate of cost efficient readiness, and how these techniques can be applied with similar results to other applications. The implementation of the design concept and some of its remarkable features are highlighted in a system developed for the Sandown Class Single Role Minehunter Combined Operator Trainer which is now in service with the Royal Navy.
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Visualization, modeling, and simulation technology today can provide extremely high fidelity representations of real world terrain scenes and features, as well as very high physical and functional fidelity replications of equipment, systems, and weapons effects. This technology - actually a combination of technologies - has been developed for increasingly more realistic training of individual weapon system and sensor operators, subteams, and teams in simulated combat environments. Such simulations have demonstrated great value in providing cost-effective training, but in recent years there also has been a growing appreciation of modeling and simulation in development of tactics and doctrine; in mission planning and mission rehearsal; and in test and evaluation applications.
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A broad vision for modeling and simulation (M&S) has been established for the acquisition of the 21st Century Surface Combatant (SC 21). At the Defense Acquisition Board meeting for the Milestone (MS) 0 review of SC 21, the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Technology, Dr. Paul Kaminski, indicated that M&S must lead the way in investigating cost/performance estimates of alternative joint force structure concepts. ASN(RD&A) (Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Research, Development and Acquisition) has identified the SC 21 initiative as a potential pilot program where the benefits of extensive use of M&S will be demonstrated. In light of these directives, the vision for M&S was laid out in the SC 21 M&S Master Plan of 11 October 1996 [1], which can be found on the SC 21 Homepage [2], as: "To support the design, development, manufacturing, training, and operations for the 21st Century Surface Combatant by applying an integrated set of modeling and simulation covering an entire spectrum from engineering component models to campaign simulation. Appropriate elements of the model set will be fully interactive with other models across all warfare/mission areas to replicate SC 21 performance in a realistic Joint Warfare Forces environment."
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We present the requirements and design of the Virtual SpacePlane (VSP). The VSP application is a development and demonstration virtual
prototype for the Manned SpacePlane (MSP) project. The VSP, to be completed in two years, will demonstrate the functionality and capabilities of the MSP
throughout it entire flight regime, from takeoff through space operations and landing. The goals of the VSP project are to uncover, develop and validate the
MSP's user interface requirements, design and implement an intelligent user interface, and to design and implement a prototype VSP that can be used to
demonstrate Manned SpacePlane missions and to conduct preliminary
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Synthetic Environments consists of interconnected virtual and constructive simulations, live instrumented entities, real C4I centers (or simulation thereof) and possibly real Hardware-in-the-Loop interacting in a common scenario and in a realistic battlefield environment. Synthetic Environments currently have three main functional areas of applications : Collective, multilevel training, including multinational forces,. Analysis of doctrines and tactics, and Support to the life cycle of military systems. Compared to previous custom-made simulations, the use of DIS, ALSP, SIF and other standards (now HLA, the High Level Architecture) allows the same simulations to be used for many applications, providing thereby significant cost savings. The success of Synthetic Environments is dependent upon a wide range of underlying technologies, including high throughput communication networks, advanced software techniques for scenario preparation and intelligent force behaviour. Key elements also include the dynamic modeling of the natural environment (land, atmosphere, ocean), as well as database preparation tools. The paper examines current Synthetic Environment technologies under development in France as well as programmes based on synthetic environment. The perceived French position concerning the HLA and its Run Time Infrastructure (RTI) is highlighted. The paper concludes by considerations on the role that SE should play in France in the future.
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"Can you keep an entire army battle-ready without enough training areas to train on?" This is the question which the German Army had to answer several years ago. It was the starting point of a process which now gives the GE-Army the opportunity to train their staffs in a highly realistic scenario and under nearly battle conditions. The problems were that: -A large number of GE-Army staffs have to be trained in different tasks and have to be prepared for their missions.-Officers, NCO's and officer cadets have to be trained in tactics at battalion level. -The training/exercises have to be done in an effective and efficient way, -Live training on open training areas in Germany is very limited because of restrictions of safety regulations, environmental restrictions and political problems. -Budgetary problems forced a new way of training and exercising. SIRA, a combat simulation system for command and staff training at battalion level, based on CAE´s GESI software, was developed and tested by CAE together with professional officers from the German Army´s Tactics Centre in Hannover between July 1992 and October 1994. The System includes the philosophy of the German field manuals and mission command tactics.
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The need and a possible approach for a general object correlation scheme for use in the Department of Defense Command and Control and Modeling and Simulation systems is discussed. The definition of the Defense Information Infrastructure and adoption of the High Level Architecture require information exchange in the form of software objects. The information required by and transmitted from different levels of command differs in the level of detail. Similarly, simulations performed at different levels of abstraction require descriptions of the battle space at different level of detail. In such object based systems, if unambiguous communication or interoperability of simulations at various levels of abstraction are to become a reality, a scheme is required which will ensure the consistent and accurate mapping of objects at one level of detail with objects at the next. The alternative to this scheme is the requirement that all systems possess the ability to properly receive and interpret descriptions of the battle space at all levels of detail. The computational overhead and communications bandwidth required under such circumstances may seriously degrade performance and compromise functional requirements. These issues will be discussed in detail and the functional requirements for an object correlation scheme will be given. The framework for such a correlation scheme and some correlation approaches will be presented. Advantages of testing such a scheme in the realm of modeling and simulation prior to applying it to command and control systems will be given.
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As the Air Force moves to the use of Distributed Mission Training for pilots, the adequacy of integrated threat systems and their ability to operate within a distributed virtual environment will be key factors in determining the success of this approach to aircrew training. For computer generated threats to be useful in training environments, they must exhibit a broad range of skills, display competency at their assigned missions, and comply with current doctrine. For cost reasons, a single computer host should be capable of inserting several threats into the environment, coordinating the threat activities with threats inserted using other systems, and of reusing scenarios developed at other host systems. Because of the rapid rate of change in Distributed Interactive Simulation and the expanding set of performance objectives for any computer generated force, the system must also be modifiable at reasonable cost and incorporate mechanisms for learning. The requirements pose an intricate set of challenges because the system must satisfy reasoning and fidelity requirements as well as performance requirements. To address these circumstances, we developed a set of general requirements for distributed mission training threat systems and used them to guide our specification of a generalized architecture for these systems. In this paper, we present a component-wise decomposition of the system and describe the structure of the major components of the distributed mission training threat system's decision mechanism.
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Visual simulation technologies have been migrating down from the military to the consumer level for some time now. One of the consequences of this is that architects and designers have access to more advanced visualization techniques than ever before. This has enabled them to communicate design concepts, timelines, layouts, etc. to their customers better, and also enables the customer to participate more in the design process. All this stems from the simple fact that being able to see the designs in an interactive 3D world allows people to better understand the spatial relationships between objects in the scene. Now these tools and techniques can be re-applied to the military in totally different ways; such as for base facilities planning, establishment of training centers, and contingency planning operations. The uses of visual simulations in base operations planning and design could be broken down into several areas: Design / concept visualization - to assist the architect in creating the designs, customer communications - to assist the user in understanding the design, marketing presentations - to assist the user in explaining the design, and facilities management - to assist in the continued management of the facilities. This concept paper will show will show what has been done at the EDS Detroit Virtual Reality Center to model facilities for both the City of Detroit and General Motors, and how this dual use technology can be used to support military base operations and contingency planning.
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The current state of operation for users within a distributed virtual environment (DVE), especially those for the military training community, places an unmanageable cognitive burden upon the user. The user must attempt to understand the environment, which may contain thousands of both real world and synthetic components; extract relevant information from this complex environment; and, within a fixed time frame, analyze the information determined to be relevant. However, the user's purpose is typically to make decisions based upon the relevant information. Because the information is difficult to locate and has a short time period of relevance, human decision making necessarily suffers. While some advances in user interface design can alleviate some of this problem, the basic problem of information overload cannot be addressed simply through development of a better interface or with the use of ad hoc decision support tools.
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The Navy's 15G30 series of Air Traffic Control (ATC) trainers currently employ custom hardware speaker dependent speech recognition systems to replace human role players. Speaker dependent systems pay a penalty of about thirty minutes per one hundred words to enroll the trainee onto the system to develop a custom set of templates that work with the phraseology for an application. The 15G30 series of trainers use a vocabulary greater than five hundred words, and therefore, require approximately two and one half hours of acoustic enrollment. Further, the speaker dependent systems are typically ten percent more accurate than the speaker independent systems. It is hypothesized that the ten percent gap in accuracy can be narrowed by developing custom speaker independent finite state machine models using acoustic signals recorded in the environment in which the system will be used. Similarly, the acoustic data should be made up of unscripted utterances (which provides a byproduct of modeling the mannerism in speaking those utterances). Additionally, speaker independent solutions do not require training and can be implemented into an all software configuration using off-the-shelf hardware. The technology used in this effort is the Hidden Markov Model (HMM) statistical state machine.
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Technological advances in areas such as transportation, communications, and science are rapidly changing our world--the rate of change will only increase in the 21st century. Innovations in training will be needed to meet these new requirements. Not only must soldiers and workers become proficient in using these new technologies, but shrinking manpower requires more cross-training, self-paced training, and distance learning. Two key technologies that can help reduce the burden on instructors and increase the efficiency and independence of trainees are virtual reality simulators and natural language processing. This paper focuses on the design of a virtual reality trainer that uses a spoken natural language interface with the trainee. RTI has developed the Advanced Maintenance Assistant and Trainer (AMAT) with ACT II funding for the Army Combat Service Support (CSS) Battlelab. AMAT integrates spoken language processing, virtual reality, multimedia and instructional technologies to train and assist the turret mechanic in diagnosing and maintenance on the M1A1 Abrams Tank in a hands-busy, eyes-busy environment. AMAT is a technology concept demonstration and an extension to RTI's Virtual Maintenance Trainer (VMAT) which was developed for training National Guard organizational mechanics. VMAT is currently deployed in a number of National Guard training facilities. The AMAT project demonstrates the integration of spoken human-machine dialogue with visual virtual reality in implementing intelligent assistant and training systems. To accomplish this goal, RTI researchers have implemented the following features: · Speech recognition on a Pentium-based PC, · Error correcting parsers that can correctly handle utterances that are outside of the grammar, · Dynamic natural language grammars that change as the situation context changes, · Spoken message interpretation that can resolve pronoun usage and incomplete sentences, · Spoken message reliability processing that allows AMAT to compute the likelihood that it properly understood the trainee (This score can be used to ask for repeats or confirmations.), · Goal-driven dialogue behavior so that the computer is directing the conversation to satisfy either the user-defined or computer-defined objectives, · Voice-activated movement in the virtual environment, and · Voice synthesis on a Pentium-based PC.
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Using its own unique computer simulation system and methodologies the UCLA Urban Simulation Team (the Team, or the UST) is creating a real-time virtual model of the entire Los Angeles Basin. This model, which is accurate to the level of the graffiti on the walls and signs in the windows (see Figure 1), is being constructed by combining aerial photographs with street level imagery and three dimensional geometry to create realistic 3D visual simulation models of the extremely dense Los Angeles urban environment. The efficient methodologies developed by the Urban Simulation Team, (from both the standpoint of the amount of time and labor required to construct a model and the amount of computing time required to interactively render such large models), combined with a visual simulation system which has been specifically tailored for urban simulation, has resulted in an extremely efficient system devoted to high quality community and city visual simulation. This system is being extended to support a client server capability which will allow the seamless interactive navigation of the entire Virtual Los Angeles Model, (a model that is projected to reach terabyte size over the next several years) while simultaneously supporting hundreds of remote interactive users. We propose to further extend the system to support virtual learning environments where information will not only be presented, but also will also be automatically collected and analyzed. Thus allowing the dynamic assessment of the progress of the users of the virtual learning system. It will also allow us to evaluate the effectiveness of the 3D visual simulation when used as a learning and problem-solving tool.
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The requirement to achieve and maintain higher and more complex skill levels with fewer dollars faces all modern military systems. One way to accomplish these seemingly incompatible goals is through advanced training concepts, particularly those that move training to the operational platforms. Besides having the obvious advantage of being more accessible than traditional (classroom-based) training, embedded training has the potential to result in better operational performance if developed and implemented properly. The purpose of this paper is to describe a series of research projects aimed at improving the state-of-the-art in embedded training systems. This will be accomplished through a description of a research system exemplifying the latest vision and concepts for embedded training. The system links experiential learning via realistic workstation-embedded problem simulations, with intelligent tutoring via multiple levels of real-time instructional guidance and performance diagnosis. Trainee operator performance is measured against both fixed and adaptive criteria generated from executable cognitive models of expert operators. Cognitive and behavioral diagnosis is dynamically performed based on the differences between trainee behavior and the model-generated criteria. Additional diagnostic inputs from human instructors, via mobile pen-based interfaces, are added to the automated diagnoses. The result is guided practice, in which trainees gain problem-solving practice while receiving real-time and post-problem guidance from both automated and human instructor sources.
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There are several systems currently under development which allow the individual combatant to participate in force-on-force distributed simulation. Although the simulations are interesting and show great promise, there have been few investigations into the transfer of training from these simulations to real-world tasks. The Team Tactical Engagement Simulator (TTES) Advanced Technology Demonstrator (ATD) is a distributive interactive simulation-compliant ATD which provides the capability for US Marine Corps deployed, reinforced rifle squads to participate in force-on-force engagements against computer-controlled hostiles in a virtual environment. The system allows trainees to practice team tactics and decision-making skills by providing the ability to traverse the virtual environment together with other trainees, use a variety of weapons, and engage simulated hostiles and neutrals. TTES underwent an Early Operational Assessment (EOA) in April 1997. The purpose of this EOA was to investigate the utility of the TTES system as a training device for military operations on urban terrain (MOUT), to gather information from the user community to provide future direction in TTES system development, and to gather program evaluation data and TTES system design information. This paper will briefly define virtual environment (VE) training and the associated research. An explanation of the TTES components is provided. Included is a discussion of relevant findings and recommendations applicable to TTES and other individual combatant simulators, as well as ideas for future VE research.
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Immersive simulation techniques such as Virtual Environments (VE) can revolutionize training projects provided that they allow high-level natural interaction with the environment. TNO HFRI has carried out a research program focused on high-level direct manipulation methods (virtual hand control). Direct manipulation allows users to grasp, rotate and move virtual objects with a realistic virtual hand that mimics the real hand. We have shown previously that performance (speed, accuracy) of direct manipulation is much faster and far more accurate than of indirect manipulation (traditional mouse driven 3D cursor control). Further, we showed that the speed and accuracy of manipulations strongly improve under stereoscopic viewing conditions. However, in current virtual environments the virtual hand may not always be exactly aligned with the real hand. Such misalignment may cause an adaptation of the users' eye-hand coordination and possibly a decrease in manipulation performance compared to aligned conditions. Therefore, we have studied visuo-motor adaptation as well as performance decrease under misaligned virtual hand conditions using a prism adaptation paradigm. Participants were immersed in an interactive virtual environment with a deliberately misaligned virtual hand position (a lateral shift of 10 cm). We carried out pointing tests with a non-visible hand in the real world before (pre-test) and after (post-test) immersion in the virtual world. A comparison of pre- and post-tests revealed after-effects of the adaptation of eye-hand coordination in the opposite direction of the lateral shift (negative after-effects). The magnitude of the after-effect was 20% under stereoscopic viewing conditions. However, decreased manipulation performance (speed/ accuracy) during the immersion with misaligned hand compared to aligned hand conditions was not found. The occurrence of negative after-effects in lateral direction indicates lower level parameter adjustment of eye-hand coordination. This is promising for those interested in using virtual hands to acquire visuo-motor skills. Acquired skills in VE are likely to transfer to the real world.
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Disaggregation of units from constructive training simulations to support interoperability with entity level simulators has been tried on several projects. The results have been a limited degree of interoperability between specific simulations, but have not produced the universal interoperability needed by the next generation of simulation systems. This paper describes the techniques used and degrees of success achieved by various disaggregation techniques in support of intelligence training. Both the Corps Battle Simulation (CBS) and the Joint Conflict Model (JCM) have been integrated with the Tactical Intelligence Simulation (TACSIM) and the Federation of Intelligence, Reconnaissance, Exploitation, Surveillance and Targeting Operations Models (FIRESTORM) to provide intelligence activities for aggregate level command and staff training. Both TACSIM and FIRESTORM require individual vehicle representation for sensor collection and real world United States Message Text Format (USMTF) report generation. To support these, several techniques have been developed and fielded to Army and Joint exercises. These techniques are captured in this paper to ensure that the lessons learned in this area are available to the future intelligence simulations in support of the Joint Simulation System (JSIMS). JSIMS intelligence simulations currently include the WARSIM Intelligence Module (WIM), National Simulation System (NATSIM), and the JSIMS Signals Intelligence Simulation (J-SIGSIM).
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The ability to conduct interactive simulations over a standardized networking architecture was introduced in the mid-1980's with the advent of SIMNET. The success of SIMNET, designed to accommodate relatively slow-moving vehicles, spawned the effort to develop the Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) standard to handle a wide spectrum of simulated entities including fighter aircraft and missiles. Distributed Interactive Simulation offers the means of conducting simulated military operations involving units in different parts of the world without these units having to leave their home bases. The value of this capability is now widely recognized among military leaders. The Army has led the way with the training center at Ft. Knox and state-of-the art systems such as Close Combat Tactical Trainer (CCTT). The Air Force's Advanced Distributed Simulation was employed in a major demonstration of live, virtual and constructive simulations in December of 1995 called "Warfighter 95". In Warfighter 95, actual aircraft flying over Nevada engaged piloted simulators and constructive aircraft in Florida. Warrior Flag 97 will take advantage of lessons learned from Warfighter 95. The Navy's Battle Force Tactical Trainer is currently deployed on 20 Aegis class ships and is used to stimulate the various ship consoles such as radar, sonar, fire control, etc. Future plans call for large-scale deployment. All services are participating in the development of JSIMS (Joint Simulation System) which in the future could be used to realistically rehearse operations such as Desert Shield and Desert Storm. The Advanced Research Project Agency has projected that future distributed exercises will involve up to 100,000 entities. Projections made in 1995 were for 50,000 entities at 30 sites by 1997 and 100,000 entities at 50 sites by the year 2000 [1]. The networking and computational problems of such exercises remain to be solved. Today's network interface units can handle a maximum of about 1000 - 2000 entities per second. In concurrence with the increasingly demanding requirements, advances in the areas of personal computers and networking technologies have presented an opportunity for a scaleable approach to performing all the tasks associated with local and remote entities and to distributing these entities to the other sites involved in the exercise.
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Steven L. Monson The time is ripe to seriously consider the feasibility of training environments consisting of long-haul networked pilot-in-the-loop simulation of highly dynamic flight vehicles. Excessive system transport delay, or latency can have an effect on the training value of a simulator by limiting the types of tasks that can be trained. One widely understood measurement of transport delay within a simulator is the control stick to visual latency. In a distributed environment, the delay between the actual movement of a remote vehicle and the visual representation of that movement on the local system is of equal importance in distributed mission training. On a local network, the additional latencies introduced by the network may be negligible. However, networks connecting geographically dispersed simulations in a distributed environment can introduce latencies significantly beyond those in local configurations. The network is only one of the end-to-end latency contributors, however. Two flight simulators, Boeing's high-fidelity reconfigurable demonstrator trainer in F-15C configuration, and an F-15 research simulator at the Air Force Research Laboratory are separately analyzed to determine their individual performance. The two simulators are connected across an ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) line between Boeing-St. Louis and Wright-Patterson AFB-Dayton to measure the performance of high fidelity aircrew systems in a long-haul network environment. The result of this research is currently being applied in the design and production of training devices, including those for the U.S. Air Force, that are capable of operating effectively in the widely distributed mission training environment.
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Fighting vehicles have been traditionally designed in such a way, that the crew fit into the space which remained after the integration of a vehicle's main subsystems (engine, turret, main gun and sight system). This has resulted in crew station designs which stress the soldier through high subsystem noise levels, vibrations, fatiguing sitting positions and a high number of controls and display elements. While ergonomics (man-machine interface) issues are increasingly being considered as important in vehicle designs, the next generation of fighting vehicles will operate with a reduced crew. This will require not only stronger consideration of man-machine interface, but the complete optimization of the crew compartment as an equally important vehicle subsystem. Two-man-crew operated vehicles will, in particular, require each of the crew members to be able to perform all functions including the ability to drive, operate and fight. In the future, the vehicle will probably need to be designed around the optimized crew compartment. Simulation, properly applied, appears to ideally support the optimization of crew stations at a cost and within a schedule that is affordable and acceptable. Towards this end, the German Federal Office of Defense Technology and Procurement (BWB) has started a project which will support the development of new fighting vehicles and the combat improvement of existing vehicles by making use of modern simulation technology. Under the program name Reconfigurable Crew Compartment Development Simulator (RKES = Rekonfigurierbarer Kampfraum-Entwicklungs-Simulator), a simulator is being developed which can be reconfigured to different types of vehicles (e.g. main battle tank and infantry fighting vehicle) within minutes. Crew stations can be reconfigured on-the-fly to different functionalities (e.g. driving, commanding, fighting etc.). The simulator consists of: 1) single crew stations which can be arranged to complex weapon systems, 2) a tool kit with different control elements, including buttons, pedals, control grips, track balls, and 3) display elements for monitors, panels, and other items. The vehicle simulator supports the basic functions (accelerate, brake, slew, point, shoot, etc.) which can be assigned to specific control elements and displays by a menu of the configuration software package. The simulator is DIS compliant and can be used in a complex war fighting environment. A control station can provide computer generated intelligent forces. With this simulator the man-machine-interface and the human performance can be optimized. The paper describes the Reconfigurable Crew Compartment Development Simulator and discusses cost & benefit aspects of the simulator.
This paper is available on the 1997 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website
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Increasingly sophisticated technology is being deployed by the military throughout the world. It is often difficult or impossible to always have a highly trained technician available to maintain, repair, and operate this technology. In an effort to address this problem, a unique training/performance support system for technicians that combines a hands-free wearable computer with a multimedia electronic performance support system (EPSS) is presented. The wearable computer allows the technician to retrieve or enter information wherever he or she is, even while working in the field. Our software-based EPSS integrates multimedia information, tools, and methodologies to help users perform specific tasks. This wearable platform can be used to deliver computer based training (CBT) literally anywhere. Perhaps more importantly, the wearable computer and the EPSS combine to provide much needed follow-on expert support after a training event. Users are able to query the system when a question arises, much the same as an apprentice might query an accomplished expert technician. The system can respond with a suggestion, an illustration, a parts list, or even a movie detailing a procedure. Typical applications of this technology include maintenance, inspection, and operational support of aircraft, radar, heavy vehicles, and other complex electronic and/or mechanical systems.
This paper is available on the 1997 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website
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We present an analysis of the filtering capabilities of wavelet and fourier transforms as they apply to terrain model generation. Additionally, we highlight the benefits of wavelet filtering in automatically producing approximations that progress from user-specified coarse to fine resolutions in a terrain model. In our previous work, we used wavelet filtered data in conjunction with a hierarchical triangulation technique to create a set of increasing resolution models. We now describe an approach that no longer is built from right angle triangles but generates triangular irregular networks (TINS) with automated control of triangle properties such as "sliveriness". This method uses a tunable filtering scheme to retain the dominant terrain features at each level and maintains hierarchy. The hierarchical tree could then be used in a real-time application to create an eyepoint specific multiresolution terrain representation. This automated terrain model generation procedure is implemented with real elevation data and the results presented are the relationship between the number of triangles created and the accuracy of the triangular models along with 2D and 3D plots of the resulting triangulations.
This paper is available on the 1997 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website
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The future holds a number of significant challenges for the Navy. First, as the nature of warfare changes, warfighters are being faced with increasingly complex technology and ambiguous and dynamic environments. Second, there is a strong push to produce dramatic reductions in manning without reducing effectiveness. In order to meet these challenges, a variety of new technologies will have to be developed. In this paper we describe an effort that we are currently pursuing at NAWCTSD, the development of human performance models and modeling tools. We begin by giving an overview of one particular approach to human performance modeling that we are investigating. Then we continue by describing the role that human performance models and modeling tools might play in two critical areas, naval training and naval ship/system design. against the "open ocean, blue-water threat" has become obsolete. In fact, predicted battle scenarios data, be flexible enough to describe behavior accurately without over-specifying correct performance and yield information that can be used as input to a diagnostic process.
This paper is available on the 1997 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website
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A major component of any training system is the instructor and the expertise he brings to the system. Because instructors are a critical resource often in short supply, automating the instructors' role, or part of that role, especially in real-time simulations is highly desirable. Automating the instructor is difficult because an instructor's knowledge embodies an understanding of a myriad of relationships including complex dynamic relations, as well as reasoning strategies, experimental knowledge, and probabilistic knowledge. Modern Artificial Intelligence techniques currently have the ability to monitor limited aspects of training simulations. There are difficulties in handling the large temporal and dependent actions of real-time simulations. A new technique called Template Based Reasoning (TBR) has been developed to specifically assist in the interpretation portion of student actions in real-time simulations. In this approach, templates represent a group of attributes, actions or features that define a particular behavior of the student being monitored. How well a student's current behavior matches a particular template could provide a measure of confidence that the student is carrying out the procedure represented by that template. These templates are used to track student actions as they relate to the training goals. The student would progress through templates much as they would progress through scenarios in lessons. This direct student monitoring and evaluation can provide real-time feedback that is available for the instructor. By presenting the current template status, an instructor may view the student's progress and performance through the lessons. This is the focus of research at the University of Central Florida to assist instructor efficiency by offloading some of the workload of the instructor. This permits the instructor to concentrate on other important areas of simulation.
This paper is available on the 1997 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website
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Predictive simulation is defined as using past experiences to gain insight into future events. Battlefield commanders and mission planners use prior training, tactical data, intelligence, and other forms of knowledge and experience to make critical decisions. Past data about battlefield conditions, friendly and enemy forces, strategies, geography, weather, etc. is useful information. However, the volume and heterogeneous nature of such data make it difficult or impossible to use. Data mining and knowledge discovery are technologies that fuse data and extract hidden knowledge from the data. The commander, for example, should be able to mine databases to discover useful information, such as likely enemy tactics under given battlefield conditions. Knowledge discovery techniques can be used to extract tactical and strategic knowledge from heterogeneous databases and datastreams. This knowledge can be used for real-time decision support, and to simulate and predict near-future battlefield events in response to current conditions. Predictive simulation will enable commanders to conduct what-if analysis of their decisions. Through the use of knowledge discovery, commanders can gain access to the collective set of insights currently buried in databases. The knowledge gained from databases could also be used to support mission planning and training. This paper discusses knowledge discovery techniques and pitfalls, and their applications to predictive battlefield simulation.
This paper is available on the 1997 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website
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The World Wide Web as a colorful extension to the Internet has exploded in popularity over the past few years. This has proved to be a catalyst for the development of many new and exciting technologies. One of these technologies is the Virtual Reality Modeling Language (VRML, pronounced vurmel). This paper fully analyzes the VRML 2.0 specification, including the action and behavior Nodes, and gauge its applicability to the real time simulation arena. VRML has matured at version 2.0 into a comprehensive scene description language complete with geometry, attributes and behaviors. VRML was designed to efficiently represent a 3D scene within a standard web browser. The problems that a VRML database must contend with, such as low transmission bandwidth and poor host graphics processing capabilities, have forced the designers of VRML to optimize the format in terms of size, content and performance - trying not to sacrifice power and flexibility. These very constraints are similar (at an individual object level) with those required in the visual simulation market. Models still must be a faithful representations of the real thing - but with minimal polygon counts and extensive use of photo-realistic textures. The only difference between the bandwidth-constrained web and a typical DIS scenario is that the visual simulation scenes are typically much richer in content with over 100 simultaneous objects being common. The application of VRML for visual simulation has been helped by the fact that VRML has borrowed many concepts from existing real time database formats and Image Generators. These include 3D geometry and property definition, level of detail (LODs), billboards, lighting, sound, weather effects and much more. VRML also allows complex algorithmic control so behavior can be embedded within the file format -allowing VRML objects to understand the world in which they exist and react to it in a consistent manner.
This paper is available on the 1997 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website
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This paper describes the JSIMS Enterprise approach to Joint development and reviews progress and lessons learned from the past year. The description identifies program challenges and roles and responsibilities of the Joint Program Office (JPO), Integration & Development (I&D) contractor, warfare domain Executive Agents (EA), and Development Agents (DA) and their contractors. Both the DoD oversight mechanism and the Enterprise organization are also discussed. The most significant management challenges were buy-in and cooperation from the Service and Agency partners, harmonization of user requirements, and contractual and geographic diversity of participants. Success in Enterprise start-up depended on effective use of working groups sponsored by permanently established product teams. These groups had broad participation, focused agenda, defined products and duration. Major achievements include integration of numerous service requirements into a single specification, leveraging the results of government and contractor sponsored technology programs, and management of distributed, Joint and Service-focused engineering and development. Defined standards and hand-offs assure that successes and shortfalls are both visible. Development plans are based on incremental delivery and demonstrations that involve the multiple Service DAS and user sites.
This paper is available on the 1997 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website
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The development of the F-22 Training System is perhaps the largest such effort for a new weapon system in the post Cold War era of reduced military spending. As a result of increased customer emphasis on development and production costs, the F-22 Engineering & Manufacturing Development (EMD) Program has implemented a number of innovative strategies to make cost effectiveness a systemic feature of the F-22 Training System, rather than a reductive process. This budgetary challenge is accompanied by customer and user requirements for a state-of-the-art training system without the shortfalls in training effectiveness experienced by past fighter aircraft training programs. For example, a foundational requirement of the F-22 Training System, and a key factor in training effectiveness, is referred to as concurrency. Concurrency means that the functional and physical configuration of the fielded training equipment (simulators and other instructional materials) matches that of the fielded aircraft at all times during the weapon system's life cycle. The lack of concurrency has been a notable problem in some other major military aircraft training programs. Although requirements for cost effectiveness and training effectiveness appear to be conflicting, the F-22 development effort has been structured to achieve both goals with common means. These include both business and technical strategies such as end-to-end weapon system procurement, best commercial practices, federated system design, selective aircraft equipment reuse, and use of computer-based training and commercial equipment. This paper describes the implementation of these strategies in the development of the F-22 Training System, their effectiveness, challenges encountered, and lessons learned to date.
This paper is available on the 1997 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website
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With the push for the Modeling & Simulation (M&S) community to move to the High Level Architecture(HLA) the Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) organization saw a need to expand the scope of the standards activity and opportunity to be more inclusive. In response, DIS has transitioned to a new structure and taken positive steps to reach out and inform non-traditional elements of the Modeling and Simulation community of the need for public standards to support M&S interoperability and the opportunity that will exist for them to participate, as well as the need. An initial focus for developing new standards is the DoD High Level Architecture. The new organization is called the Simulation Interoperability Standards Organization (SISO). Its purposes are to develop standards that facilitate simulation interoperability, provide educational and technical interchanges, and share knowledge and experiences between participants having common interests. SISO has been organized along two functional lines, one focuses on standards development and the other on conducting workshops and conferences which are guided by an Executive Committee. One component is the Simulation Interoperability Workshop(SIW) which provides biannual meetings where members of the M&S community come together to discuss new ideas, concepts, and technology across the broad M&S community; to disseminate these ideas; to educate M&S practitioners and sponsors regarding their implementation; and to support the development of standards, practices, and guides for use in various applications. The other component of SISO, the standards development activity, is responsible for the development of the standards needed to promote and support interoperable simulation. This paper will describe the above organization, provide a report on the status of new standards that are evolving and on future SISO goals.
This paper is available on the 1997 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website
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The New Attack Submarine Ship Control Operator Trainer (NSCOT) will be developed for the Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems
Division (NAWCTSD) under a Cost Plus Award Fee contract. The NSCOT will functionally replicate the NSSN ship control subsystem and will provide the
capability to familiarize personnel with ship control subsystem operations and conduct ship control team training under realistic operating conditions. The
NSCOT will consist of a motion platform that is driven by hydrodynamically correct simulation software and will include the following hardware
functional areas.
This paper is available on the 1997 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website
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This paper presents the results of a Source Selection Working Group, that was formed at the Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division (NAWCTSD), to take a systems approach to documenting the source selection process and identifying the required training needed to effectively support the acquisition process. The process flow charts and documentation were prepared and then included in the Acquisition Guide, an on-line electronic media developed in-house. Next, training was identified and the process that was required to improve effectiveness, (doing the right thing), and efficiency, (how well are we doing the right things). This resulted in a very ambitious undertaking and plan of action. Identify the acquisition reform courses required. Developing the course curriculum Training the trainers. Piloting the course. Teaching the course. The paper concludes with a strong recommendation that the key to success in providing quality customer service and products is continually improving the process and continually providing just-in-time training to build high performance teams.
This paper is available on the 1997 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website
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An IPT is a very powerful tool that can dramatically reduce program risk and facilitate delivery of an outstanding final product. Although easily conceived, successful implementation of an IPT is difficult at best. In fact, when implemented incorrectly, an IPT can be very detrimental to overall program execution, and can easily lead to program failure. When implemented correctly, the IPT can effectively and successfully conquer even the highest risk programs. The IPT concept requires a shift in the way that both industry and the government currently conceive programs. In order to have a successful IPT, many of our traditional approaches to program organization, implementation, operation, management, and oversight must be discarded. A new paradigm, based deeply in trust, and including complete and mutual acceptance of both success and failure, must be embraced. Such a paradigm includes redefining program success, understanding all product requirements and thoroughly tracing all requirements to the product design, and openly sharing all program information. This paper will provide a road map to successful implementation of an IPT. We will show how to establish a definition for program success that provides a win-win solution for all involved parties (i.e., End User, Contracting Agency, Industry Contractor, etc.). We will also address how to avoid potential roadblocks that present themselves at all levels of IPT implementation, as well as the coordination and management of key program entities, as a means of effectively overcoming detrimental organizational and operational hurdles in order to deliver timely, mission essential training products.
This paper is available on the 1997 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website
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This paper takes a different view of training. It comes from the management side of the equation, and it focuses on what managers and trainers need to know about training. The training function is not the keeper of the corporate "school house" but is the "performance improver." This means changing the mission of the training function from "number of employees trained" to "organization performance improved." We are not in the training business, we are in the performance improvement business!
This paper is available on the 1997 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website
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The Naval Aviation Training Decision Support System (NATDSS) is designed to assist Naval Aviation training decision makers and analysts involved in Naval Aviation Training in predicting aviation training and mission readiness, determining program priorities, allocating resources, justifying requirements and maintaining an audit trail. NATDSS is mission-oriented and standards-based. Standards are evaluated to determine training and mission readiness, deficiencies and requirements. Implementing actions are initiated to correct deficiencies and satisfy requirements. Programs are ranked. Resources are then allocated and current readiness enhanced.
This paper is available on the 1997 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website
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This paper discusses the impact of size on software development in relation to other major cost and effort drivers, and describes current methodologies for estimating size. Automation, through computer hardware and software, has enabled great improvements in training, by making training more efficient and more effective. Computer-based training packages have shown great potential for cost savings as well as improvements in the quality and consistency of training delivery. And embedded training routines in weapons and tactical information systems allows trainees to conduct realistic exercises on the same hardware that they will use in combat. Estimating the cost of training software development is critical to developing specifications and making informed decisions about program development. Although many factors influence software development, software program size is one of the key determinants of cost and effort. This paper discusses personnel capabilities, development resources and specification characteristics, and the relative impact of size on cost & effort is demonstrated. The paper also describes commonly used software size measures. Size metrics discussed include source lines of code (SLOC) as well as functionality measures (function point analysis). It also discusses methods and demonstrates tools for developing accurate estimates of software size. Various size estimation methods are briefly described, and the SEER-SSM software sizing tool is demonstrated and discussed in detail. SEER-SSM uses a relative comparison methodology with reference programs of known size to develop accurate, probabilistic estimates of software size.
This paper is available on the 1997 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website
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This paper is focused toward system engineers, program managers, and anyone who has decision making responsibility in life cycle management of training simulators. The topics discussed here are valuable to decision makers at any stage of the systems engineering process. As trainers age, their reliability can become a troubling issue for both maintenance personnel and for users. Some equipment may age gracefully, while other components serve little else other than a source of constant trouble. Aging hardware does not necessarily mean that the trainer it is no longer useful. The software rather than the hardware is the valuable part of a simulator. By extending the life of the hardware, the sunken investment in software can be amortized over a much longer period of time. The topics discussed here are intended to help in clearly defining objectives and highlight important decision points in the re-engineering process. This information is based on the collective modification experiences of the authors with various trainers at NAWCTSD.
This paper is available on the 1997 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website
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In the early 1980s, the Secretary of the Navy decided to privatize a specific area of government held expertise, i.e., the operation and maintenance of government unique training systems and devices. At that time, both military and civilian personnel were involved in such maintenance, which focused on the operations and support of fielded training systems. After considerable analyses, it was determined that such support could be effectively contracted out, resulting in a program the Navy refers to as Contractor Operation & Maintenance of Simulators, or COMS. This paper will review some of the major issues, concerns, and lessons learned that have evolved over the intervening years, with in-depth analyses of some strategies and tactics employed to deal with the ever changing environments. Of particular note will be discussions addressing: (1) performance based requirements as well as the measurement of performance; (2) management of the COMS process which will include ensuring offers have a complete understanding of requirements, managing the "growth" of user requirements, planning for the impacts of downsizing, increasing private sector participation in the process, managing the addition of systems which were procured with little or no logistics support, and managing the transition periods of responsibilities between government and multiple contractor personnel; (3) reduction of procurement costs via competitive procurements; (4) capitalization on divergent requirements from the customer base; (5) gathering the right information to continue process improvement; and (6) current challenges ahead. The paper will focus on both successes and failures, results of efforts to date, prospects in view of continued fiscal constraints, maintaining customer satisfaction while promoting readiness, and the risk of losing our smart buying capability.
This paper is available on the 1997 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website
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There has been much discussion over the benefits to be accrued from a working partnership between the testing and training communities. Until recently, these two communities had little interaction organizationally, operationally or budgetarily. This has recently changed. In May 1995, the Secretary of Defense set forth five themes for the DoD T&E community to pursue that would achieve savings resulting in a more effective and prepared military force. Two of these themes were combining "Testing and Training" and additional use of "Modeling and Simulation". These themes have now taken root and the early stages have been funded by the Congress to explore and exploit opportunities which could yield these benefits between the Live Fire Testing program and the Training and Simulation Commands of the four military services. The 1997 Department of Defense Appropriations Bill directed the Live Fire Testing Office within the Office of Secretary of Defense to transition simulation and synthetic environment technologies being used within the education and training community to the live fire test community. This paper will explore the experiences gained within the live fire testing community that provided tangible confirmation of the benefits resulting from the testing and training communities working closely together and how these experiences, backed by a congressional commitment, have resulted in the establishment of the Live Fire Testing and Training Initiative. This paper will further articulate how this initiative (with funding support) has generated interest within these two communities that is producing products that will improve our ability to better serve our ultimate customer----the warfighter.
This paper is available on the 1997 I/ITSEC CD ROM. Order it from I/ITSEC'S Website
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